VariableAn abstract representation of the source of variation. Realized by two or more variants.VariantThe actual realization of a variable. Analogous to the phonetic realizations of a phoneme.VarietyRelatively neutral term used to refer to languages and dialects. Avoids the problem of drawing a distinction between the two, and avoids negative attitudes often attached to the term dialect.ConstraintIf the distribution of variants is neither random nor free, and instead shows systematic correlations with independent factors, those factors can be said to constrain the variation, or to be the constraints on the variable.Free VariationThe idea that some variants alternate with each other without any reliable constraints on their occurrence in a particular context or by particular speakers.Interspeaker VariationDifferences and variation that is measured between different speakers (individuals or social groups)Intraspeaker VariationDifferences in the way a single person at different times, or with different interlocutors, or even within a sentenceSynchronic VariationVariation occurring nowDiachronic ChangeChange realized over chronological time.Envelope of VariationAll, and only, the contexts in which a variable occurs.Dialect LevelingReduction of differences distinguishing regional dialects or accents. One possible outcome of contact between speakers of different varieties.Wave ModelTheory that language change emanates from a single starting point and is gradually incorporated into the speech of the nearest neighbors.Gravity ModelModel of the diffusion of innovations introduced by Peter Trudgill. Social innovations have been observed to "hop" between large population centers in a discontinuous manner. It predicts that the larger the city/town, the sooner an innovation is likely to show up there. Ex: Pittsburgh and Philadelphia.AccentWhere speakers differ at the level of pronunciation only. Their grammar may be wholly or largely the same. Can index a speaker's regional/geographical origin, social factors, attitude, or even education.DialectA term widely applied to what are considered sub-varieties of a single language. Generally, dialect and accent are distinguished by how much of the linguistic system differs. Dialects differ on more than just pronunciation.Perceptual DialectologyThe study of people's subjectively held beliefs about different dialects or linguistic varieties. The focus on lay perceptions about language complements the regional dialectologists' more objective focus on the way people are recorded as speaking.Subjective EvaluationA speaker's perceptions of their own performance and their performance evaluated by some external measure.Speech CommunityObjective criteria: group speakers together in a speech community if the distribution of a variable was consistent with the respect to other factors. Subjective criteria: group speakers as a speech community if they shared a sense of and belief in co-membership.Code SwitchingThe alternation between varieties, or codes, across sentences or clause boundaries.DiglossiaA situation where two closely related languages are used in a speech community. One for High functions and one of Low functions.H languageHigh functions in a diglossia. Ex: church, newspapers, etc.L languageLow functions in a diglossia. Ex: in the home, market, etc.Quotative VerbsVerbs introducing reports of discourse (ex: direct and indirect speech or thought). They include older, more stable variants such as 'say' and 'think' as well as newer ones such as 'be like', 'be all'.Style ShiftingVariation in an individual's speech correlating with differences in addressee, social context, personal goals or externally imposed task.Attention Paid to SpeechLabov proposed that the different distribution of forms in different styles was motivated by the amount of attention the speaker was paying to the act of speaking. In activities, such as reading aloud, reading word lists or minimal pairs, Labov argued that speakers are paying more attention to their speech than they are in interviews and in interviews they paid more attention than when conversing with friends and family.Audience DesignDerived from accommodation theory. Proposal that intraspeaker variation arises because speakers are paying attention to who they are addressing or who might be listening to or overhearing them, and modify their speech accordingly.Observer's ParadoxThe double bind researchers find themselves in when what they are interested in knowing is how people behave when they are not being observed, but the only way to find out how they be have is to observe them.Sociolinguistic InterviewAn interview, usually one on one, in which different tasks or activities are used to elicit different styles of speech. Ex: Kathy D interviewRapid and Anonymous SurveyA questionnaire used to gather data quickly in the public domain. Ex: Labov's fourth floor studyAccommodationThe process by which speakers attune or adapt their linguistic behavior in light of their interlocutors' behavior and their attitudes towards their interlocutors (may be conscious or unconscious process). Encompasses both convergence and divergence.ConvergenceAccommodation towards the speech of one's interlocutors. Accentuates similarities between interlocutors'' speech styles, and/or makes the speaker sound more like their interlocutor. Triggered by conscious or unconscious desires to emphasize similarity with interlocutors we like, and to increase attraction.DivergenceAccommodation away from the speech of one's interlocutors. Accentuates differences between interlocutors' speech styles, and/or makes the speaker sound less like their interlocutor. Wants to emphasize difference and increase distance.AddresseeA person we are directly talking to has the greatest impact on how we talk. Known to be part of the speech context, ratified, and is addressed. First away from speaker.AuditorKnown, ratified, but is not addressed. Second away from speaker.OverhearerKnown, not ratified or addressed. Third away from speaker.EavesdropperNot known, not ratified, not addressed. Last away from speaker.Covert PrestigeA norm of target that is oriented to without the speaker even being aware that they are orienting to it. Evidence of covert prestige can be found in mismatches between speakers' self report of using one variant and actual use of another variant. Often used wrongly to refer to the value with non standard or vernacular varieties.Overt PrestigeThe prestige associated with a variant that speakers are aware of and can talk about in terms of standardness, or moral evaluations like being "nicer" or "better".21. StereotypeA linguistic feature that is widely recognized and is very often the subject if dialect performances and impersonations.