Kitchen by Banana Yoshimoto as a Bildungsroman

7/17/2019 Kitchen by Banana Yoshimoto as a Bildungsroman

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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

Proceedings of the 7th Malaysia International Conference on Languages, Literatures,

and Cultures, 2012www.fbmk.upm.edu.my/micollac/proceedings

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FORMULAIC LANGUAGE: A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN A JAPANESE

NOVEL AND ITS ENGLISH TRANSLATION

Anne Becker

Department of Asian Languages, Schools of Isolated and Distance Education

Western Australia

[email protected]

___________________________________________________________________________

Introduction

This research is a comparative study of the English translation of Banana Yoshimoto’s novel

‘Kitchen’ and its original text, with a focus on the interpretation and manifestation of

Japanese formulaic expressions. Japanese discourse will be examined in an effort to

understand formulaic/expressive functions of Japanese language which contribute to

harmonious relationships. In order to understand Japanese culture on a deeper level it is

useful to examine formulaic expressions as these expressions aid in maintaining and

developing respectful and harmonious relationships with known others and strangers alike.

The central research question of this study is how formulaic language is interpreted and

manifested differently in Japanese and English and what the implications are for cross-

cultural understandings and communication. The research will identify the pattern of

expressions of ‘empathy’ used in source text (ST), and to then examine how the linguistic and

cultural choices made in the target text (TT) reflect critically on meaning that may have been

gained or lost based on that choice. The research findings will reveal the linguistic andcultural aspects of the way in which interpretations of empathy are manifested in the source

and target texts. Some of the anticipated outcomes of this research include revealing the ways

in which (cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication is effective or ‘lost’ through the

theoretic lens of Skopostheorie (Vermeer, 1989a) and the comparative analysis between ST

and TT). The different interpretations of formulaic language have implications to bridge gaps

between the two cultures, in terms of issues such as the sense of self and others, and empathic

attitude. This research can add an important dimension to the study of translation and

formulaic language as it will also foster cross-cultural sensitivity.

Objectives

The main research questions is: How is formulaic language interpreted and manifested

differently in Japanese and English and what are the implications for cross-cultural

understandings and communication?

The following objectives, on both a linguistic level (linguistic expressions) and a pragmatic

level (different strategies based on cultural differences) will be met to address the main

research questions.

1.

To identify the linguistic and pragmatic manipulation of formulaic expressions related to

empathy in the novel of ‘Kitchen’, i.e. the ST.






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2. To reveal how the expressions identified in ST are translated into TT in English and to

note meaning that may have been gained or lost based on that choice.

3.

To tease out the cultural attitudes embedded in the text that reveal the thinking behindthe formulaic language.

4. To construe the implications of the findings on cross-cultural understanding and

communication

Background

This study examines the novel of Kitchen by Banana Yoshimoto and its translated version by

Megan Backus. The author and genre depict modern Japan and describe the malaise of

modern living and the traditional concept of omoiyari (empathy) which is portrayed very

strongly in the relationships between the characters. The concepts of empathy, harmony and

mindfulness are central themes in the novel and these themes become evident as the

formulaic expressions in the novel are discussed.

Yoshimoto was born Mahoko Yoshimoto in Tokyo in 1964. She graduated from

Nihon University’s Art College, majoring in Literature and adopting the pseudonym

‘Banana’ for her writing. Yoshimoto’s novels are always touched with traditional Japanese

ideology including themes of love and friendship, the power of home and family, and the

effect of loss on the human spirit. The key themes are alienation from traditional values and

family and individualism. It is for these reasons that Yoshimoto has been chosen as an author

for this project. Numerous examples of typical expressions used in maintaining harmony inrelationship in Japan can be found within the relationships in Kitchen, where a sense of

empathy and loyalty is apparent.

Though her characters, settings, and titles are modern and influenced by American

culture, they are unmistakably Japanese at the core. According to Chilton, the essence of her

style may be described as the Japanese sensibility known as mono no aware, usually

translated as ‘the pathos of things’. The meaning of this term may have its roots in Buddhist

philosophy where the notion that alongside ‘happiness’ suffering or ‘the struggle’ is also

apparent in life. Her appeal appears to lie deep in her identity and her personal response to

life.

Literature Review

The paper discusses the ways in which translation is often not faithful to domestic cultural

values where difference is ‘collapsed’ and there is a ‘domesticating’ of cultural difference

constructing stable, stereo-typical lexicons of national and regional identities (Harker, 1999).

Harker states that Western translation tradition erases cultural difference and maintains that

Backus (the translator for Kitchen) sometimes domesticates foreign phrases and sometimes

translates them closely without explanation and that many aspects of Japanese language and

culture are lost in this translation.






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Works exploring the Japanese language and sensitivity to social context, especially

one’s position in relation to others have also been documented by Matsumoto (1989) where

she maintains that Japanese communicative style can be reviewed in terms of the followingkey concepts, amae,(depending on other’s kindness) omoiyari,(consideration, sympathy)

enryo, (reserve) and uchi (within, private) and soto(outside, other place). In other words,

knowledge of Japanese communicative style is essential in understanding the purpose of

politeness, or “one of the constraints on human interaction, whose purpose is to consider

others’ feelings, establish levels of mutual comfort, and promote rapport” (Hill & Ide, 1986).

There is little research available examining a variety of formulaic language, including

subtlety of speech patterns, subject markers, speech act of refusal, the place of silence and

such concepts as dependency, empathy, reserve, and in/out group relationships and their

English translations in a contemporary novel. The examination of these concepts as well as

the English translation gleaned from a contemporary and revered novel emphasises pragmatic

competence (the ability to use socially appropriate rules of communicating in a given

context) within communicative competence. As this has become a crucial issue in second

language learning it is relevant for teachers and students of Japanese second language

learning where in order to communicate effectively and appropriately in Japanese, learners

need to have knowledge of the social rules of communicating that include understanding

different degrees of politeness with regards to the situation and interlocutor, and the Japanese

communicative style (Hall & Noguchi, 1993).

Theoretical framework

Throughout history, written and spoken translation has played a crucial role in human

communication. Translation has provided access to important texts for research as well as

religious purposes. The study of translation however, is still relatively new in the last fifty

years. The growth of translation studies as a separate discipline is a success story of the

1980’s. When a translator understands the cultural background that has influenced the author

in the writing of the original, it may help him or her better choose the precise wording to

convey the sense of culture the author intended. However, the translator must be careful here

not to overstep by adding more than the author originally intended.

Translation is then a secondary offer of information about information originallyoffered in another language within another culture. As skopostheorie empowers the translator

to present his audience with what is perceived to be the most relevant material, Skopostheorie

will be chosen as the theory on which to base my research.

Significance

This research is significant because it will contribute to the understanding of Japanese culture

and the importance placed on personal relationships in Japan. In this way the study may

address and improve areas of misunderstanding in intercultural communication between

English and Japanese speakers. Through identifying the linguistic and pragmatic formulaicexpressions used in the novel, and their translations, it is possible to glean an insight into the






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variety of expressions used to enhance or maintain relationships in Japanese culture. In

examining the expressions and the English translations chosen to reflect that meaning, we are

provided with a small window into the connections between language and relationship on adeeper level through a modern literary work.

The research is also significant from an educational perspective as it will provide

examples for intercultural language teaching and learning. Scarino (2007) describes the

intercultural person as being able to view language as a culturally embedded and culturally

constructed way of expressing personal meanings and of expressing collective, institutional

and cultural meanings. He/she understands how their own language and culture and those of

his/her interlocutor shape meanings, communication and relationships and is mindful that

values, beliefs, and behaviours are shaped by language and culture, as are the perceptions one

has of these.

Examining the translation of ‘Kitchen’ will be a significant contribution towards

intercultural reflection. This is because the research will provide examples of formulaic

expressions used in everyday Japanese verbal exchange which assist in maintaining and

encouraging harmony and regard amongst others. The examples will support and give weight

to the notion that forms of a language are a rich and integral part of what is involved when

people interact to exchange meaning. That language as an important socially shared

communicative resource can be different things to different groups of people and that people

may draw upon these understandings in different ways in different contexts. In relation to

culture, this view that not only recognises facts about or ways of doing things in diverse

cultures, but also that culture informs the way people understand themselves and others anddetermine how they will interact with others and how they might expect to be interacted with.

Results and Discussion

The process of moving consciously between languages and cultures directly contributes to

noticing of differences and similarities. In doing so, learners are more likely to be equipped

with both 'an insider's and outsider's view', which, in turn, enables them to develop a 'third

perspective' or 'third place' (Kramsch, 1993, p. 210). Intercultural language learning (ICLL),

emphasises the need for learners and users of language to move between languages and

cultures, which, in turn, recognises positive aspects of using the first language in languageacquisition (Liddicoat, 2008). In this sense, at least within the framework of ICLL, translation

and interpreting appear to be ideal activities in that they force learners to focus not only on the

target language but also the original language.

EXAMPLE 1

Scene: A receptionist from the hotel is speaking to Mikage. The first two sentences set the

scene as Mikage is telling the reader that the phone rang and it was the front desk calling her.

(116)






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In the example below the lexicon ‘denwa’ is mentioned twice, once in the first sentence and

once in the third sentence. In the first sentence ‘denwa’ does not take the prefix ‘o’ as it is

uttered as part of Mikage’s recount. However, the second ‘denwa’ becomes ‘odenwa’, prefixed with particle ‘o’ , as the language has changed domain and now belongs to the

receptionist who is speaking to a customer.

EXAMPLE 2

Scene: Mikage is speaking to Okuno. (23)

The example below demonstrates a high level of honorifics with an absence of shifting to

plain form style. This example of honorific expression shows a loss of formality in the

translation.

たとえ恋人であってもあなたに決めていただくこと

tatoe koibito de atte mo anata ni kimete itadaku Koto

for example boyfriend P meet P you P decide recieve thing

Even if you are his girlfriend, it doesn’t strike me as something you should decide for him.

Mikage and Okuno maintain emotional distance from each other through the use of politeness

strategies. The Japanese language is very sensitive to the social context, especially one’s

position in relation to others. The speaker’s attitude toward the situation, and the other

そのままおまちください

sonomama o machi kudasai

like that H wait please

電話がなった。とるとフロンがいた。お電話がはいっております

denwa ga natta. toruto furonto ga Ita. O denwa ga haitteorimasu phone P rang take front des P there H phone P there is (phone call)

ではないように思いますけれど

dewanaiyouni omoimasu keredo

not do think however






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speakers are lexically encoded in the utterances, and a specific form, eg honorifics, is

expected by the speakers to be appropriately chosen in the given situation.

In Japanese, the choice of formal linguistic forms, eg. honorifics is not a case of

individual choice, but the speaker makes an obligatory choice depending on the social context

(Ide, 1992).

Linguistic politeness is mainly a matter of conforming to social convention for a

choice of linguistic forms. Hill et al. (1986, p. 348) calls this ‘discernment or ‘wakimae’ in

Japanese. It is one of two strategies of communicating in Japanese, the other being ‘volition’.

Discernment is observed according to the speakers reading of socially agreed upon social

distance toward the addressee in the situation, while volition is the speakers strategy

according to his or her intention. The Japanese concept of politeness is oriented toward

discernment, while that of the west is oriented toward volition.

Examples of linguistic politeness according to discernment can be realized by keeping

proper distance among interactants. In conversation, the distance is created by the choice of

higher, more formal linguistic forms, including status, age, power and formality (Ide, 1988, p.

366-77).

References

Brown, P., & Levinson, S. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage (pp. 245).Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Gutt, E. A. (2000a). Translation and Relevance: Cognition and Context (pp. 215).

Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing (2nd edition).

Hall, B.J., & Noguchi, M. (1993) Intercultural Conflict. International Journal of Intercultural

Relations. 16, (pp.437-454).

Hamabata, M. (2003) Crested Kimono; power and love in the Japanese business family. (p.

51). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Harker, J. (1999). Contemporary Japanese Fiction & Middlebrow Translation Studies. The

case of Banana Yoshimoto’s Kitchen. Manchester. The Translator , Vol 5, Number 1,

(pp. 27-44).

Ide, S., Hori, M. Kawasaki (1986a). Sex difference and politeness in Japanese. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 58, (pp.25-36).

Matsumoto, Y. (1985) A sort of speech act qualification in Japanese; chotto. Journal of Asian

Culture. 9: (pp.143-159).

Matsumoto, Yoshiko (1989). Politeness and conversational universals — observations from

Japanese. Journal of Pragmatics, 12. (pp.403-426).

Maynard, S. (1999) A poetics of grammar: Playing with narrative perspectives and voices in

Japanese translation texts. Poetics, 26. (pp.115-141).

Maynard, S. (1993) Discourse modality in subjectivity, emotion voice in the Japanese

language. (pp. 229-260). John Benjamins, Amsterdam.

Scarino, A. (2007). The intercultural language teaching and learning in practice (ILTLP)

project. The Research Centre for Languages and Cultures. Dept. of Education, W.A.History and Culture. (pp. 79-86). London, NY: Pinter Publisher.






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Sperber, D., Wilson, D (1995). Relevance: Communication and cognition. (2nd edition)

Oxford: Blackwell.

Venuti, L. (1998b). The t ranslator’s invisibility. London, New York: Routledge.Vermeer, H. J. (1989a). Skopos and commission in translational action (A. Chesterman,

Trans.). In L. Venuti (Ed.) The Translation Studies Reader (pp. 221-32). London:

Routledge.

Vermeer, H. J. (1994). Translation today: old and new problems. (pp.3-16). London,

Routledge.

Yoshimoto, B. (1993) Kitchen. English version. Translated by Megan Backus. New York:

Washington Square Press.

Kitchen by Banana Yoshimoto as a Bildungsroman

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