8/13/2019 kbkjb

1/13

cknowledgement

I would like to express my gratitude to my physicsmentor Mr. HM SHARMA, for this vital support,

guidance and encouragement without which thisproject would not have, came forth. I would also like

to express my gratitude to the other staffs of thedepartment of physics for their support during the

making of project....

http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.html

8/13/2019 kbkjb

2/13

StatueIf the statue is a life-sized statue of high quality, it is likelymade of carved marble, granite, limestone, other stone, or ofcast metal (typically bronze or brass) for outdoor statues.Other statues are made of cement or concrete. Non-figuralsculptures are made of the same things, except smaller statuesand sculptures may also be made of clay. Clay is not used asmuch for the big pieces because it isn't as strong or durable and

it has to be fired in a kiln (oven), so it can't be too big to fit inthe kiln. Wood can be carved for statues and sculptures. Manyother materials can also be used for smaller statues althoughsome would perhaps be cost prohibitive or not strong enoughmaterial for large pieces. Examples of some of these aresculpting clay; modelling clay; cast metals such as brass, potmetal, copper, pewter, silver, gold; china and porcelain (a morefragile and refined clay); blown or moulded glass; ivory (if

antique, it is illegal to use ivory now since elephant sand othersources of new ivory are all endangered species); carved bone;wood; plaster; plastic; paper Mache; slip (which is a muchthinner pourable form of potters' clay for casting); carved barsof soap; carved Styrofoam; carved or moulded ice; mouldedsnow; moulded resins; formed Play dough: formed breaddough; even carved apples; shells; mother of pearl; jade; coral

(again antiques, corals are endangered); gemstones and semiprecious stones. Soft sculpture is an art form using textilesstuffed with fibrefill or other fill, and stitched into shape. Someare made of other materials like paper to form figures andother statues. Even, in a stretch, one might say that balloons area material for sculptures (like figures of dogs, etc.) Thematerials are almost endless when put in the hands of creativeartists.

http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.html

8/13/2019 kbkjb

3/13

Index

http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.html

8/13/2019 kbkjb

4/13

PH DefinitionAn introduction to pH

pH can be viewed as an abbreviation for power of Hydrogen- or

more completely, power of the concentration of the Hydrogen ion.

The mathematical definition of pH is a bit less intuitive but ingeneral more useful. It says that the pH is equal to to the negativelogarithmic value of the Hydrogen ion (H+) concentration, or

pH = -log [H+]

pH can alternatively be defined mathematically asthe negativelogarithmic valueof the Hydroxonium ion (H3O+)concentration. Using the Bronsted-Lowry approach

pH = -log [H3O+]

pH values are calculated in powers of 10. The hydrogen ionconcentration of a solution with pH 1.0 is 10 times larger than thehydrogen concentration in a solution with pH 2.0. The larger the

hydrogen ion concentration, the smaller the pH.

when the pH is above 7the solution is basic(alkaline) when the pH is below 7the solution is acidic

In pure neutral water the concentration of hydrogen and hydroxideions are both 10-7equivalents per litre.

What Is the PH of LimestoneAnswer

The pH of limestone is estimated to be anywhere between seven and 14.Limestone is scientifically alkaline and it is often used in agriculture toneutralize acidic soils. It is also used in construction, sculpture and insome cases, glass making.

http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.htmlhttp://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ph-d_483.html

8/13/2019 kbkjb

5/13

What is Limestone

Limestoneis asedimentary rock composed largely oftheminerals calcite andaragonite,which are differentcrystalforms ofcalcium carbonate(CaCO3). Many lime stones arecomposed from skeletal fragments of marine organisms suchascoral orforaminifera.

Limestone makes up about 10% of the total volume of allsedimentary rocks. Thesolubility of limestone in water and

weak acid solutions leads tokarst landscapes, in which watererodes the limestone over thousands to millions of years.Mostcave systems are through limestone bedrock.

Limestone has numerous uses: as abuilding material,asaggregate for the base of roads, as white pigment or filler inproducts such astoothpaste or paints, and as achemicalfeedstock.

The first geologist to distinguish limestonefromdolomite wasBelsazar Hacquet in 1778.

"Limestone"means any rock formed mostly of calciumcarbonate (CaCO3), but to geologists, limestone is only one ofseveral types of "carbonate rocks." Theserocks are composed of

more than 50% carbonate minerals, generallytheminerals calcite (pure CaCO3) ordolomite (calcium-magnesium carbonate, CaMg [CO3]2) or both.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_rockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragonitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphism_(materials_science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphism_(materials_science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foraminiferahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karsthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toothpastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feedstockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolomitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belsazar_Hacquethttp://geology.com/rocks/limestone.shtmlhttp://geology.com/rocks/http://geology.com/minerals/http://geology.com/minerals/calcite.shtmlhttp://geology.com/minerals/dolomite.shtmlhttp://geology.com/minerals/dolomite.shtmlhttp://geology.com/minerals/calcite.shtmlhttp://geology.com/minerals/http://geology.com/rocks/http://geology.com/rocks/limestone.shtmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belsazar_Hacquethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolomitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feedstockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toothpastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karsthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foraminiferahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphism_(materials_science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphism_(materials_science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragonitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_rock

8/13/2019 kbkjb

6/13

How Does Limestone Form

Most carbonate rocks were deposited from seawater. Thesesedimentary carbonate rocks are common on every continent

and have formed through most ofgeologic history;they arestill forming today in the tropics as coral reefs and at thebottoms ofshallow seas.

Marine limestone forms because seawater has highconcentrations of two key dissolved chemicals-calcium (Ca++)and bicarbonate (HCO3-) ions. In the near-surface layer of mostoceans, corals, clams, and other sea-dwelling creatures usethese two chemicals to make protective shells by combiningthem to form calcite or "aragonite," which is the same chemicalcomposition as calcite but has a different crystal form.

Formation of Dolomite from LimestoneSome limestones have been changed by the introduction ofmagnesium in ground water. Magnesium in ground water mayconvert some or all of the calcite in the limestone todolomite.Also, some rocks formed near the shores of ancient seas in aridclimates were mostly dolomite at the time they were

deposited.

http://geology.com/historical-geology/http://geology.com/rocks/dolomite.shtmlhttp://geology.com/rocks/dolomite.shtmlhttp://geology.com/historical-geology/

8/13/2019 kbkjb

7/13

Other Types of Carbonate Rock

Limestone comes in many different varieties. Chalk is a veryfine grained, porous marine limestone composed almostentirely of microscopic fossils. Travertine is a freshwater

sedimentary limestone that has very thin, crenulated layers andis commonly formed at springs.Marble is a carbonate rock,usually a marine limestone, that has been squeezed anddeformed like plastic by great heat and pressure deep beneaththe Earth's surface. This process is called "metamorphism."There are also rare "igneous" carbonate rocks that havecrystallized from molten magma in the same way that lavas or

granites have. These are called "carbonatites," and this rocktype is mined at a few places in the world as industriallimestone.

Mining Carbonate RocksSedimentary limestone deposits can be extensive, coveringhundreds of square miles, and can be relatively uniform inthickness and quality. Therefore, limestone quarries can belarge and long lived, mining limestone layers that can behundreds of feet thick over areas of several square miles. Manyquarries produce multiple products, and crushed rocks that arenot pure enough for certain uses may still be suitable as road

http://geology.com/rocks/marble.shtmlhttp://geology.com/press-release/carbonatite-lava-at-oldoinyo-lengai/http://geology.com/press-release/carbonatite-lava-at-oldoinyo-lengai/http://geology.com/rocks/marble.shtml

8/13/2019 kbkjb

8/13

aggregate. Marble quarries can also be very large. However,these rocks that were once regularly bedded have beenmetamorphosed into irregularly shaped bodies that are more

difficult and costly to mine.

In large parts of the United States there are extensive depositsof marine limestone of various ages from a few thousand tomore than 350 million years old. Some deposits have chemicalgrades as high as 95% CaCO3. However, some areas arecompletely without any suitable limestone deposits. Most ofthe cost of limestone to the customer is determined by how far

away it comes from and how it is shipped. Shipping by bargeon water is cheaper than by train which, in turn, is cheaperthan shipping by truck.

Uses of LimestoneLimestone has many industrial uses and can be used as mined

or processed into a wide variety of products. It is the raw

material for a large variety of construction, agricultural,

environmental, and industrial materials.

Limestone is used in construction almost everywhere. In 2007,

crushed limestone was 68% of all crushed rock produced in the

United States. Also, limestone is the key ingredient in making

Portland cement. Despite our Nation's abundance of limestone,

there have been cement shortages in recent years.

8/13/2019 kbkjb

9/13

Some of the purest of natural limestones are marbles. For

centuries, marble has been the decorative stone of choice in

government buildings and public statues. Travertine is also

used as a dimension stone in tiles and tabletops. Some whitelimestone is simply crushed and sieved for use in landscaping

and roofing.

Powdered limestone is used to remove impurities from molten

metals like steel. It can also remove toxic compounds from the

exhaust of coal-burning power plants. Limestone is used as afiller in a variety of products, including paper, plastic, and

paint. The purest limestone is even used in foods and

medicines such as breakfast cereals and calcium pills.

Limestone is also the raw material for making lime (CaO) that

is used to treat soils, purify water, and smeltcopper.Lime has

many additional uses in the chemical industries.

Dolomites are commonly less suitable than other industrial

limestones for most applications. Most dolomite that is mined

is simply crushed and sieved for use as aggregate in concrete or

asphalt.

http://geology.com/usgs/uses-of-copper/http://geology.com/usgs/uses-of-copper/

8/13/2019 kbkjb

10/13

Some Important uses

Limestone is commonly used for building. It is easy toobtain, can be cut into blocks and is long lasting. Manybuildings from the late 19th and early 20th century are madeof limestone. The Great Pyramid is built entirely fromlimestone.

It is also used for sculptures, statues and monumentsbecause it is easy to carve. Unfortunately, limestone reacts to

acid and many statues and buildings are being destroyed byacid rain.

It is a common ingredient of cement, concrete and mortar. The chippings of limestone are often mixed with tarmac for

roads and paths. Ground limestone is often used to neutralize acidic soil and

water.

Limestone is used in certain types of glassmaking to purifythe glass during its molten stage.

It is used as white pigment in many products such astoothpaste, paint, plastic etc.

A purified form of limestone can be added to fortifybreakfast cereal with calcium. It is also added to livestockfeed as a source of calcium.

8/13/2019 kbkjb

11/13

Marble

Marble sculpture is theart of creating three-dimensional formsfrom marble.Sculpture is among the oldest of the arts. Evenbefore painting cave walls, early humans fashioned shapesfrom stone. From these beginnings, artefacts have evolved totheir current complexity. The point at which they became art isfor the beholder to decide.

Material origin and qualities

Marble is a metamorphic rock derived from limestone,composed mostly of calcite (a crystalline form of calciumcarbonate, CaCO3). The original source of the parent limestoneis the seabed deposition ofcalciumcarbonate in the form ofmicroscopic animal skeletons or similar materials. Marble isformed when the limestone is transformed by heat andpressure after being overlain by other materials. The finestmarbles for sculpture have no or few stains.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculpturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_carbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculpturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art

8/13/2019 kbkjb

12/13

AdvantagesAmong the commonly available stones, only marble has a slight surfacetranslucency that is comparable to that of humanskin.It is thistranslucency that gives a marble sculpture a visual depth beyond itssurface and this evokes certain realism when used for figurative works.Marble also has the advantage that, when first quarried, it is relativelysoft and easy to work, refine, and polish. As the finished marble ages, itbecomes harder and more durable. Preference to the cheaper and lesstranslucentlimestone is based largely on the fineness of marble's grain,which enables the sculptor to render minute detail in a manner not

always possible with limestone; it is also more weather-resistant.

DisadvantagesMarble does not bear handling well as it will absorb skin oils whentouched, which leads to yellow brownish staining. While more resistantthan limestone it is subject to attack by weak acids, and so performspoorly in outdoor environments subject toacid rain.For severeenvironments,granite is a more lasting material but one which is farmore difficult to work and much less suitable for refined works.Compared to metals such asbronze,marble lacksductility and strength,requiring special structural considerations when planning a sculpture. Inthe sculpture shown to the right, the figure can be placed upon slender

lower legs and the balls of the feet only because the bending stress in thesculpture is taken through the flowing drapery of the skirt, which isfounded upon an up thrust portion of the ground and with the feetforms a tripod-like foundation for the mass. For comparison see some ofthe examples in the article concerningbronze sculpture for the easewith whichactionand extensionmay be expressed.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronzehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ductilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_sculpturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_sculpturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ductilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronzehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin

8/13/2019 kbkjb

13/13

Sr

no.

content season Ph value

1. Lime stone

2. bronze

3. marble4. rock

5.

6.

7.