King1 Ppt Ch04 6

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Chapter 4Human Development


Development

The pattern of continuity and change that occurs throughout the lifespan Physical processes Cognitive processes Socioemotional processes


Nature and Nurture

Nature – Biological Inheritance Nurture – Environmental Experiences

Optimal experiences – Individuals take active roles in their own development

Early Experience versus Later Experience


Prenatal Development

Conception: Fertilization Zygote – fertilized egg

Germinal Period: Weeks 1-2 Embryonic Period: Weeks 3-8 Fetal Period: Months 2-9


Prenatal Development

Parental Age Teratogens: Agents that cause birth defects

Rubella Thalidomide Heroin Alcohol: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Effects of teratogens depend on… Timing of exposure Genetic characteristics Postnatal environment


Physical Development

Reflexes – genetically wired behaviors that are crucial for survival

Grasping Sucking Stepping Startle

Few reflexes persist throughout life Allow for neurological diagnosis Most replaced by voluntary control over their behavior.



Perceptual and Motor Skills Hearing, vision, touch

Humans Infants and Imitation

Preferential Looking Give “choice” and measure preferences

Habituation – Decrease in responding to a stimulus after repeated presentations


Brain Development

Myelination continues after birth Visual pathways: 6 months Auditory pathways: 4-5 years

Dramatic increase in synaptic connections


Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Children actively construct their cognitive world

using… Schemas – concepts or frameworks that

organize information

Assimilation – incorporate new info into existing schemas

Accomodation – adjust existing schemas to incorporate new information


Piaget’s Theory

Sensorimotor Stage: Birth - 2 years

Coordinate sensations with movements

Object permanence

Preoperational Stage: 2 - 7 years

Symbolic thinking/Intuitive reasoning

Egocentrism

Concrete Operational Stage: 7 – 11 years

Operational thinking (e.g., conservation)

Classification skills Logical thinking in concrete

contexts

Formal Operational Stage: 11-15 years

Lasts through adulthood Abstract and idealistic thought Hypothetical-deductive

reasoning


Evaluating Piaget’s Theory

Some cognitive abilities emerge earlier than Piaget thought

Emphasized stages and ignored individual differences

Culture and environment also influence development


Socioemotional Development

Erik Erikson (1902-1994) Theory emphasizes lifelong development

Eight stages, each with a developmental task Crisis that must be resolved Personal competence or weakness


Erikson’s Theory

First 4 Stages: Childhood1. Trust versus mistrust

2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt

3. Initiative versus guilt

4. Industry versus inferiority


Erikson’s Theory


Evaluating Erikson’s Theory

Development is a lifelong challenge

Adolescents more than just sexual beings

Primary focus on case-study research

Omitted important developmental tasks


Infant Attachment

The close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver

Typically develops during first year of life

May provide important foundation for subsequent development

Attachment intensifies at 6-7 months


Infant Attachment

Harry Harlow – Infant rhesus monkeys

What matters? Nourishment or contact

Choose between two surrogate “mothers” Cold wire mother versus warm cloth mother Infants preferred cloth mother across situations

Contact comfort is critical to attachment


Infant Attachment

Mary Ainsworth – Strange Situation

Procedure: Caregivers leave infant alone with stranger, then return

Secure Attachment Insecure Attachment

Avoidant, ambivilient, disorganized


Temperament

An individual’s behavioral style or characteristic way of responding

Three clusters of temperament Easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up


Parenting Styles

Authoritarian Parents are controlling and punitive Correlated with lack of initiative, poor communication skills, social

incompetence

Authoritative Parents encourage independence with limits Correlated with social competence, social responsibility, and self-control

Authoritarian Parents are controlling and punitive Correlated with lack of initiative, poor communication skills, social

incompetence

Authoritative Parents encourage independence with limits Correlated with social competence, social responsibility, and self-control


Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) presented moral dilemmas and analyzed responses Preconventional

Behavior guided by punishments and rewards

Conventional Standards learned from parents and society

Postconventional Standards of society and abstract principles (personal moral

code)


Evaluating Kohlberg’s Theory

Moral Reasoning ≠ Moral Behavior What we say and do are not always consistent

Women generally score lower than men Justice perspective (men)

Focus on the rights of the individual

Care perspective (women) – Carol Gilligan Focus on interpersonal communication Interconnectedness with other people


Gender Development

Gender influenced by nature and nurture

Biological Influences (Nature) Androgens – primary male sex hormones Estrogens – primary female sex hormones

Social Role View (Nurture) Gender Roles – Expectations for how males and females should think,

feel, and act How do social experiences and culture influence gender development? Traditional male and females gender roles

Gender: Nature or Nurture?


Resilient Children

Resilience – A person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times

Resilient children become capable adults

Advantages possessed by resilient children Individual factors Family factors Extrafamilial factors


Understanding Adolescence

Transition from childhood to adulthood

Balance positive and negative aspects

Marked by the search for identity



Puberty Rapid skeletal and sexual maturation Occurs two years earlier for girls than for boys

Testosterone (boys) Genital development, height, voice changes

Estrogen (girls) Breast, uterine, and skeletal development



Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage Abstract, idealistic, and logical thought Hypothetical-deductive reasoning

Adolescent Egocentrism The belief that others are as preoccupied with the

adolescent as he or she is Sense of uniqueness Sense of invincibility risky behaviors



Erikson: Psychosocial Development Stage 5: Identity versus identity confusion

James Marcia’s Four Identity StatusesExploration and Commitment

Identity diffusion Identity foreclosure Identity moratorium Identity achievement


Adult Development and Aging

Emerging Adulthood Five Key Features

1. Identity exploration

2. Instability

3. Self-focused

4. Feeling in-between

5. The age of possibilities Health and well-being generally improves


Physical Changes in Adulthood Early Adulthood

Most reach the peak of physical development

Middle Adulthood Most lose height, many gain weight Menopause for women (late 40s or early 50s)

Late Adulthood Life expectancy has increased, life span has not


Biological Theories of Aging

Both look within our body’s cells

Cellular-Clock Theory Maximum # of cell divisions are possible Predicts human life span of about 120 years

Free-Radical Theory Unstable oxygen molecules within cells Cause DNA and cell damage


Alzheimer’s Disease

A progressive irreversible brain disorder characterized by a gradual deterioration in Memory, reasoning, language Physical functioning

Disease marked by pronounced Tangles (tied bundles of proteins) Plaques (deposits in brain’s blood vessels)

Acetylcholine deficiency



Early adulthood Marked by relative and reflective thinking Considerable variation influenced by education

Middle adulthood Crystallized intelligence increases

Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills Fluid intelligence begins to decline

Our ability to reason abstractly



Cross-Sectional versus Longitudinal Research Studies produce slightly different findings Peak performance for both types of intelligence may

actually occur in middle adulthood

Late Adulthood Speed of processing generally declines Memories fade and retrieval skills fail Wisdom might actually increase in some individuals



Erikson’s Theory: Last 4 Stages5. Identity versus role confusion (adolescence)

6. Intimacy versus isolation

7. Generativity versus stagnation

8. Integrity versus despair


Marriage and Parenting

Women and men are marrying later

Principles for Successful Marriages Nurturing fondness and admiration Turning toward each other as friends Giving up some power Solving conflicts together

Parenting can Generativity (Erikson)



Midlife Crisis or Midlife Consciousness?

Research reveals that midlife Is not particularly tumultuous, mostly positive Is relatively low in experienced anxiety Adults show resilience and good coping skills Brings few illnesses, but poor physical fitness

Awareness of gap between young and old



Activity Satisfaction and Good Health

Value Emotional Satisfaction Spend time with family and friends

Narrow Social Interactions Restrict contact with less familiar individuals

Positive Psychology and Aging


Chapter 5Sensation and Perception


Basic Principles

Sensation The process of receiving stimulus energies from the

external environment

Transduction The process of transforming physical energy into

electrochemical energy (action potential)

Perception The process of organizing and interpreting sensory

information


Sensory Thresholds

Absolute Threshold The minimum amount of energy an organism can

detect 50% of the time Subliminal stimulation

Noise – Irrelevant and competing stimuli

Varies by individual: Sensory abilities, age, etc.


Sensory Thresholds

Difference Thresholds Just Noticeable Difference (JND) How much stimulus change is necessary for detection?

Weber’s Law Large stimuli needs a greater change to be noticeable Smaller stimuli needs less of a change to be noticeable


Signal Detection Theory

Decision making when uncertain involves Information acquisition Criterion

Influenced by Motivation and costs/rewards Weight of a false detection vs. missing it Fatigue


Factors Affecting Perception

Attention Selective attention Cocktail party effect Novelty, size, color, movement

Sensory Adaptation Evolutionary vs. Everyday value


Intersection: Ethnicity and Perception

Do expectations influence perception? Harmless objects or deadly weapons? Ethnicity and perceptual errors

Reactions influenced not by personal prejudice but by knowledge of cultural stereotypes

Does practice reduce ethnic bias?


Visual Perception

Organizing and interpreting visual signals Dimensions

Shape Depth Motion Constancy

Shape: Figure-ground relationship


Visual Perception: Shape

Gestalt Psychology Perceptions are naturally organized according to

certain patterns Whole is different from the sum of the parts

Gestalt Principles Figure-ground relationship Closure Proximity Similarity


Visual Perception: Shape


Visual Perception: Motion

Humans have specialized motion detectors

Apparent Movement – Phi Phenomenon

Stroboscopic Motion

Movement Aftereffects


Visual Perception: Constancy

Perceptual Constancies Recognition that objects do not physically

change despite changes in sensory input

Size, Shape, and Brightness Constancies


Visual Perception: Illusions

Discrepancy between reality and perception Incorrect, but not abnormal perceptions Müller-Lyer illusion Horizontal-vertical illusion Ponzo illusion Moon illusion Devil’s tuning fork


Müller-Lyer Illusion


Horizontal-Vertical Illusion


Ponzo Illusion


Moon Illusion


Chapter 6:States of Consciousness


The Nature of Consciousness

What is consciousness? Our awareness of external events and internal

sensations which occurs under conditions of arousal


Levels of Awareness


Levels of Awareness

Higher-Level Consciousness Controlled processes

Lower-Level Consciousness Automatic processes Daydreaming


Levels of Awareness

Subconscious Awareness Parallel processing

Sleep and Dreams Low levels of

consciousness

No Awareness Unconscious thought

(Freud) Non-conscious processes

Subconscious Awareness Parallel processing

Sleep and Dreams Low levels of

consciousness

No Awareness Unconscious thought

(Freud) Non-conscious processes


Sleep: Biological Rhythms

Rhythms controlled by biological clocks Annual or seasonal 28-day cycles/24-hour cycles

Circadian Rhythms

Desynchronizing the clock Jet lag Shift-work problems Insomnia

Resetting the clock Bright light Melatonin


Why Do We Sleep?

Benefits of Sleep Important for physical and mental functioning

Restorative Function

Adaptive Evolutionary Function

Growth and Development

Memory


Sleep Deprivation

Chronic sleep deprivation results in… Decreased alertness and cognitive performance Inability to sustain attention Less complex brain activity Adverse effects on decision making

Research indicates we should get at least 8 hours of sleep each night!


Stages of Sleep

EEG measures electrical activity in the brain Awake Stage 1: light sleep

Stage 2: light sleep Sleep spindles

Stage 3: deep sleep

Stage 4: deep sleep Difficult to wake sleepers

REM sleep


Stages of Sleep


REM Sleep

Rapid-Eye-Movement Sleep = REM sleep Rapid eye movement; dreaming

Stage 1-4: Non-REM Sleep Lack of rapid eye movement; little dreaming

Dreams: Non-REM versus REM Sleep

Developmental Changes in REM Sleep


Sleep Cycles

90-100 minutes per cycle

Sleep patterns change during the night.

Typical night 60% - Stages 1 & 2 sleep 20% - Stages 3 & 4 sleep 20% - REM sleep


Sleep Cycles


Sleep Disorders

Insomnia

Sleepwalking, Sleep Talking, Sleep Eating

Nightmares versus Night Terrors

Narcolepsy

Sleep Apnea


Theories of Dreaming

Historical, Personal, Religious Significance

Cognitive Theory of Dreaming Information processing and problem solving Criticisms?

Activation-Synthesis Theory Brain makes “sense” out of random activity Criticisms?


Hypnosis

Hypnosis marked by Altered attention and awareness Unusual receptiveness to suggestions

Four Steps in Hypnosis1. Distractions are minimized

2. Told to concentrate on something specific

3. Told what to expect

4. Suggest events or feelings sure to occur


Explaining Hypnosis

Susceptibility to Hypnosis Is hypnosis dangerous?

Divided State of Consciousness

Social Cognitive Behavior View\

Applications of Hypnosis


Psychoactive Drugs

Various substances alter consciousness, modify perceptions, and change moods

Why do people take drugs?

Continued use can lead to… Tolerance Physical dependence and withdrawal Psychological dependence Addiction


Drugs and the Brain

The Brain’s Reward Pathway Dopamine Ventral tegmental area (VTA) Nucleus accumbens (NAc) Prefrontal cortex and limbic system

These drugs increase DA transmission Agonist Antagonist


Psychoactive Drugs: Depressants

Alcohol Barbiturates Tranquilizers Opiates


Depressants


Psychoactive Drugs: Stimulants

Caffeine Nicotine Amphetamines Cocaine Inhalants


Stimulants


Psychoactive Drugs: Hallucinogens

Marijuana Ecstasy (MDMA) LSD


Hallucinogens


Critical Controversy

Medicinal uses for psychedelic drugs?

LSD

Medical Marijuana

Psychedelic Drugs, Insight, and Creativity

King1 Ppt Ch04 6

Health & Medicine

Transcript of King1 Ppt Ch04 6