KM and learning tools and techniques

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Knowledge management and learning tools and techniquesPrepared by: R. Samii

Version no. 3March 2007


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Table of contents

Introduction__________________________________________________ 1

Knowledge management in a nutshell________________________________ 1Implementing the knowledge management strategy: Tools andtechniques___________________________________________________ 3

A. Strategy development ___________________________________________ 41. Knowledge audits ____________________________________________________ 42. Social network analysis (SNA) __________________________________________ 63. Most significant change (MSC)__________________________________________ 84. Outcome mapping __________________________________________________ 135. Process-based knowledge mapping_____________________________________ 156. Reframing matrix ___________________________________________________ 17

B. Collaboration mechanisms______________________________________ 187. Communities of practice (CoP)_________________________________________ 188. Action learning sets _________________________________________________ 219. Six thinking hats ____________________________________________________ 2410. Social technologies_________________________________________________ 26

C. Knowledge sharing and learning tools ____________________________ 2811. Stories___________________________________________________________ 2812. Peer assists ______________________________________________________ 3213. Challenge sessions_________________________________________________ 3514. After action reviews and retrospects (AAR) ______________________________ 37

D. Capturing and storing knowledge ________________________________ 4115. Knowledge harvesting ______________________________________________ 4116. Integrated approaches to capturing learning _____________________________ 4417. Exit interviews_____________________________________________________ 4818. Identifying and sharing best practices___________________________________ 5019. White pages or experts directories_____________________________________ 5320. Blogs____________________________________________________________ 56

Sources ____________________________________________________ 58


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IntroductionThe purpose of this KM toolkit is to provide an overview of 20 tools andtechniques which are widely used in knowledge management programmes byinternational financial institutions, UN agencies, NGOs and other developmentinstitutions.

It is recommended that the tools and techniques in this document be used: at headquarters to foster knowledge sharing and learning as guidance for developing knowledge management strategies at

country level by IFAD projects and programmes

Knowledge management in a nutshell

Knowledge management is about: people and how they create, share and use knowledge facilitating the processes by which knowledge is created, shared and

used

The transfer of knowledge requires commitment and entails continuousefforts. It needs to be embedded in all processes and not considered as add-on and/or a one-time event. Learning and sharing is a dynamic process, inwhich existing knowledge, which is being shared and reused, creates newknowledge, allowing people to be competitive and to innovate.

At the same time, knowledge management programmes should have both acollecting and a connecting dimension.

The collecting dimension involves linking people with information. It relatesto the capturing and disseminating of explicit knowledge through informationand communication technologies aimed at codifying, storing and retrievingcontent, which in principle is continuously updated through computernetworks. Through such collections of content, what is learned is madereadily accessible to future users.

The connecting dimension involves linking people with people - specificallypeople who need to know with those who do know, and so enhancing tacitknowledge flow through better human interaction, so that knowledge iswidely disseminated and not just held in the heads of a few. Connecting isnecessary because knowledge is embodied in people and in relationships.

Most knowledge management programmes aim at an integrated approach tomanaging knowledge, by combining both the collecting and connectingdimensions.


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Knowledge management IFADand learning tools March 2007: version 32

The objective of IFAD strategy for knowledge management is to improveknowledge sharing and learning both w ithin IFAD and w ith itspartners. This will happen only if knowledge sharing and learning occurscollectively and systematically. The strategy will achieve its objective by:

Aligning the knowledge management focus with IFADs new strategic

framework Developing robust knowledge management processes and enabling

tools Fostering partnerships to stimulate broader knowledge-sharing and

learning Developing knowledge management competencies

IFAD considers access to rural poverty information and knowledge as acentral driver for development. Therefore, the main purpose of IFADsknowledge management tools and services are to:

connect people with knowledge they need collect what needs to be learnt

IFAD believes that effective knowledge management, most importantlyknowledge-sharing and learning, is essential for improving its developmenteffectiveness as it leads to:

better use of IFADs experience and knowledge internally andexternally

serves to leverage the knowledge of IFADs partners and stakeholders,including rural poor people

triggers and supports innovation promotes the scaling up of development experience through replication

and through support for better evidence-based policies.


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Implementing the knowledge management strategy: Toolsand techniques

IFAD has adopted a pragmatic and incremental approach to implementing theknowledge management strategy, thus it will not only introduce new toolsand techniques but also build on existing tools, techniques and processes.

In implementing the knowledge management strategy IFAD will be putting inplace a more supportive infrastructure to achieve its knowledge managementobjectives. The strategy aims at bringing organizational activities back ontrack by correcting and improving current practices. At the same time, thestrategy aims to increase the organizations capacity to think critically andcreatively and act innovatively.

Para 34 of the knowledge management strategy provided a preview of someknowledge management tools and techniques. The purpose of this toolkit isto provide an overview of 20 tools and techniques which are widely used inknowledge management programmes by international financial institutions,UN agencies, NGOs and other development institutions.

IFAD is currently using some of these tools. For example: thematic groups are similar to communities of practice TRC, the pilot QE and OSC processes can be considered as a form of

peer assist learning events or mid-term and completion evaluations can be

considered as after action reviews.

The tools are divided into four categories: Strategy development Collaboration mechanisms Knowledge sharing and learning processes Knowledge capture and storage

The toolkit is a living document. It will be amended and expanded based on

comments and feedback received. Future versions will include examples ofhow these tools were utilized. To this end, colleagues are requested todocument and record their impressions, experience and learning using one ofthe 20 tools and techniques described in the toolkit.

If you have any queries, please contact Roxanna Samii ([email protected]) onextension 2375.


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A. Strategy development

The tools listed below provide an overview on how to look at knowledge andlearning in a strategic manner. The tools presented provide differentframeworks which can be used to plan, monitor and evaluate knowledge andlearning initiatives.

1. Knowledge audits

The knowledge audit provides an evidence-based assessment of where tofocus its knowledge management efforts. It reveals knowledge managementneeds, strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats and risks. This involvesgetting to know what people and teams need in order to meet their goals andobjectives.

A knowledge audit is asystematic process toidentify knowledgeneeds, resources andflows, as a basis forunderstanding whereand how betterknowledgemanagement can addvalue. Typically this

process is carried outthrough face-to-faceinterviews;workshops; focusgroups and e-discussions. Below is acheck-list of questionsthat may be explored:

Knowledge

What are thecore tasks andprocessescarried out by different groups and people?

What constitutes useful, applicable knowledge for the execution ofthese tasks and processes?

How is this knowledge generated, identified, shared, stored and appliedin core operations?

How might improved generation, sharing, storing and application ofknowledge be monitored?


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Relationships and processes What existing and planned systems and processes can support the

knowledge sharing and learning strategy, and how should they bedeployed?

What existing and planned initiatives might influence and support the

generation, sharing, storing and application of knowledge? What is the nature of key relationships within the organization? How

formal/informal are these relationships? How do they impact uponissues of knowledge and learning?

Organizational contexts How can human resources, information technology, information

management and other support functions be better integrated tosupport the knowledge and learning vision?

How might existing structures support the KM strategy? How might leadership and governance support the KM strategy? What are the perceived costs and benefits of improved knowledge and

learning?External factors

How does the principle of horizontal coordination work in practice andhow can it be strengthened?

How might the political, economic, and cultural contexts in which thecountry and/or project/programme operates impact upon thedevelopment and implementation of an effective knowledge andlearning strategy?


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2. Social network analysis (SNA)

Social network analysis is about mapping relationships between people,groups and organizations to understand how these relationships facilitate orimpede knowledge flows. It is about whom people seek information andknowledge from, whom they share their information and knowledge with. Incontrast to an organization chart which shows formal relationships, an SNAchart shows informal relationships - who knows whom and who sharesinformation and knowledge with whom. It therefore allows visualizing andunderstanding the relationships that can either facilitate or impedeknowledge creation and sharing. SNA shows the real networks that operateunderneath the surface a formal structure.

Once social relationships and knowledge flows have been identified, theseneed to be evaluated and measured. The results of social network analysiscan be used to:

Identify those (individuals and/or groups) playing central roles (opinionleaders, thought leaders, key knowledge brokers, experts)

identify bottlenecks and isolated teams and individuals identify opportunities to improve knowledge flows target opportunities where increased knowledge flow will have the most

impact raise awareness of the importance of informal networks

How to go about it?Using questionnaires and/or interviews:

Identify the network(s) of people (team, group, department) Gather background information - interviewing managers and key staff

to understand the specific needs and problems Formulate hypotheses and questions

Develop the survey methodology and designing the questionnaire


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Survey the individuals in the network to identify the relationships andknowledge flows between them

Map out the network visually Review the map and the problems and opportunities highlighted using

interviews and/or workshops Design and implement actions to bring about desired changes Map the network again after a suitable period of time

Key points/ practical tipsIt is important that SNA involves knowing what information to gather in thefirst place. As a result, it is vital to put a great deal of thought into the designof the survey and questionnaire. Effective questions typically focus on avariety of factors, such as:

Who knows whom and how well? How well do people know each others knowledge and skills? Who or what gives people information about a specific

theme/relationship/process? What resources do people use to find information, get

feedback/ideas/advice about a specific theme/relationship/process? What resources do people use to share information about

theme/relationship/process?


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3. Most significant change (MSC)

The Most Significant Change (MSC) technique is a form of participatorymonitoring and evaluation. It is participatory because many projectstakeholders are involved both in deciding the sorts of change to be recordedand in analyzing the data.

It involves project stakeholders in deciding what kind of change need to berecorded. It is a form of monitoring as it occurs throughout the programmecycle and provides information to help people manage it. MSC contributes toevaluation because it provides data on impact and outcomes which can beused to help assess the performance of the programme as a whole.

MSC does not make use of predefined indicators, especially ones which haveto be counted and measured. It resorts to a story approach. That is the

answers to the central question about changeare often in the form of stories of who did what,when and why, and the reasons the event wasimportant.

The process involves the systematic selectionand collection of significant change (SC) storiesat field level. The designated staff andstakeholders need to search for project impact.Once changes have been captured, various

people sit down together, read the stories andhave regular and often in-depth discussionsabout the value of the reported changes. When

this technique is successfully implemented, the team begins to focus on theprogramme impact.

Many organizations have found MSC monitoring a useful knowledgemanagement tool for the following reasons:

It is a good means of identifying unexpected changes It is a good way to clearly identify the values that prevail in an

organization and to have a practical discussion about which of thosevalues are the most important. This happens when people thinkthrough and discuss which of the significant changes (SCs) is the mostsignificant. This can happen at all levels of the organization

It is a participatory form of monitoring that requires no specialprofessional skills. Compared to other monitoring approaches, it is easyto communicate across cultures. There is no need to explain what anindicator is. Everyone can tell stories about events they think wereimportant

It encourages analysis as well as data collection because people have

to explain why they believe one change is more important than another It can build staff capacity in analyzing data and conceptualizing impact


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It can deliver a rich picture of what is happening, rather than an overlysimplified picture where organizational, social and economicdevelopments are reduced to a single number

It can be used to monitor and evaluate bottom-up initiatives that donot have predefined outcomes against which to evaluate

Detailed description of the process1. Raise interest by introducing concept of MSC to range of stakeholders

2. Define the domains of change. This involves selected stakeholdersidentifying broad domains which are not necessarily defined asperformance indicators but are to be defined by the actual user. Forexample changes in peoples lives

3. Define the reporting period. Decide how frequently to monitor

changes taking place in the identified domains

4. Collect significant change (SC) stories from those most directlyinvolved, such as field staff or project/programme participants. Storiesare collected by asking simple questions such as: during the lastmonth, in your opinion, what was the most significant change that tookplace for participants in the programme? Allow respondents to allocatea domain category to their stories and encourage respondents to reportwhy they consider a particular change to be the most significant.

Information to be documented should include: Information about who collected the story and when the events

occurred Description of the story itself what happened Significance (to the storyteller) of events described in the story.

Documenting who collected the story and when helps the reader putthe story in context and enables any follow-up inquiries to be madeabout the story, if needed. The SC story itself should be documented asit is told. The description of the change identified as the most

significant should include factual information that makes it clear whowas involved, what happened, where and when. Where possible, astory should be written as a simple narrative describing the sequenceof events that took place.

5. Select the most significant of the stories. The MSC approach usesa hierarchy of selection processes. People discuss SCs within their areaof expertise and submit the most significant of these to the level above.This level selects the most significant of all the SCs and passes this onto the next level. The iterative process of selecting and then pooling SCstories helps reduce a large volume of locally important stories down toa small number of more widely valued stories. The use of multiple


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levels of selection enables this to happen without burdening anyindividual or group with too much work. The process has been calledsummary by selection. (See figure 1)

Figure 1 Flow of stories and feedback in MSC

6. Feed back the results of the selection process. Feedback isimportant in all monitoring, evaluation and learning-oriented systems.Every time stories are selected, the criteria used to select them arerecorded and fed back to all those who provided the SC stories. Thefeedback should explain which SC was selected and why. It should alsoprovide information on how the selection process was organized.Knowing that a particular type of change is valued can lead to furthersearches for similar changes in specific areas. Feedback about why a

selection was made can expand or challenge participants views of whatis significant. The information about which SC stories were selectedhelps participants searches for SCs in the next reporting period.

7. Verify the stories. Verification is useful in order to ensure that thereported changes correctly reflect what has happened. A reportedchange may be more important than is initially evident from the way inwhich the change was documented. Important details and widerimplications may lie hidden until further investigation of the reportedevent. When participants know that there are procedures for verifying

SC stories, they are more likely to be careful about the way theydocument their SCs and this can help improve the overall quality of theSCs. The existence of a verification process may also give externalparties more confidence in the significance of the findings of the MSCapproach. On the other hand, undertaking some verification of SCstories may have negative consequences if not managed properly.Participants may feel they are not trusted, and may be discouragedfrom reporting anything other than what they think is expected.

The selected stories can be verified by visiting the sites where thedescribed events took place. The purpose of this is twofold: to checkthat stories have been reported accurately and to provide an


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opportunity to gather more detailed information about events seen asespecially significant. If conducted some time after the event, a visitalso offers a chance to see what has happened since the event was firstdocumented.

Verification may be unnecessary in some instances. When stories areselected, they are vetted to some degree for accuracy by those whoselected them. Where most of the people selecting the stories havebackground knowledge of the events described in the stories, it may besufficient to accept their vetting as verification.

It is in the interests of whoever selects a SC story as the mostsignificant to make sure they feel confident with the accuracy of boththe SC story and the interpretations made of it. Their judgments willnormally be included in the documentation of the SC story and made

visible to other participants in the process and to users of the results.

Both the description and interpretation aspects of MSC stories canbenefit from verification. With the descriptive part of a story, it is usefulto consider whether any information is missing and to ask how accuratethe facts are. Is there enough information to enable an independentthird party to find out what happened, when and where, and who wasinvolved? It is likely that most stories will contain some errors of fact.The question is the extent to which these errors affect the significancegiven to the events by the people involved or the observer reporting

the event.

It may be useful to describe follow-up inquiries as exploration oranother less-threatening term. Using the newspaper metaphor toexplain the MSC approach; follow-up inquiries can be explained interms of doing a feature article on the most significant news story ofthe week (month, quarter).

8. Quantify. MSC places a strong emphasis on qualitative reporting ofchange, using stories rather than numbers to communicate what ishappening. Within MSC, there are three ways in which quantitativeinformation can be collected and analyzed: As with any news story indicate how many people were involved,

how many activities took place and to quantify effects of differentkinds.

Ask participants for information about all other instances of similarchanges that they are aware of. This one-off inquiry does not needto be repeated during subsequent reporting periods.

Examine the full set of collected SC stories, including those notselected at higher levels and counting the number of times a specifictype of change is noted.


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9. Secondaryanalysisandmeta-monitoring. Secondary analysisconsists of: Thematic coding Analyzing stories for positive and negative SCs Analyzing the changes mentioned in MSC stories against a logic

model Analyzing the genre Analyzing differences between selected stories and those not

selected Analyzing the activities or groups mentioned in stories Analyzing the length of time participants were engaged in the

project Analyzing the selection criteria

Meta-monitoring is relatively simple. It does not require expert

knowledge. There are four main types of measures that can bemonitored: The total number of SC stories written in each reporting period and

how this changes over time Who is writing stories and who is not, and how the membership of

these groups changes over time Whose stories are being selected and whose are not What has happened to those SC stories

10. Revise the system. Almost all organizations that use MSC

change the implementation in some way, both during and after theintroductory phase. This suggests that some organizational learning istaking place. Not having any revisions is worrying as it suggests thatMSC is being used in a ritualistic and unreflective way. Many of thechanges made arise from day-to-day reflection about the practice.

The most common changes are: in the names of the domains of change being used: for example,

adding domains that capture negative changes, or lessonslearned

in the frequency of reporting: for example, from fortnightly tomonthly or from monthly to three monthly in CCDB in the types of participants: for example, allowing middle

management to submit their own SC stories in the structure of meetings called to select the most significant

stories


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4. Outcome mapping

Development is essentially about people relating to each other and theirenvironment. The focus of Outcome Mapping is on people. The originality ofthe methodology is its shift away from assessing the development impact ofa programme (defined as changes in state: for example, policy relevance,poverty alleviation, or reduced conflict) and toward changes in thebehaviours, relationships, actions or activities of the people, groups andorganizations with which a development programme works directly. This shiftsignificantly alters the way a programme understands its goals and assessesits performance and results. Outcome mapping establishes a vision of thehuman, social and environmental improvement to which the programmehopes to contribute and then focuses monitoring and evaluation on factorsand actors within that programmes direct sphere of influence. Theprogrammes contributions to development are planned and assessed based

on its influence on the partners with whom it is working to effect change. Thecentral concept of outcome mapping is that development is accomplished by,and for, people. Outcome mapping does not belittle the importance ofchanges in state (such as cleaner water or a stronger economy) but insteadargues that for each change in state there are correlating changes inbehaviour.

Outcome Mapping focuses on: Behavioural change: Outcomes are defined as changes in the

behaviour, relationships, activities, or actions of the people, groups and

organizations with which a programme works directly. These outcomescan be logically linked to a programmes activities, although they arenot necessarily directly caused by them.

Boundary partners: Those individuals, groups and organizations withwhich the programme interacts directly and with which the programmeanticipates opportunities for influence. Most activities will involvemultiple outcomes because they have multiple boundary partners.

Contributions: By using outcome mapping, a programme is notclaiming the achievement of development impacts; rather, the focus ison its contributions to outcomes. These outcomes, in turn, enhance the

possibility of development impacts but the relationship is notnecessarily a direct one of cause and effect.

Detailed description of the processIntentional Design helps a programme establish consensus on the macro-level changes it will help to bring about and plan the strategies it will use. Ithelps answer four questions: Why? (What is the vision to which theprogramme wants to contribute?); Who? (Who are the programmesboundary partners?); What? (What are the changes that are being sought?);and How? (How will the programme contribute to the change process?).


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Outcome and Performance Monitoring provides a framework for theongoing monitoring of the programmes actions and the boundary partnersprogress toward the achievement of outcomes. It is based largely onsystematized self-assessment. It provides the following data collection toolsfor elements identified in the Intentional Design stage: an Outcome Journal

(progress markers); a Strategy Journal (strategy maps); and a PerformanceJournal (organisational practices).

Evaluation Planning helps the programme identify evaluation priorities anddevelop an evaluation plan.

Figure 2 Three stages of Outcome Mapping

Outcome mapping is based on principles of participation and should includethose implementing the programme in the design and data collection so as to

encourage ownership and use of findings. It is intended to be used as aconsciousness-raising, consensus-building and empowerment tool for thoseworking directly in the programme. Outcome mapping introduces monitoringand evaluation considerations at the planning stage of a programme. Itactively engages groups and teams in the design of a learning-oriented plan,with self-reflection as a core principle.


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5. Process-based knowledge mapping

A process-based knowledge map is a map or diagram that visually displaysknowledge within the context of a business process. The map shows howknowledge should be used within the process and sources of this knowledge.The overview of the business process is prepared before the knowledge andthe sources are mapped to this process.

Knowledge mapping can be used to effectively plan the implementation of aknowledge management strategy. The mapping technique has severaladvantages. The mapping methodology forces participants to identify keyknowledge areas that are most strategic and/or critical to their business. Theanalysis of the knowledge map generates ideas for sharing and leveragingknowledge that are most suited to the organization and the programmecontext.

Figure 3 P rocess-based knowledge map

Any type of knowledge that drives the process or results from execution of

the process can be mapped. This could include tacit knowledge (knowledge inpeople such as know-how, experience, and intuition) and explicit knowledge(codified knowledge such as that in documents); beneficiary knowledge;knowledge in processes; etc.

Five-ten people collaborate in preparing the map carrying out the followingactivities in three phases:

Mapping phase. Create the knowledge map by mapping knowledgeand sources of knowledge to the business process.

Analysis phase. Analyze the map in response to probing questions,

such as:o What knowledge is most critical to the business?


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o What knowledge is missing?o What knowledge adds value to the business?

Application phase. Apply the map to:o Planning programs, projects or sets of activitieso Developing KM processes or improving knowledge flowso Providing a framework for efforts such as a knowledge audit,

technology design, after-action review, competency developmentprogram, etc.


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6. Reframing matrix

Reframing matrix is a simple technique that helps look at organizationalproblems from a number of different viewpoints. It expands the range ofcreative solutions that can be generated.

The approach relies on the fact that different people with different experienceapproach problems in different ways. This technique helps you to do is to putyourself into the minds of different people and imagine the solutions theywould come up with.

Detailed description of the processPut the question to be asked in the middle of a grid. Use boxes around thegrid for the different perspectives. This is simply an easy way of laying outthe problem. Two different approaches to the reframing matrix are

demonstrated here, but it is important to note that many different techniquescan be utilized. The first approach, which is called the Four Ps, relies onlooking at a problem by following the different perspectives that may existwithin an organization. The 4 Ps approach looks at problems from thefollowing viewpoints:

Programme perspective: Are there any issues with the programmeor service we are delivering?

Planning perspective: Are our business plans or communicationplans appropriate?

Potential perspective: Is it scalable and replicable? People perspective: What do the different people involved think?

Another approach to using a reframing matrix is to look at the problem fromthe viewpoints of different specialists. For example, the way an irrigationengineer looks at a problem would be different from a fundraisersperspective.

Figure 4 Reframing matrix example: a new programme notfundraising effectively


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B. Collaboration mechanisms

When working together with others often there is not enough attention paidto facilitating effective collaborative practices. The tools in this section aim tohelp strengthen relationships and develop shared thinking.

7. Communities of practice (CoP)

A community of practice (CoP) is a network of people who share a commoninterest in a specific area of knowledge or competence and are willing to workand learn together over a period of time to develop and share thatknowledge.

Communities of practice differ from the usual notion of a team or workgroups in a number of fundamental ways:

Voluntary membership. Whereas teams and work groups are formedby management, membership of a community of practice is voluntary

Specific focus. Teams and work groups are formed to focus on aspecific objective or activity, while communities of practice are notnecessarily; they may have some stated goals, but they are moregeneral and fluid

No expectation of tangible results. Teams and work groups arerequired to deliver tangible results, whereas communities of practiceare not necessarily

Existence defined by group members. Teams and work groups aredisbanded or reorganized once they have achieved their goals, whilecommunities of practice last as long as their members want them tolast.

Salient features of communities of practice:

provide a valuable vehicle for developing, sharing and managingspecialist knowledge

avoid reinventing the wheel

cut across departmental boundaries and formal reporting lines can be more flexible than traditional reporting units generate new knowledge in response to problems and opportunities provide early warning of potential opportunities and threats can be vehicle for cultural change (creating a knowledge sharing

culture) are largely self-organizing


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Detailed description of the processPhase 1: BirthCommunities of practice emerge in an organic fashion and cannot bemanaged into existence. They can, however, be fostered, by identifying areaswhere knowledge might be better shared and used. Once this has been

identified, a number of questions should be addressed: What is the knowledge focus of the community? Is it based on a

professional discipline, or does it focus on some specific issue oropportunity?

Who can contribute to the community? Who are the experts, thefacilitators, the movers and shakers? Should invitation be open or byinvitation?

What are the common needs and interests of the group? What is thegroup interested in? What benefits do they expect through joining thecommunity?

What is the purpose of the community? What needs or problemsneed to be addressed? What does community want to achieve? Howwill the community benefit the organization? What are its values andways of working? How will it be structured and organized? How will itobtain resources? Can terms of reference be developed?

Communities are often best launched with a meeting or workshop to enableface-to-face contact and the initiation of relationships within the context ofthe new community. This also provides an opportunity to work through thedetail associated with the questions above and to clarify objectives and the

terms of reference.

Phase 2: Development and grow thThere is a need to ensure that, after the initial excitement, the CoP maintainsinterest and commitment. The community coordinator should be seeking tomaintain the life of the community by ensuring face-to-face meetings,arranging social events, rewarding contributions, introducing new andchallenging perspectives, and getting external perspectives. Member turnoverwill always be an issue, and ongoing recruitment will be required to maintainthe energy. Roles and responsibilities should be rotated between members

over time. There is also a need to ensure that there is support forparticipation in the network from the wider organisation, which should beachieved by aligning goals of the CoP with the wider organizational goals.Support should be in terms of both freeing up time and recognizng thecontributions of the community.

At the development and growth stage, the CoP should be taking a greaterrole in managing knowledge that is at the heart of the community. Thisincludes creating knowledge maps, identifying knowledge gaps, and so on.The key at this stage is not to stifle social relationships at the heart of the

network by the imposition of too strong a managerial imperative. This bringsabout the real challenge to develop the community and the practice


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simultaneously. Community development requires strengthening thecoordinator (who is the spokesperson and organizes, coordinates), facilitator(who facilitates interactions within the community) and knowledge manager(who is entrusted with explicit knowledge resources management). Trainingand support for this may be required.

Phase 3: ClosureCommunities and networks can come to an end naturally as its memberscome to an end-point of the purpose. In other cases, the community mayfragment into multiple smaller communities based around particular specialistsubjects. When a community fades, it is important to celebrate its life andachievements, and to ensure that the relevant body of knowledge is capturedand transferred.

Key points/ practical tips

Below is a summary of good practices: Starting-up a network:

o Have you double-checked your reasons for starting acommunity/network?

o When should this network become active?o What type of network will yours be?o What kind of facilitation will your network need?o What kinds of behaviours and activities are appropriate to a

facilitator?o What tools and channels of communication can you use for

facilitating a network? How to involve external participants in networks:

o Be clear what the network is for before involving externalparticipants.

o Who exactly are the external participants going to be?o Who hosts the network?

Sustaining a network:o What resource has the network got?o What makes your network valuable to its members?o How could you revive a faltering network?

o Handing over the role of facilitator. What will happen when your network has done its job?


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8. Action learning sets

Action learning is astructuredmechanism forworking in smallgroups to addresscomplicated issues.Action LearningSets are made upof between six andeight people whomeet togetherregularly over a

reasonable timeperiod and presentand collectivelywork on problemsfaced in ongoingpractice. The group

will then help the presenter work on that problem through supportive butchallenging questioning: encouraging a deeper understanding of the issuesinvolved, a reflective reassessment of the problem, and an exploration ofways forward.

The most common applications fall into two categories: A work-based project in which action learning set members are

involved and are able to influence the outcomes by their actions An issue that concerns how specific action learning set members

operate in the work context (e.g. creating partnerships), and one whichthey wish to improve and which could benefit from the support andchallenging of the other set members.

Figure 5 Action learning set process


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The figure above shows how action learning process is a cyclical one. Startingat the top of the diagram and moving round systematically, it gives eachmember the opportunity to present a problem and comment on others.

Start -Presentyour challenge,problem, issueor your question.

Set members question youconstructively to challengeviews and understanding,perceptions, assumptions.Others share knowledge-invited by presenter of issue.

Insight? Newunderstanding, ideason taking action?

Test out takingaction in theworkplace.

Bring resultsback to set-whatworked/whatdidnt? Why?

Mark learning, drawconclusions, definelearning from experience.Integrate new knowledgeinto our ractice.


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Key points/ practical tips Action learning sets are most effective when the commitment is

voluntary Action learning sets should focus on real-life practice-related problems,

ones which are more open ended in nature and which do not have a

right or wrong answer The ground rules for action learning sets should include:

o Being honest with oneself and otherso Respecting others and their viewpointo Taking responsibility for our own actions


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9. Six thinking hats

This tool enables groups to look at decisions from a number of importantperspectives. This forces groups and individuals to move outside theirhabitual thinking style, and helps to get a more holistic view of a situation.

You can use this methodology in meetings or on your own. In meetings it hasthe benefit of blocking the confrontations that happen when people withdifferent thinking styles discuss the same problem.

Each 'Thinking Hat' is a different style of thinking. These are explained below:

White hat:With this thinking

hat you focus onthe dataavailable. Look atthe informationyou have, and seewhat you canlearn from it. Look for gaps in your knowledge, and either try to fill them ortake account of them.

This is where you analyze past trends, and try to extrapolate from historical

data.

Red hat:'Wearing' the red hat, you look at problems using intuition, gut reaction, andemotion. Also try to think how other people will react emotionally. Try tounderstand the responses of people who do not fully know your reasoning.

Black hat:Using black hat thinking, look at all the bad points of the decision. Look at itcautiously and defensively. Try to see why it might not work. This is

important because it highlights the weak points in a plan. It allows you toeliminate them, alter them, or prepare contingency plans to counter them.

Black hat thinking helps to make your plans 'tougher' and more resilient. Itcan also help you to spot fatal flaws and risks before you embark on a courseof action. Black Hat thinking is one of the real benefits of this technique, asmany successful people get so used to thinking positively that often theycannot see problems in advance. This leaves them under-prepared fordifficulties.

Yellow hat:The yellow hat helps you to think positively. It is the optimistic viewpoint that


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helps you to see all the benefits of the decision and the value in it. Yellow Hatthinking helps you to keep going when everything looks gloomy and difficult.

Green hat:The green hat stands for creativity. This is where you can develop creative

solutions to a problem. It is a freewheeling way of thinking, in which there islittle criticism of ideas. A whole range of creativity tools can help you here.

Blue hat:Thinking about thinking. The blue thinkers role is to keep an overview ofwhat thinking is necessary to scout the subject. The blue thinker isresponsible for giving summaries, surveys and conclusions. The blue thinkerkeeps the discipline and brings the discussions back on to the right track. Theblue hat stands for process control. This is the hat worn by people chairingmeetings. When running into difficulties because ideas are running dry, they

may direct activity into green hat thinking. When contingency plans areneeded, they will ask for black hat thinking, etc.

Key points/ practical tipsSix Thinking Hats is a good technique for looking at the effects of a decisionfrom a number of different points of view.

It allows necessary emotion and skepticism to be brought into what wouldotherwise be purely rational decisions. It opens up the opportunity forcreativity within decision making. The technique also helps, for example,

persistently pessimistic people to be positive and creative.

Plans developed using the '6 Thinking Hats' technique will be sounder andmore resilient than would otherwise be the case. It may also help you toavoid public relations mistakes, and spot good reasons not to follow a courseof action before you have committed to it.


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10. Social technologies

There arean everincreasingnumber oftools thataredescribedby theterm socialtechnologies. All ofthese haveone thing

incommon: the use of technology to try and build collaboration and sharing oftacit knowledge. The term is often used to describe new tools based on theinternet; however, we should not forget other equally important tools whichdo not require a web-platform: mobile telephone communications, radioservices and other face-to-face socializing methods.

Detailed description of the processesE-dialoguing and e-conferencing enables the easy sharing of ideas,information and news. These communications can be synchronized by date

and time, or can take place over days and even months. Thesecommunications are facilitated by email and web technologies. Emaildiscussions, or lists, can use email to discuss issues. These are either of ahub-and-spoke model whereby daily messages to a moderator arecompacted into a single daily message, or they are a free-for-all, whereby allmessages are seen by all members of the list. Some email discussions takethe form of e-conferences, which are planned around component discussionsand pre-prepared short papers on themes and topics. Discussions may be runusing both the web and email. Conferences can have a home page whichparticipants visit and post their contributions, and subsequently receive an

email detailing either all or a summary of the messages posted.

Internet messaging services provide users with a virtual chat-roomwhere people can talk in groups or on a one-to-one basis. Chats could beseen as voluntary unmoderated discussions; although they can bemoderated, this is only done rarely. IM services provide privacy options thatallow users to share information more freely than in chat rooms or e-conferencing. Internet messaging services have now evolved into a morecomplete application, providing video and voice communication to its usersthus significantly reducing communication cost.


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Virtual w orkspaces use a wide variety of tools such as email and the web-based tools such as weblogs and wikis to create a virtual common area fordistributed project teams to work together. This enables the team tocommunicate, collaborate, and share information, regardless of theirgeographic location.

Wiki is a website where any user has the right to create, edit and deletecontent. System abuses are avoided by a revision control system that trackschanges, enabling reverting to previous versions. The potential of Wikis asopen knowledge exchange systems is illustrated by the rise of Wikipaedia.

The usefulness of the Wiki relies on its ability to aggregate knowledge fromthe users themselves. Wikis can be used to develop and update informationthat is useful for many users who, individually, only hold parts of it.

A weblog is a web-based publication consisting primarily of periodic articles,usually in reverse chronological order. Early weblogs were simply manuallyupdated components of common websites. However, the evolution of tools tofacilitate the production and maintenance of web articles posted in achronological fashion made the publishing process accessible to a muchlarger, less technical, population. Ultimately, this resulted in the distinct classof online publishing that produces blogs we recognize today. See weblogtools for more details.

Social network services are online spaces that allow different groups of

people to come together under shared interests or causes. Most socialnetwork services include some of the other social technologies to enhanceconnectivity and promote peer-to-peer communications. Their usefulness toresearch and policy influence relate to their ability to develop and sustainsocial and professional networks, share knowledge between members andprovide access or entry points to key individuals and spaces. These spacesprovide a range of social networking tools that allow users to expand theirsocial networks to those of their colleagues; as well as to search through thenetworks space for individuals with similar interests. The network providesaccess to personal blogs of the members, specialized libraries and a clearing

house for relevant links and external services.

E-learning is a web-based (as opposed to computer-based) application forlong distance and on-demand learning and includes the use of othercommunication technologies such as email, internet forums, collaborativesoftware, and classroom management software. E-learning for internationaldevelopment allows individuals to gain access to technical and professionaleducation. It reduces the traditional costs (printed materials) and outreachlimitations of distance learning. In most cases, e-learning sessions aredesigned to fit professionals and are therefore accessible on an on-demandbasis allowing users to engage in their own time.


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C. Knowledge sharing and learning tools

Effective knowledge and learning is about simple and effective two-waycommunication building on past experiences in order to improve activities inthe future. The tools in the section can be applied to achieve this objective.

11. Stories

Storytelling is simplyusing stories inorganizations as acommunication toolto share knowledge.Storytelling hasexisted for thousandsof years as a meansof exchanginginformation andgeneratingunderstanding. Similarly, it has always existed in organizations otherwiseknown as the grapevine. However, as a deliberate tool for sharingknowledge it is quite recent but growing very rapidly, to the extent that it isbecoming a favoured technique.

Storytelling offers a number of advantages:

Stories communicate ideas holistically, conveying a rich yet clearmessage, and so they are an excellent way of communicatingcomplicated ideas and concepts in an easy-to-understand form. Storiestherefore allow people to convey tacit knowledge that might otherwisebe difficult to articulate; in addition, because stories are told withfeeling, they can allow people to communicate more than they realizethey know

Storytelling provides the context in which knowledge arises as well asthe knowledge itself, and hence can increase the likelihood of accurate

and meaningful knowledge transfer Stories are an excellent vehicle for learning, as true learning requires

interest, which abstract principles and impersonal procedures rarelyprovide

Stories are memorable - their messages tend to stick and they getpassed on

Stories can provide a living, breathing example of how to dosomething and why it works rather than telling people what to do,hence people are more open to their lessons

Stories therefore often lead to direct action - they can help to close the

knowing-doing gap (the difference between knowing how to dosomething and actually doing it)


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Storytelling can help to make communication more human not onlydo they use natural day-to-day language, but they also elicit anemotional response as well as thoughts and actions

Stories can nurture a sense of community and help to buildrelationships

People enjoy sharing stories stories enliven and entertain.

Stories can be used for all manner of purposes. Different purposes will tendto require different kinds of stories. Below are 8 possible purposes for usingstorytelling:

Storytelling to ignite organizational change. Experience has shownthat storytelling can be highly effective as a change agent, even inchange-resistant organisations. Telling an appropriate story canstimulate people to think actively about the implications of change and

to projecting themselves into visions of the future, enabling them tobetter understand what it will be like to be doing things in a differentway, rather than being given vague, abstract concepts about it

Storytelling for communications. Storytelling is based on aninteractive view of communication. Because the listener imaginativelyrecreates the story in his or her own mind, the story is not perceived ascoming from outside, but rather as something that is part of thelisteners own identity. The idea becomes the listeners own

Storytelling to capture tacit knowledge. Tacit knowledge can be amulti-layered and multi-dimensional thing and as such it is often

difficult to articulate. Stories can provide a way of allowing people toexpress and share tacit knowledge in rich and meaningful ways, ratherthen being forced to articulate it in more structured ways that candetract from its value

Storytelling to embody and transfer knowledge. Similarly, asimple story can communicate a complex multi-dimensioned idea, notsimply by transmitting information as a message, but by activelyinvolving the listeners in co-creating that idea. Furthermore, as a storyis told and retold, it changes, and so the knowledge embodied in it isconstantly being developed and built upon

Use of stories for innovation. The use of storytelling in innovationand knowledge creation can encourage people to move away fromlinear thinking towards a more multi-dimensional view, to see newconnections between things, and also to marry scientific logic with amore creative or intuitive approach

Storytelling to build community. There is something about storiesthat brings people together and fosters a sense of community.Storytelling is non-hierarchical, it unlocks feelings and emotions as wellas thought processes, and hence it helps to build relationships andtrust

Storytelling to enhance technology. People often find it difficult tocommunicate about technology. Users can have trouble articulating


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their needs and expectations, while experts can have difficulty talkingin plain English. Wherever there is a gap in language andunderstanding, storytelling can provide a bridge, by communicating thereal essence of what each party is trying to get across

Storytelling for individual grow th. Storytelling is a skill, and one

that draws on a number of other key skills, mostly relating tointerpersonal communication. The development of these skills is animportant component of most knowledge management programmes

Potential applications of narratives are:

Team or community-building exercises Breaking down barriers between multidisciplinary or multi-cultural

teams Workshop warm-ups Trip debriefs Personal project reviews Monitoring systems (see Most Significant Change)

Detailed description of the processThe story template format below has been used in a range of settingsglobally.

Title of story Name of original teller Name of listener/understander

Landscape: set the scene in time and space Dwelling place: precise location where action occurred Characters: cast list, descriptive attributes and roles in story Challenge: problem or task that triggered the action Action: sequence of events before, during and after your turning point Turning point: the moment when the change happens Resolution: ending, including moral, lesson learned or message Key visual hooks: memory aids to assist partner retelling the story


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Key points/ practical tipsThe story:

Needs to be simple and powerful Should be in response to demand, and timed with specific opportunities Should provide a solution to both immediate and broader problems Should be targeted at people with the power to make decisions and

change things Should play to what is already in peoples minds


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12. Peer assists

A peer assist issimply a processwhere a team ofpeople who areworking on aproject oractivity call ameeting orworkshop toseek knowledgeand insightsfrom people in

other teams.

Peer assist is atool which supports learning before doing processes. Using the sameprinciples as scientific peer review, it begins with the premise that, for anygiven activity, someone else has done something that is at least broadlysimilar. In order to use the peer assists, a team or group first needs toidentify the right group of people, and then uses a systematic method tobenefit from their insights/experience. If conducted effectively, peer assistscan promote learning, and be used to strengthen mutual learning between

people and groups.

Detailed description of the processThere is no single right way of holding peer assist. Below is a check list. Thetext that follows provides some insights about the process.

Clarify your purpose Has the problem already been solve? Get a facilitator Timing is important Select the participants

Get cear about the deliverables Allow time for socializing Define the purpose and set the ground rules Start by sharing information and context Encourage the visitors to ask questions and give feedback Analyze what you have heard Present the feedback and agree actions

Develop a clear definition of the problem to be addressed. It may beworthwhile doing some background research on whether similar issues have

been, or are being, faced elsewhere. The definition should include a set of


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hoped-for outcomes from the peer assist process. Step 1 will help focus thepeer assist meeting, and will also provide a long list of potential participants.

Enlist participants. Participation can be generated either through openinvitation or selection. In general, it is worth getting a good mix of people

playing a range of roles across different locations, and from differentpositions in the organizational hierarchy, with the proviso that peer assistwork best when there is some common ground, and scope for open honestinteractions. Consider including people from outside, but only if this will notdisrupt internal sharing. It may be worth bringing in outside experts after theinternal process has been completed.

Time the meeting carefully. The peer assist meeting should take placeearly enough to ensure that: i) the required participants are given enoughnotice and are available, and ii) the lessons can be applied effectively by the

team calling the peer assist.

Run the peer assist meeting. Effective peer assist meetings comprise sixparts.

Part 1 the learning team presents context, history and ideasregarding the task or issue at hand. This should occur in an open andflexible manner to enable redefinition in the session

Part 2 should allow the participants to consider the problem, anddiscuss issues of interest namely, what has been covered, and whathasnt been covered

Part 3 should be a session in which participants consider what thelearning team might need to know to address the problem and wheremight they find that knowledge

Part 4 of the meeting should be for the participants to reflect on whathas been learned from the others and to examine options. Again, thelearning team should not be the focus here

In Part 5 of the meeting, the participants should present feedback tothe learning team and answer specific questions. This should beinformal, and deal with what has been learned, what options there areand experiences elsewhere. Begin with the positive and then move on

to options to do things differently. When presenting what has workedelsewhere, participants should be encouraged to describe rather thanprescribe

In Part 6, the team who called the peer assist should acknowledge thecontribution of the participants. There should be a commitment to atimeline for delivery of an action list of key lessonslearned, and whatthe learning team are going to do differently as a result. Finally, all theparticipants should be invited to reflect on what they learned, and howthey might apply it going forward

Develop a set of lessons and related options to shape the learning teamsdecision-making process and provide pointers to future actions. This


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13. Challenge sessions

It is well established that groups and individuals think by recognizing and

reacting to patterns, with most reactions emerging as a result of building onpast experiences in a logical and linear fashion. In other words, theunderlying assumption is that the future will correlate with the past. Althoughsuch thinking is a necessity in certain situations, individuals and groups oftenget stuck in such modes of thinking, and do not attempt to think beyondthem. When a different or new challenge is posed, the manner in whichpeople are conditioned to think means it is difficult to adjust.

As with other lateral thinking techniques, use of challenge sessions helpsgenerate new ideas and concepts. The key is effective facilitation of the

group through creative thinking process.

Detailed description of the processThe basis of a challenge session, is to generate a series of challengestatements, defined as deliberately provocative statements about a particularsituation. These are usually generated by taking accepted wisdoms thingswhich are taken for granted about a particular situation and treating themas though they were not true. This initially calls for a suspension ofjudgment, and the uncritical use of specific challenge statements to generateideas about solving the problem. This logical reversal helps individuals and

groups to move away from conventional modes of thinking, and provides astarting point for original, creative thinking.

As an example, we could make a statement that modern organizations shouldnot have a physical library. This leads one to think of an organization withdistributed collections on bookshelves which means that staff have to walkaround the building, potentially talking to others as they go. This couldcontribute to strengthening informal interactions, which are at the heart ofeffective knowledge and learning within an organization. With this particularexample, there are potential issues, namely, security and stock maintenance,

which would also need to be addressed if this challenge statement were tobecome reality. The process for a challenge session is as follows:


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Identify the problem: This should ideally be a well defined problemor issue faced by a team or organization

Brainstorm a series of challenge statements: This may be done bythe whole group or subgroups

Use the challenge statements to generate new ideas: Address the

following checklist:o What are the consequences of the statement?o What are the possible benefits?o What special circumstances would be required to make it a

sensible solution?o What are the principles needed to support it and make it work?o How it would work as a step-by-step process?o What would happen if a sequence of events was changed?

Prioritize the best ideas. Use pilots to test them out in the liveenvironment

Rollout more widely


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14. After action reviews and retrospects (AAR)

An after action review (AAR) is a discussion of a project or an activity thatenables the individuals involved to learn for themselves what happened, whyit happened, what went well, what needs improvement and what lessons canbe learned from the experience. The spirit of an AAR is one of openness andlearning - it is not about problem fixing or allocating blame. Lessons learnedare not only tacitly shared on the spot by the individuals involved, but can beexplicitly documented and shared with a wider audience.

What makes after action reviews so powerful is that they can be appliedacross a wide spectrum of activities, from two individuals conducting a fiveminute AAR at the end of a short meeting to a day-long AAR held by aproject team at the end of a large project. Activities suitable for AARs simplyneed to have a beginning and an end, an identifiable purpose and some basis

on which performance can be assessed.

Detailed description of the processThere are many different ways to conduct AARs. The simplicity at the heart ofthe tool means there is much potential to experiment with the process andfind the right ways that will work best with the group and the work itemunder review. The whole process should be kept as simple and as easy toremember as possible. The essence of the AAR is, however, to bring togetherthe relevant group to think about a project, activity, event or task, and posethe following simple questions.

AARs can be grouped into three types: formal, informal and personal.Although the fundamental approach involved in each is essentially the same,there is some variation in how they are conducted.

Formal AARs tend to be conducted at the end of a major project or event(learning after doing). They require some preparation and planning, but arenot difficult as they take the form of a simple meeting. This meeting maytake place over a couple of hours or a couple of days, depending on the scaleof the project. Steps and tips for successful formal AARs include:

Call the meeting as soon as possible and invite the right people Create the right climate Appoint a facilitator Revisit the objectives and deliverables of the project Ask what went well? Find out why, and share learning advice for the

future Ask what could have gone better? Find out what the problems were

and share learning advice for the future Ensure that everyone feels fully head before leaving the meeting Record the AAR

Share the learning


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Informal AARs tend to be conducted after smaller events such as meetingsor presentations (learning after doing) or following a specific event during awider project or activity (learning while doing). They require less preparationand planning and can often be done on the spur of the moment. In an openand honest meeting, usually no longer than half an hour, each participant in

the event answers four simple questions: What was supposed to happen? What actually happened? Why were there differences? What did we learn?

Personal AARs are a simple matter of personal reflection. Take a fewminutes to reflect on something you did yesterday. Ask yourself the abovefour AAR questions.

Table 1: After action review questionsQuestion Purpose

What was supposed to happen?What actually happened?Why were there differences?

These questions establish acommon understanding of thework item under review. Thefacilitator should encourage andpromote discussion around thesequestions. In particular,divergences from the plan shouldbe explored.

What worked?What didnt?Why?

These questions generatereflection about the successesand failures during the course ofthe project, activity, event ortask. The question Why?generates understanding of theroot causes of these successesand failures.

What would you do differentlynext time?

This question is intended to helpidentify specific actionable

recommendations. The facilitatorasks the team members for crispand clear, achievable and future-oriented recommendations.

Key points/ practical tips Post the questions up on flipchart sheets prior to the session, with

answers then written on the sheet as the session progresses. Thecompleted sheets can then be stuck up around the room to serve as areminder of the progress

Participants are participants, not a passive audience. The facilitatorshould prepare leading questions and may have to ask it of several


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people. The questions can be asked on an individual or a team basis.The team mechanism is ideal, but if suggestions are slow coming, thefacilitator could go around the room asking each individual to expressone thing that worked and one thing that did not

If there are issues with either openness or time, it may be worthwhile

to gather ideas first and then facilitate the discussion in the groupenvironment

Ideally, an uninvolved note-taker should be asked to minute thesession. This will enable better capture of the learning

The actionable recommendations should be as specific as possible. Forexample, an AAR following a workshop could have the followingrecommendation: Make more time to understand the audience. Abetter AAR would be Make contact with the organizing bodyrepresentative and ask about the range of participants before planningthe workshop

Participants of an AAR should include all members of the team. Afacilitator should be appointed to help create an open environment,promote discussion and draw out lessons learned

AARs should be carried out immediately, while the team is still availableand memories are fresh. It is recommended that AARs be incorporatedat key points during a project, activity, event or task in the earlyplanning stage, although they are often completed at the end

AARs can be conducted almost anywhere, and will vary in length. Forexample, a 15-minute AAR can be conducted after a one-dayworkshop, or a much longer meeting could be held to reflect on the

strategy development process throughout a large organization


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A Retrospect follows the AAR format, but involves asking the following moredetailed questions:

What did you set out to achieve? What was your plan to achieve this? How did this change as you progressed? What went well and why? What could have gone better? What advice would you give yourself if you were to go back to where

you were at the start of the project? What were the two or three key lessons you would share with others? What next for you in terms of this project? Can you think of a story that summarizes your experience of work on

this project? What should we have learned from this project a year from now? Are there any lessons for you personally?


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D. Capturing and storing knowledge

To make sure that essential knowledge is retained a range of techniques canbe applied. This section provides some tools and techniques on how tocapture and store knowledge.

15. Knowledge harvesting

Knowledge harvesting is an approach that allows the tacit knowledge orknow-how to be captured and documented. This know-how can then be madeavailable to others in various ways such as through training programmes,manuals, best practices and websites. Knowledge in organizations exists intwo forms: explicit knowledge, which is easily captured and shared; and tacitknowledge, which is more experiential and intuitive, and so is less easy toarticulate. Knowledge harvesting is about trying to make some of the tacitknowledge more explicit. Its aim is to help make better and wider use of theirexisting knowledge by extracting it from the heads of a few key people andmaking it available to a much wider range of people.

The ultimate goal of knowledge harvesting is to capture an experts decision-making processes with enough clarity that someone else could repeat thesame processes and get the same results. Knowledge harvesting can beeffectively used in a range of situations such as:

When an organization wants to know what it knows When knowledge and information are needed for a specific, clearly

defined, purpose. To capture the knowledge of employees who are leaving the

organization or department To gather knowledge to support a process of change or improvement To kick-start a knowledge management programme by quickly

generating a body of expert knowledge about a subject and making itavailable across the organization

As an ongoing practice, as part of a wider knowledge managementstrategy

The benefits of knowledge harvesting include: The knowledge of a few key individuals is made readily available to

others who need it Individuals can access experts knowledge when and where they need

it, without being dependent on the availability of that expert Vital knowledge is not lost to the organization when people leave The learning curve of new people joining the organization is shortened The tangible knowledge assets of the organization can be increased Productivity and efficiency can be improved, as people can use existing

expertise rather than having to go through their own trial-and-error

experiences It can be done relatively quickly and inexpensively


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While there is no set formula for knowledge harvesting, there are somegeneral guidelines that facilitate the process. These can be broken down intoa number of steps.

Focus: Decide on what specific knowledge and expertise you want to

capture, and be clear about what the benefits will be. It is neitherpossible nor desirable to capture everything that everyone knows

Understand your target audience. It is important to understand whowill be using the knowledge that you are capturing before you start tocapture it. This will help you ensure you capture the right knowledge atthe right level, and make it available in the most appropriate ways

Find your experts. Identify the experts - the people who have theknowledge and know-how you are seeking to capture. If you have awhite pages that includes details peoples skills and knowledge thenthis is a good place to start

Choose your harvesters. An effective harvester (interviewer) iscrucial. Much of the success of knowledge harvesting relies on theability of the interviewer to elicit the right knowledge from experts.Making tacit knowledge explicit can be difficult people often dontknow what they know and so helping people to talk about what theyknow, and then capturing that effectively, is a key skill. It is generallyrecommended that you use a trained harvester whether you hire anexternal consultant, or develop and train someone in-house. In thelatter case, consider people with strong communication, interpersonaland interviewing skills.

Harvest: interview your experts. The best way to capture tacitknowledge is using one-to-one, face-to-face interviews with yourexperts. The interviews will involve asking them to talk about whatthey do and to describe specific situations in which they have appliedspecific know-how. Interviews need to be well prepared in advance,including drafting a topic guide or a list of questions. Examples ofquestions might include:

o Describe a time when?o Whats the first thing you do?o How do you know to do that?

o How do you know when to do it?o What do you do next? Why?o What usually happens?o What happens if something else is done?o What would happen if?o Who else is involved?o What are some common mistakes or misconceptions?o What is the most important thing to remember when youre doing

this?o Describe how you currently help others learn how to do this?o

What are the main obstacles that prevent them from achievingthe same results as you?


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o What are examples of support materials, documents, procedures,manuals, research evidence, check-lists that are relevant?

o What would make this process easier to understand?o What would make this process easier to achieve?

Organize, package and share. Once the knowledge has beengathered it can then be edited, organized and presented (orpackaged) into a form that meets the needs of its users

Apply, evaluate and adapt. It is important to ensure that theknowledge you have captured is being accessed and applied and thatusers are getting value from it. You will also need to consider its valueover time: knowledge harvesting can result in relatively staticdocuments that will, at some point, become out-of-date and so theywill need to be continually refreshed if they are to retain their value.


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16. Integrated approaches to capturing learning

When an organization actively records and shares its success stories andfailures, everyone learns and benefits.

One way to do this is by using a variety of media to capture, document andarchive learning that occurs during the life of a development initiative in ways

that are thorough and meaningful. The learning is subsequently fed back intothe project cycle and stored in the organizations learning and sharingrepository, thus making it available both internally and externally.

This approach can mean combining use of text, video and photography, togather information and document learning as it occurs over time. This alsoresults in live impact monitoring.

By employing different media, information can be gathered through individualinterviews and testimonials, through observation of meetings, events and

processes, as well as by recording the ongoing impressions and experiencesof individual participants.

Throughout the process, the recorded impressions and experiences ofindividuals evolve into stories that illustrate change and impact.

An advantage of this approach is its versatility. The material gathered can bepackaged in a range of formats, including the combination of several intomultimedia presentations or disseminated individually through a range ofcommunication channels, such as print publications, websites, video and

radio.


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As a knowledge management tool, integrated media approaches can becombined with a systematic approach to capturing learning and can becomplemented by knowledge management techniques such knowledgeharvesting, storytelling, Most Significant Change (MSC) and others describedin this document.

The information, experiences and stories gathered and elaborated can beparticularly useful when opportunities arise to share information about impactwith broader audiences at regional and international meetings and events,and through the media.

Detailed description of the process One approach to information gathering already tested in an IFAD-

supported project is use of themes as a means of capturing theprojects pre-existing conditions, its processes, its outcomes and its

lessons learned. As an example, the themes used in the IFAD projectwere:

o overall conditionso geographic, economic and cultural contexto learning and its impact on livelihoods of rural poor peopleo responsiveness to community demand and the tension between

different project design styles. Are solutions imposed byoutsiders, or developed through community participation?

Prepare a communication plan for the duration of the project, whichcan be continuously updated as new opportunities arise to share the

emerging learning Conduct a diagnosis of the pre-existing existing situation in the project

area in relation to the thematic areas you have identified Identify the people, communities, organizations that you wish to

monitor. These may change during the life of the project, as individualcases emerge where useful stories are evolving

Use written text, photography and video as primary methods ofcapturing information

Gather information through individual interviews and testimonials,observation of meetings, events and processes, as well as recording

the ongoing impression and experiences of individual participants Use knowledge management techniques such as MSC, story-telling and

knowledge harvesting to support a systematic approach to capturinglearning

At the end of each information-gathering mission, and as a way ofsharing ongoing learning and progress with others, package multimediaproducts documenting the progress and impact of the programme bycombining the use of a video component (approximately 4 to 6minutes), and fact sheets with stories and photographs. Thesematerials should be shared with the programme participants, and

placed on the organizations web site for the external audience. Withinthe institution, it is recommended that learning events be organized


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In close collaboration with programme participants, in an effort to buildlocal capacity, repeat this process assess the impact of theprogramme by interviewing your sample group - on an annual basis forthe duration of the programme.

At the end of the programme, further distil all the material and

summarize the overall experience, highlighting its successes andfailures


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Key points/ practical tips Prepare a communication plan for the duration of the programme and

revisit it on a regular basis Prepare a realistic budget for the activity, based on the advice of

communication professionals Ensure you mount integrated missions: the reporter, photographer,

video producers Utilize on-the-ground expertise in video production and photography as

part of the process. In cases where this expertise cannot be found,some capacity building would be incorporated

Always go back to the identified sample group. If you have to drop apreviously identified sample group, document the rationale

If you pick new sample groups, document the rationale and context

Case study

This IFAD methodology was utilized to document emerging lessons andimpact of the First Mile Project. http://www.ifad.org/rural/firstmile/index.htm


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17. Exit interviews

Exit Interviews are usuallythought of as a rather formalinterview between amanager and staff memberleaving an organization,focusing on the lattersreasons for leaving.However, exit interviews area learning processemphasizing the importanceof capturing and storing

know-how. Obviously, it is impossible to capture all of the knowledge of anyindividual, but exit interviews are designed to minimize the loss of useful

knowledge through staff turnover and ease the learning curve of new staff. Ifconducted appropriately, they can benefit both the organization and theleaving staff. The organization captures the leavers useful knowledge,hopefully in an accessible form. The leaver gets to reflect on their role, andhopefully leave on the positive note. Conducting exit interviews can also behighly therapeutic.

Detailed description of the processThe ideal focus of the learning-based exit interview is on knowledge that ismost useful to the next person, or for others doing similar jobs. Because

face-to-face interactions are central to such exit interviews, ideally betweenthe leaver and potential learners, the management of the exit interviewprocess must be initiated as early as possible after it is known that theperson is leaving.

Identify who in the organization might benefit from the leaversknowledge and what they will need to know from that person

Consider who currently accesses the persons knowledge and what theyneed to know from the replacement staff. Think about documentedexplicit knowledge (in files, documents and emails) as well as tacit

knowledge (know-how), which needs to be explained Develop a plan in a participatory way to ensure knowledge can be

c

KM and learning tools and techniques

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