Key Issue #2: Why Do Boundaries Cause Problems? Boundary – invisible line marking extent of...

Key Issue #2: Why Do Boundaries Cause Problems?

• Boundary – invisible line marking extent of territory; gives distinctive shape to states/territories; often sites of conflict

• 5 Basic Shapes of States– Shape can be centripetal or centrifugal force (unique identity, ease or difficulty

in internal administration)① Compact States (efficient)

• Capital/center relatively equidistant from boundaries• Good communication, particularly smaller compact states• Examples in southern Africa – Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda• Other examples: Belgium, Poland, Ecuador• Compact does not always mean peaceful

② Prorupted/Protruded States (for access or disruption)• Compact state with a large projecting extension (arm)• Can provide access to resource (river, coast, etc.)• Example: Belgian Congo (Zaire/DRC) – 300 mile proruption to Atlantic for sea access,

divided Portuguese colony of Angola & created a small fragment (exclave) of Cabinda (30 miles from rest of Angola)

• Other examples: Thailand, Myanmar (Burma)


• 5 Basic Shapes of States② Prorupted/Protruded States (for access or disruption)

• Can also disrupt access or separate states• Example: British Afghanistan created proruption to avoid border between

British India (Pakistan) and Russia/USSR (now Tajikistan)• Examples of prorupted states in southern Africa: German Southwest Africa

(now Namibia) – Caprivi Strip allows access to Zambezi R. & disrupted access between British colonies (Namibia controlled by South Africa 1920-1990)

③ Elongated States (potential isolation)• Long, narrow shape• May suffer from poor internal communication; potential isolation from capital

city• Chile – 2,500 miles north to south, but less than 90 miles wide (east to west);

between Andes & Pacific• Italy, Vietnam, Malawi (in southern Africa)• Gambia – in West Africa; 15 miles wide & 300 miles long along Gambia River;

former British colony; surrounded by former French colony of Senegal


• 5 Basic Shapes of States④ Fragmented States (problematic)

• Several discontinuous (unconnected) pieces of territory (separated by other states or water); Examples – Denmark, Philippines, U.K.

• Indonesia – separated by water– 13,677 islands; 3,000 miles long– 80% of pop. On 2 islands (Java & Sumatra)– Fragmentation hinders communication & unity– Encouraged migration to other islands to foster unity– Conflict in Aceh (on Sumatra) & Ambon (near island of Sulawesi/Celebes)– Conflict in Timor – East Timor (Timor-Leste) gained independence from Portugal

in 1975; Indonesia invaded (controlled western portion of island of Timor)– 1999 – UN ruled on Timorese vote for independence; East Timor became

independent in 2002– West Papua (Irian Jaya) – western portion of island of New Guinea (eastern

occupied by country of Papua New Guinea) – claimed independence after East Timor (not recognized)


• 5 Basic Shapes of States④ Fragmented States (problematic)

• Separated by land – if neighbor is not friendly, communication & trade can be very difficult

• Exclave – an area separated from the rest of a country by the territory of another country– Kaliningrad (Russia) – separated by Belarus & Lithuania– East Pakistan (Bangladesh) 1947-1971 – separated by India– Alaska (U.S.) – separated by Canada– West Berlin 1945-1990 – separated by East Germany– Cabinda (Angola) – separated by DRC– Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan) – separated by Armenia– Madha & Musandam (Oman) – separated by UAE– Tin Bigha corridor (India) – connects exclave of India & separates exclaves of

Bangladesh– Panama canal zone (U.S.) 1914-1977 (join control) & 1999 (totally Panama)– Brunei – divided into 2 sections by Malaysian territory on island of Borneo– Palestine – Gaza Strip & West Bank (divided by Israel)

Key Issue #2: Why Do Boundaries Cause Problems?• 5 Basic Shapes of States

⑤ Perforated States• Completely surrounds another state• Enclave – territory of a country or ethnic group surrounded by another• South Africa – completely surrounds Lesotho; Lesotho depends heavily on South

Africa for imports & exports; difficult during apartheid• Italy – perforated by Vatican City in Rome & San Marino

– Landlocked States• Completely surrounded by land, no direct access to sea/ocean for trade• 14 of 54 African countries are landlocked – legacy of colonialism (British & French

built RR’s to connect to coast); new boundaries/states forces cooperation• Examples in Europe: Hungary, Czech Rep., Luxembourg, Serbia, etc.• Examples in S. America: Paraguay & Bolivia (lost access after war with Chile)• Examples in Asia: Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, Nepal, etc.• Examples in Africa: Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Chad, Zimbabwe, etc.• Zimbabwe (South Rhodesia in 1965 – white minority rule; difficult trade; black ruled

Botswana denied access to S. African ports (Durban); 1979 – blacks allowed to vote; traded through Mozambique’s ports


• Types of Boundaries– Frontiers separated countries – zone where no state exercises

control; tangible area, not invisible line; limited settlement & access

– Modern communication & transportation allow more control & surveillance over borders/frontiers

– Frontiers still exist in Antarctica & Arabian Peninsula (desert, nomadic activity) – neutral zone between Saudi Arabia & Iraq until 1990; unclear boundaries b/t Saudi Arabia & Oman & UAE

– Redrawing of boundaries• In Europe after WWI – primarily based on languages to form nation-

states• Nunavut created as new Canadian province in 1999 to give greater

autonomy to native Inuit people• In South Asia 1947 – primarily drawn based on religion


• Types of Boundaries– Physical boundaries

• Mountain – Difficult to cross, limited contact on either side, winter storms

close mountain passes, sparsely inhabited– No always exact or agreed upon – Example: Chile & Argentina

divided at crest of Andes (where is the crest?); almost started a war (U.S. intervened in negotiations)

• Desert– Hard to cross, sparsely inhabited, limited contact on either side– Sahara – mostly stable boundaries

» Algeria, Libya, Egypt, Morocco in north» Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, Sudan in south» Libya attempted invasion of Chad in 1980s to claim oil-rich

area near border (French intervention in 1987)


• Types of Boundaries– Physical boundaries (most common is water)

• Water (rivers, lakes, oceans) – Water boundary provides protection, defense against

landings by enemies– Problematic – water courses change over time, especially

rivers (example: Rio Grande/Rio Bravo)– Ocean boundaries – coast or at sea?; sea is important for

trade, defense, and fishing– Late 1700s – territorial limit was 3 nautical miles (3.5 land

miles)– UN Convention on the Law of the Sea/UNCLOS (1983)

» Territorial limit of 12 nautical miles (14 land miles)» Exclusive economic zone (mineral & fishing rights)

within 200 miles – other countries’ ships can pass through

» Countries separated by less than 400 miles must negotiate boundary (usually midpoint)


• Types of Boundaries– Cultural Boundaries (language, religion, ethnic)

• Religious Boundaries– British India – Muslim E & W Pakistan & Hindu India– Eire (Ireland) – Protestant Northern Ireland, Catholic Rep. of Ireland– Partition of Palestine – Jewish & Muslim Arabs

• Language Boundaries– Particularly in Europe – large literary tradition, formal grammar & spelling

rules– England, Spain, France, Italy, Germany, Portugal– After WWI – redrawing of boundaries based on language

» Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania» Yugoslavia (combined similar Slavic languages)» Czechoslovakia (combined similar West Slavic languages)» Some redrawing after WWII» Stable until 1990 with end of communism


• Types of Boundaries– Cultural Boundaries (language, religion, ethnic)

• Ethnic– Cyprus’s “Green Line”

» 3rd largest island in Mediterranean» Greek (78%) in south (2/3), Turkish (18%) in north (1/3)» Independence from Britain in 1960 – constitutional guarantee of Turkish

presence in gov’t » 1974 – Greek Cypriots tried to reunite with Greece; Turkey invaded to

protect Turks» Many had to move from one side to the other» 1983 – Turkey recognized Northern Cyprus as a state» UN buffer zone – runs through capital of Nicosia (only one crossing

point); UN plan to grant autonomy to each side but remain one country» 2003 – border opened; 2004 – admitted to European Union

• Israel’s “Green Line”– Division of Israel from occupied West Bank, Golan Heights, Gaza


• Types of Boundaries– Geometric Boundaries• Typically straight lines (such as latitude or longitude)• Examples:

– U.S. & Canada (part geometric & part water/Great Lakes)» 49°N parallel – 1,300 miles long; 1846 treaty; U.S. wanted

54°40’ N; stretches from WA to Lake of the Woods, MN» 700 mile border along 141°W longitude (AK & Yukon)

– 600-mile border between Chad (French colony) & Libya (Italian colony)» Aozou Strip – 60 miles south of current border; agreed by

France, never ratified by Italy» At independence – boundary set at original location» 1973 – Libya “annexed” Aozou & part of NE Niger» 1987 – France helped Chad win Aozou back


• Types of Boundaries– Subsequent boundaries – drawn after a population is

established; based upon cultural patterns (religion, language, ethnicity, etc.)

– Antecedent boundaries – drawn in a region prior to being populated (U.S.-Canada border in west in 1846)

– Superimposed boundaries – drawn after a population is established but does NOT respect cultural patterns (colonial Africa)

– Relic boundaries – border that is no longer in use but has left a physical or cultural mark on the landscape (Berlin Wall)• Rump state – remnant territory of a once larger government or

empire


• Boundaries Inside States– Local boundaries (province, county, etc.) often drawn for the same reasons;

can also be drawn for political reasons (political parties)– Unitary vs. Federal States

• Decentralization – transfer of authority from national to local governments• Unitary states – most power in central/national gov’t• Federal – strong power to local governments• Unitary theoretically builds stronger unity & minimizes internal struggles (common

in Europe & smaller states); effective for internal communication• Many multi-national states adopt unitary frameworks – impose 1 culture on the

others (Ghana, Rwanda, Kenya); promote Communist values (communist Eastern Europe)

• Multi-national states may adopt federal system to empower local groups & diversity to promote unity (best for large states like U.S., Russia, Canada, Brazil, India)

• U.S. Federal system – capital at D.C.; 50 U.S. states, counties, cities• Size does not always determine which system is used (Belgium is small and federal

due to Flemings & Walloons; China is large and unitary due to Communism)


• Boundaries Inside States– Trend Toward Federal Government

• France (curbing a unitary government)– Nation state with long tradition of unitary central gov’t– 96 local departments with an administrator appointed by central gov’t (all

engineers, planners, etc. work for central gov’t)– 36,568 communes with locally elected mayor & council– France has recently added more borrowing & taxing power to departments &

communes• Poland (new federal government)

– Communism for 40+ years – unitary with no local authority; contributed to poor infrastructure (roads, utilities, etc.) & deterioration of buildings/facilities

– 1989 constitution – changed to federal system with 2,383 municipalities each with elected officials

– Businesses usually turned over to local gov’t or private business/church but some maintained by national gov’t

– Difficult transition – many unqualified workers hired; qualified workers often rejected because of ties to former Communist government


• Boundaries Inside States– Electoral Geography

• Districts redrawn periodically for population changes• U.S. states redraw every 10 years after each census – 435 total

Congressional districts (redistricting)• Reapportionment – re-allocation of congressional seats to states based

on population changes• European countries redraw using independent commissions• U.S. – often redrawing is done by party in power and for its benefit

(gerrymandering – named for Elbridge Gerry of MA who drew salamander-like districts to benefit his party)

• Types of gerrymandering– Wasted Vote – spread opposition party voters across many districts to be a

minority in each– Excess Vote – concentrate opposition voters in a few districts– Stacked Vote – odd shape districts to unify similar voters from long distances apart


• Boundaries Inside States– Electoral Geography

• Stacked Vote Gerrymandering– Primary type in U.S. recently– Can elect ethnic minorities

» African Americans, non-Cuban Hispanics usually vote Democrat» Republicans support because it makes it easier to win in other parts of

the state– Ruled illegal in 1985 (based on race) but Supreme Court did not require

districts to be broken up– 2001 ruling allowed NC to have new odd-shaped districts (ensured election

of African American Democrat)– Only 1/10 of Congressional seats are considered competitive (unlikely to

switch between parties except in special circumstances)

http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2014/05/15/americas-most-gerrymandered-congressional-districts/



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