Pacific Kava

A producer’s guide

Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Suva, Fiji Islands, 2001

Copyright Secretariat of the Pacific Community 2001

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Original text: English

Secretariat of the Pacific Community Cataloguing-in-publication dataPacific kava : a producer’s guide

1. Piper methysticum. 2. Kava — Diseases and pests. 3. Kava — Planting. 4. Kava —Harvesting. 5. Kava — Post harvest losses — Prevention.

I. Secretariat of the Pacific Community

583.952 AACR2AgDex 182

ISBN 982-203-810-0

Prepared for publication at the Secretariat of the Pacific Community,Suva, Fiji Islands, 2001

ContentsIntroduction 5I. Production 6

A. Site selection 6B. Planting material 7C. Direct planting 8D. Nurseries 9E. Transplanting 16F. Planting and spacing 16G. Cropping methods 17H. Soil and plant nutrition 20I. Weeding 21J. Water requirements 22K. Pruning 22L. Pest and disease management 23

II. Harvesting 26A. Harvesting and yields 26B. Harvesting techniques 27

III. Postharvest handling and marketing 28A. Washing 28B. Cutting and sorting 28C. Drying 28D. Storage 31E. Commercial parts of the kava plant 32F. Kavalactones 33G. High quality kava 35H. Quality specifications 37I. Advanced processing 40J. Marketing 41

IV. Conclusion 43APPENDIX A: Hawaiian kava production 44

Different soils 44Basket system 45Fertility management 45Weed management 46Irrigation 46Spacing and shading 47Pruning 47Fast propagation method 48Organic kava production 52

APPENDIX B: False kava 53Bibliography 55Glossary 57

4

IntroductionKava (Piper methysticum Forst. f.) is a Pacific plant species of the pepper family. Followingits initial discovery, domestication and diffusion throughout the Pacific kava has become anintegral part of Pacific Island religious, economic, political and social life. Its cultural signifi-cance is immense and these functions are still a vital part of life today. In recent years the useshave expanded, the range of kava products has diversified, and the demand for kava nowcomes from people all over the world. Kava has moved away from being a traditional cropfor ceremonial and personal use. It is now an important cash crop both for the local marketand for export.

Kava production in the Pacific has a long history. The plant has been domesticated foraround 3000 years. There is a very large body of traditional knowledge about kava produc-tion. However, many farmers are unaware of the production systems used in other parts of thePacific. This guide is for agriculture extension staff to use with farmers and for progressivefarmers. It has been written to supplement traditional knowledge and to encourage experi-mentation, adaptation, and the use of improved farming practises. As the growing conditionsfor kava vary greatly throughout the Pacific, it is recommended that farmers experiment withnew techniques on a small scale before adopting them on a large scale.

The guide contains the principles for producing high quality kava as a commercial cropfor both the domestic and the export market. A range of improved farming methods is de-scribed. Producing the quality of kava needed for the export market has been a difficultchallenge for Pacific Island growers and exporters. The guide includes chapters on the chemicalproperties of kava and on the standards that are recommended for the increasingly discerningdomestic and export markets. These standards are especially important if Pacific Island farm-ers and exporters are to continue supplying the overseas pharmaceutical market. The produc-tion and marketing of high quality kava is essential if the industry is to grow in the Pacific.

This book is the result of a collaborative effort over a long period of time. Much of thetechnical information is based on previous publications by Dr Vincent Lebot. He generouslyallowed the reproduction from this material. Mr Jerry Konanui of the Association for Hawai-ian Awa and Mr Jim Henderson of Puu’O’Hoku Ranch contributed the section on kava pro-duction methods in Hawaii. Other information has been adapted from the sources listed in thebibliography. The guide would not have been possible without the considerable input frommany other contributors. The initiative and support of participants at the Regional Kava Meet-ings in 1997 and 1998 who recommended the writing of a production guide is appreciated. DrRichard Beyer, Professor Bill Aalbersberg, Ratu Jo Nawalowalo, Reg Sanday, and Dr RonGatty are acknowledged for their advice and guidance. The contents of this publication andany errors contained therein remain the responsibility of the compiler.

Tom OsbornSPC Agriculture Adviser

5

6

I . Production

A. Site selection

One of the most important decisions a farmerneeds to make is selecting a suitable site forgrowing kava. Kava is a shade-loving plant.For the young plant to develop properly, careshould be taken to shelter it from the sun’srays and the wind. The sun speeds up mois-ture loss from the plant and causes it to wilt.Winds bend stems and branches and may causethem to crack or break and thus encouragedisease in the plant.

In traditional farming, the ideal site forgrowing kava is mixed cropping fields thathave been recently cleared and planted. Forexample, kava can be planted in fields withtaro, maize, yams and sweet potatoes. In thesefields the other crops provide the shade thatkava needs particularly when it is small. Asthese other crops mature and are harvestedthe kava plant gets additional space forgrowth.

Kava is grown under a wide variety ofconditions but the following points are im-portant.

• To allow for vigorous root growth, soilsshould be fertile and loose but not allowedto dry out. Mulch can be useful onsome soils.

• Avoid soils that are prone to water-logging since this can inhibitgrowth and cause root rot. Forthis reason kava is often plantedon sloping land; ridging(mounding up soil) can be usedfor planting kava on flat land.

• Provide shade and protection fromthe wind for the young plants.

Kava is well suited for Pacific farmingsystems because it is flexible in its cultiva-tion requirements and thrives in the shade dur-ing its first three years of growth. It growswell in traditional multicrop gardens, cut fromthe forest and partly shaded by taller cropssuch as bananas and papayas. In most islandsof Vanuatu, organic kava production involvescrop rotation, intercropping (with peanuts andsweet potato), and planting of windbreaks,shade trees, and leguminous tree species.

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B. Planting material

There is a substantial diversity in kava cultivarsof the Pacific. Many of the differences are inthe appearance of the plant (plant morphol-ogy) such as the colour of the stem, length ofthe internodes, stem thickness, and shape ofthe leaves. There are also differences in thecontent of kavalactones in different cultivars.Surveys and research indicate that the great-est diversity of kava cultivars is in Vananauwith 80; there are 13 in Hawaii, 12 in Fiji, 7 inTonga, 6 in Samoa, 4 in Papua New Guinea,3 in Wallis and Futuna, 3 in French Polynesia,and 2 in Pohnpei.

Despite this diversity kava in fact has avery narrow genetic base. This is becausekava does not produce viable seed so there isno possibility of cross pollination to createnew cultivars. The diversity of kava has beencaused by farmers selecting mutant kava plantswith desirable characteristics for personal andceremonial use. This selection system beganwith the domestication of kava thousands ofyears ago and has produced the kava cultivarsthat we have today.

Experienced growers know that one ofthe most important decisions in producingquality kava is the selection of plantingmaterials. The first aspect is that the cuttingmust come from a desirable kava cultivar, onewith good drinking characteristics. Secondly,the cutting must be from a healthy and vigor-ous plant. Diseases can be spread from un-healthy kava plants to the surrounding plantsand cause great losses.

The normal method of propagation is touse stem cuttings of one to four nodes inlength, but the process varies according toarea. Either shoots or stem cuttings can beused, and cuttings can be either planted in anursery or directly planted in the field.

Planting material checklist:

• Carefully select planting materials fromvigorous, healthy plants.

• Carefully inspect stems selected forcuttings to ensure they are free frommealy bugs and scale insects.

• Use the more rot-resistant woody mid-portion of the stem for good root andcrop development.

• Avoid using the soft upper portion of thestem because it is prone to rot and doesnot easily develop roots and shoots.

• Do not use lateral branches for plantingmaterial because they will produce plantswith horizontal stems.

• Do not buy planting material from un-known sources because it may carry plantdiseases or may be of poor drinkingquality.

One-, two- and four-node stem cuttings areoften used for planting material.

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C. Direct planting

In many Pacific Islands the traditional plant-ing method has been to plant the stem cuttingsdirectly in the field. There are a variety of tech-niques. A handful of one- and two-nodecuttings can be planted together in a 30 cm(12 in) diameter circle. In some places, four-to six-node cutting are planted vertically withseveral nodes in the soil. Sometimes cuttingsare rooted in loose soil before planting. Oftenthe cuttings are planted and covered with soiland a layer of mulch to retain moisture sinceadequate moisture is critical for the root andshoot development.

However, direct planting of kava stemshas been abandoned in many areas for the fol-lowing reasons.

• Direct planted kava requires more plant-ing material and longer pieces. The de-mand for planting materials is usually highand farmers want to use their planting ma-terials efficiently so they can plant as largean area as possible or so they can sellplanting material.

• Kava cuttings require moist conditions atthe time of planting to develop shoots androots. Drought or water stress during thisearly periods of growth can kill theemerging shoots and roots. Wateringyoung plants is much more costly andtime consuming in the field than in anursery.

• The desired spacing can be difficult toachieve with direct planting because notall the cuttings will produce plants.

• Weed competition with young kava seed-lings is a problem that requires consider-able labour input and can slow the growthof the young kava plant.

• Young plants require shade and it can bedifficult to provide sufficient shade in thefield compared with a nursery.

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D. Nurseries

Shortages of planting material caused by theexpansion in production has stimulated inter-est in kava nurseries. In several countries nurs-eries are very successfully used for the propa-gation of kava and are preferred to the directplanting propagation method. Often when di-rect planting kava larger cuttings are used,germination of the cuttings is low, and latereven plant survival is low. Nurseries use plant-ing material more efficiently and there is ahigher survival rate of the plants when trans-planted to the field. One- or two-nodecuttings, as well as larger cuttings, have beensuccessfully used for propagation in the nurs-ery.

It has been observed that root and shootdevelopment can be affected by:

(a) the kava variety — some root moreeasily and quickly than others;

(b) the age of the plant — two- to three-year-old stems are the best; and

(c) the portion of the stem used — avoidthe soft upper portion and very woodylower portion.

A study of the different kava varieties inVanuatu showed that some varieties weremore difficult to propagate than others. Vari-eties with short internodes provided cuttingswhich were very resistant to plant dis-ease during sprouting and theearly stages of growth. Cuttingsfrom varieties with longinternodes were susceptible torotting before and after sprout-ing, particularly in the rainy sea-son. In addition, the shoots of va-rieties with dark coloured stemsdeveloped very slowly.

If you want rapidly growing healthy vig-orous young plants, careful management ofthe nursery is essential.

Location of the nursery

The nursery should be located on well drainedland to avoid being waterlogged or floodedduring heavy rains. There should be access towater for irrigation of the young kava seed-lings during dry periods.

Soil for the nursery

Rich topsoil, sand and compost, and othermedia such as potting soil can be used. Pot-ting soil has the advantage that it has beensterilised, which will reduce problems withsoil-borne diseases attacking the young plants.Another good mix is 10 parts soil, 1 part sand,1 part timber shavings or sawdust from un-treated timber. It is important that the soil isloose and that it doesn’t dry out. Heavy claysoil should be avoided in the nursery since itcan become too wet and this encourages thedevelopment of fungus in the plants.

Some farmers plant the cuttings in bedsof soil with compost. Others use plastic bags(polypots) that make it easier to transferyoung plants to the field, but these are moreexpensive.

Shading is important for thekava cuttings in thenursery.

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Watering

Keep the soil moist but not too wet. The nurs-ery should be checked daily to ensure the soildoesn’t get too dry. The use of sand, timbershavings or compost in the soil can help thesoil from becoming too wet.

Weeding

Soil and sand used in the nursery will con-tain weeds and weed seed. These weedsshould be carefully removed to avoid com-petition with young kava plants.

Shading

Kava requires shade. A structure with palmfronds is adequate for shade though 30–50%shade cloth can also be used. Remember notto place seedlings too close to the edge of theshade structure since it will expose them todirect sunlight at some times of the day.

Before the seedlings are removed fromthe nursery they should gradually be exposedto the direct sun for a week to avoid stress tothe plants when they are put into the field.This process is called hardening off the plants.

This can be accomplished by graduallyremoving the palm fronds from the nurseryroof. The shade cloth can be removed for partof each day.

Time in the nursery

Plants are generally ready for transplantingwhen they are at least 30 cm tall (10–12 in).It is difficult to predict how long it will takethe seedling to reach this size because of dif-ferences in soils, kava varieties, size ofcuttings, quality of the cutting, and watering,but generally 3–5 months is sufficient. Theseedlings can be kept in the nursery until con-ditions in the field are right but if transplant-ing is delayed the shading should be removedto avoid tall plants with weak stems.

Advantages of nurseries for kava

• Nurseries are adequately shaded to pro-mote development and prevent thecuttings from drying out.

• Seedlings can be watered more easily in anursery than in the field.

• It is easier to judge the desired spacingwhen you plant strong, healthy seedlingsin the field.

• Seedlings can be placed in the field at atime when moisture and shade conditionsare best for plant growth.

• Using seedlings can reduce initial weedcompetition problems in the field.

• Weeding time and other labour costs arereduced because the transplanted seed-lings are bigger and stonger and need lesscare.

A well-maintained kava nursery.

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15 cm3 cm

5 cm

Choose the method that best suits your needs.Each method has its advantages and disad-vantages.

Method 1: planting one- or two-nodecuttings in nursery beds.

Take the cuttings when the plant is harvested.Select the woody mature stems, 2–3 years old,which are around the outside of the crown.Young (non-woody) cuttings tend to rotquickly whereas these woody cuttings are veryrot-resistant. Woody cuttings are also lessprone to damage when they are transported.

When the kava stem is cut into pieces usea sharp knife that makes a clean cut. It is veryimportant to cut the stem near the node andnot in the middle of the internode. The softtissue in the internodes is prone to rot. Themicroorganisms which rot the inside of thestem seem to have difficulty getting in if onlythe hard internode is exposed.

Two-node cuttings require more planting

Kava nursery methods

material but they will develop faster than one-node cuttings. When there is a shortage ofplanting material one-node cuttings can be butthe disadvantage of one-node cuttings is thatthey will not develop as fast as two-nodecuttings.

Dig a bed in the nursery 4 m (13 ft) long,2 m (6˚ ft) wide and 15 cm (6 in) deep, andcover the bottom with a layer of soil very richin organic matter or compost, to a depth ofabout 10 cm (4 in). Lay out the cuttings length-wise and spaced about 10 cm (4 in) apart tomake it easier when digging up and transplant-ing. Lay another layer of earth about 3 cmdeep gently over the cuttings and water verythoroughly (see diagram below).

Cuttings should be horizontal with budscars facing up. Whether the cuttings have oneor two nodes, this method encourages a veryhigh propagation rate and the seedlings willhave vigorous root systems.

A well-shaded kava nursery.

Cross section of two-node cuttings in the nursery bed.

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Method 2: planting one or two nodecuttings in plastic bags

This is the same as Method 1 except that in-stead of using beds the cuttings are placed inpolypots. Polypots are strong black plasticnursery bags with holes in the bottom fordrainage, and are available in a variety of sizes.Polypots are commonly used in commercialnurseries. The polypots for kava should notbe too big or they become too heavy to trans-port. Use a 1 litre (1 quart) size bag that isapproximately 7.5 cm (3 in) in diameter and30 cm (12 in) tall to allow space for root de-velopment. The cuttings are planted horizon-tally in the polypot with the bud scar at thetop.

Polypots are popular for kava nurseriesbecause they keep the roots of the kava seed-lings from growing together and this reducesthe risk of damage to the roots when they aretransplanted into the field. The disadvantageof this system is the cost of the bags and thecost of transporting seedlings in polypots tothe field.

75 mm300 mm

Kava cuttings growing in polypots in a nursery.

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Method 3: germinating whole kavastems in the nursery beds

Kava harvesting, cleaning, cutting, and dry-ing requires a lot of labour, but harvest time isalso the best time to get the nursery bedsestablished with fresh kava stems. Farmers inVanuatu have developed a clever system thatovercomes the labour bottleneck during thisperiod.

Dig a shallow trench in the nurseryapproximately 15 cm (6 in) deep and 150 cm(5 ft) wide. Remove the soft upper stem andvery woody lower part of the stem. Place theremaining middle portion of the kava stems inthe trench and cover them with soil. Keep thesoil covering the stems moist. Under theseconditions the buds on the nodes will start tosprout and grow. After three to four weeks,one or two roots and leaf shoots will haveemerged from each node.

Place the stems in the nursery bed and coverthem with soil.

Cross section of sprouting kava stems in the nursery bed.

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Method 4: planting four-nodecuttings in plastic bags

Cut the middle portion of the kava stem intofour-node cuttings. Plant two four-nodecuttings upright in soil and compost inpolypots that are 16 cm (7 in) wide and 34cm (14 in) tall. Two of the nodes must be be-

Carefully uncover the kava stems to re-veal the shoots and roots that have developedfrom the nodes. Then cut the stems into one-node pieces, each containing a shoot with oneor two leaves and roots. Place the pieces inpolypots and put in the nursery to grow untillarge enough to be planted in the field.

This method overcomes the problems offungus entering the individual one- and two-node cuttings that can cause them to rot andnot sprout.

low the soil surface and the other two above.Although this method uses more planting ma-terial, the seedling will grow faster and bemore vigorous.

Kava stems in the nursery.

Polypots in the nursery ready for kava cuttings.

Cross section of polypot with two cuttings.

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Potted kava shaded by shade cloth.

Kava nursery with long cuttings in Pohnpei,Federated States of Micronesia, under tree shade.

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E. Transplanting

Transplanting should be done when:

• the kava plants are 30 cm (12 in) tall sothat they are large enough to avoidcompetition from weeds;

• moisture conditions in the field aregood; and

• the land has been properly preparedand cleared of weeds.

Remember to gradually expose the plantsto direct sunlight before removing them fromthe nursery.

Take care to avoid damaging the rootsduring transplanting when the polypot is re-moved and the seedlings are placed in theholes. If the soil is dry each hole should bewatered before the seedling is placed in it.Even though the seedlings are 30 cm (12 in)tall they still can’t compete with aggressiveweeds. Keep the area around the seedlings freeof weeds during this initial period. The plantsmust be well shaded to reduce competitionwith grass weeds and avoid moisture stress.

Take care after transplanting the kavaseedlings. If there is a drought period aftertransplanting, water the plants to avoid mois-ture stress and possible wilting or death of theseedlings. The period after transplanting iscritical. The plants need time to become prop-erly established before they start to grow wellin the field.

F. Planting and spacing

Preparing the soil

In traditional kava farming methods soilpreparation is minimal, and involves simplyand rapidly breaking the soil up with a plant-ing stick. Kava often does not receive the carein cultivation normally given to root crops thatrequire the soil to be broken up to a fine tex-ture.

Normally, kava is planted together withroot crops in subsistence gardens on recently

cleared ground. As the kava grows farmersregularly ridge or mound up the soil aroundbase of the plant to encourage the appearanceof new shoots and discourages weeds.

Trials at Tagabe Agricultural Station inVanuatu show that it is good to plant on ridges80 cm (2˚ ft) wide and 40 cm (1˘ ft) high.The ridge permits good soil drainage and rootgrowth.

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G. Cropping methods

Intercropping

Kava’s natural habitat is under the shade oflarge trees with a diversity of other plants, andit is still most commonly grown in associationwith other crops. Experience and researchhave shown that intercropping has its advan-tages. It is believed that intercropping can in-hibit the spread of disease among kava plantswhereas monocropping seems to encourageit. This is an important point in favour ofintercropping because it can help prevent theestablishment and spread of of devastatingdiseases like kava dieback.

There is no clear picture of the best com-bination of crops. It appears that more com-monly than not kava is grown with many dif-ferent crops in the same field.

In intercropping the crops are changedover the growth cycle of the kava. When thekava plants are small, intercrops that provideshade, such as taro and pigeon peas, are help-ful. Later, when the kava needs more sunlight,intercrops such as sweet potatoes and pea-nuts which provide good ground cover areuseful.

Kava intercropped with root crops, bananas, and coconuts in Vava’u, Tonga.

Kava and coconuts in Taveuni, Fiji Islands.

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Kava and coconuts

Intercropping kava and coconuts is a com-mon and natural association for Vanuatu.The spacing used is important. Coconutshave shallow, fibrous roots that extend alongthe ground well beyond the canopy of thefronds. These roots can compete with thekava plants and make harvesting difficult.Falling fronds or coconuts can also bedestructive to the kava.

Depending on the size of the coconutpalms and soil and water conditions, a dis-tance of 4–5 metres between the coconuts andthe kava may be necessary to avoid root com-petition. Ridging the kava can also help over-come root competition.

Spacing between kava plants in the rowis often 2 m (6˚ ft), but 1 m (3˘ ft) may besufficient.

4–5 m1 m

4–5 m

1 m

Coconut–kava intercropping in Vanuatu.

The spacing of plants in coconut–kava intercropping.

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Kava and sweet potato

The intercropping of kava and sweet potatoesis quite popular and effective in Vanuatu for avariety of reasons. The sweet potatoes coverthe soil and crowd out the weeds but do notcompete with kava for light. The sweet pota-toes provide food from the plot for the farmfamily while the kava cash crop grows.Coconut frond mulch can be used around thekava plants to conserve moisture and supressweeds. The coconut frond mulch can also pre-vent sweet potatoes from growing too closeto the kava and creating root competition.

A disadvantage of this intercrop is thatrats are sometimes attracted to the sweet po-tatoes and they can also feed on the kava.

Kava and peanuts

Like sweet potatoes, peanuts provide goodground cover to suppress weeds. Peanuts canbe a food crop or a cash crop for the farmfamily. There is also the advantage that pea-nuts are a nitrogen-fixing legume that enrichesthe soil.

Kava and ginger

Planting kava with ginger can be difficultbecause of the nematode problem associ-ated with ginger. The same kinds of nema-todes that attack ginger can also attack thekava. For more information on nematodessee page 24.

Kava and vegetables

Kava is sometimes grown with a variety ofvegetable such as tomatoes, Chinese cabbage,English cabbage, capsicum, and eggplant.Kava is vulnerable to many diseases that maybe associated with vegetables. There is con-cern that the diseases that attack vegetablescan also be transferred to kava through thesoil, water, wind and insects. Consequentlygrowing kava with vegetables should beavoided.

Kava and taro

Kava is often grown with taro because it pro-vides shade for the young kava plants. Careshould be taken to avoid competition for wa-ter and nutrients when the two crops areplanted too close together.

This form of intercropping has been quitesuccessful on the island of Pentecost, Vanuatu,where the spacing used between kava and tarois 1 m (3˘ ft).

Kava and pigeon pea

Pigeon pea can be an effective plant forintercropping with kava. It is a vigorouslygrowing legume that fixes nitrogen in the soiland the leaves can be used as a nitrogen-richmulch. It will provide shade to the kava andfunction as a windbreak. The pigeon pea canbe planted while the kava seedlings are grow-ing in the nursery. This way the pigeon pea

Kava can be planted between rows of pigeon peas for shade when the plants are young.

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K K K K K – K – K – – –

K K K K – K – K – – – K

K K K K K – K – K – – –

K K K K – K – K – – – K

will be large enough to provide shade by thetime the kava is planted out in the field.

The pigeon pea and kava are planted inalternate rows. For good shading, which isneeded when the kava is young, the pigeonpea can be planted densely and then thinnedas the kava grows.

Monocropping

Monocropping of kava is not encouraged inthe Pacific Islands because this method hasthe potential to promote the development andspread of disease and it is not good for long-term soil fertility.

Although good coverage of the soil bythe kava plants is desired, close planting andlittle spacing between plants can lead to prob-lems. Closely planted kava monocropping inhigh rainfall areas creates a lack of air circu-lation between plants and damp conditionsdevelop that lead to onset of disease.

In Vanuatu, young farmers looking for aquick income are developing monoculturesystems for kava (see diagram below). Fieldsare planted at a very high density of one plantper square metre (10,000 plants per hectare)and after two years of growth, half of theplants are uprooted to allow more space forthe 5,000 remaining plants. After another year,when the plants are three years old, half ofthem are harvested and 2,500 plants are leftto grow for up to five years. According tothese farmers, this intensive system does notaffect kava growth. Vanuatu’s volcanic soilsare rich but more research is needed to un-derstand the advantages and disadvantages ofthis system.

H. Soil and plant nutrition

The soil should have good drainage. Eventhough kava can be grown on a wide varietyof soils, the plant prefers deep, loose soils,moist but well drained. The roots of kava havelittle tolerance for the oxygen starvation thatoccurs in poorly drained or heavy clay soils.In poorly drained soils the plant is also sus-ceptible to bacterial or fungal diseases. Kavais often grown on hillsides, where drainage ismuch better than on the valley floor.

Being a plant of forest habitats, kavarequires soil rich in organic matter, which pro-vides the nutrients it needs. Kava is a veryheavy feeder. Its vigorous growth depends onrich soils and attention to soil fertility man-agement. Traditionally the planting of a kavacrop starts with the clearing of the forest, butin most areas this is not a practice that cancontinue. In Pohnpei State, in the FederatedStates of Micronesia, the continued clearingof forests for kava has become a major envi-ronmental issue. In Vanuatu, for example, akava crop is planted after two rotations of pea-nuts, which improve the soil, assist in weedcontrol, and provides extra income for farm-ers.

Kava has a very limited root system com-pared to other plants that live as long or growas big as it does. The root system does notextend very far laterally from the plant or verydeep since it doesn’t have a tap root. To findnutrients that are not mobile in the soil, rootsmust grow into new soil. This only happensduring the first three years of growth. Afterthree years of growth, the roots have taken

YEAR 1 YEAR 3 YEAR 4Planting After 2 years After 3 years

The removal of plants over time in the kava monocrop.

21

all the nutrients from the soil. The kava plantscan then suffer nutrient stress making the planthighly susceptible to disease. After two tothree years, composting, mulching, and theaddition of animal manure are needed tomaintain healthy vigorous plants. This is es-sential in areas prone to disease problems.

Key points for soil fertility

• Mulching provides nutrients and pre-vents moisture loss.

• Manure from pigs, chickens, cattle orhorses, makes good fertiliser.

• Compost can help maintain soil fertil-ity.

I. Weeding

Weed competition is a major problem in kavaproduction and has led to the use of herbi-cides. But herbicides should be avoided, forthese reasons:

• There has been insufficient research intoherbicides for kava production.

• Kava is known to be very sensitive tosome herbicides, resulting in wilting evenwhen the herbicide is used some distancefrom the plant.

• The use of herbicides is prohibited on kavamarketed as organic.

The weeding hoe should not be used tooclose to the kava plant. Serious damage canbe caused to the surface roots and adventi-tious roots from the stem and to the youngshoots. It is best to weed between the rows orridges starting about 50 cm (20 in) from theedge of the plant.

There are many strategies to avoid weedcompetition in kava:

• Raise seedlings in a nursery and transplantyoung plants into the field to avoid com-petition when the kava plant is very small;

• Use intercrops such as sweet potatoes orpeanuts that provide good ground coverbetween the plants and between the rows.When one crop is harvested replace itwith another one so that full ground coveris maintained over time.

• Use black plastic mulch to re-duce weeds and maintain soilmoisture. Black plastic mulchis available in rolls a meterwide. It is laid down on the topof a row and secured with soilaround the edges. Holes aremade in the plastic and the kavais planted in the holes.

• Use mulch on the soil. Themulch can be made from driedweeds of species that will notresprout. Palm fronds can alsobe useful.

RAIN

WIND

TREESANDBUSHES

WATER

KAVAWATER

Black plastic sheets can be used to suppress weeds and retain moisture.

Trees planted above kava act as a wind break andhelp to prevent soil erosion.

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J. Water requirements

The cultivation of kava is recommended onlyin high rainfall areas. Kava requires averagetemperatures ranging from 20 to 30°C andhigh humidity. At altitudes of less than 400 m,the plant requires annual rainfall of over 2200mm. At higher elevations kava requires lesswater but even so it seems to need at least1800 mm. This does not rule out its cultiva-tion in locations with a very marked dry sea-son, provided that the drought does not lasttoo long, or irrigation is provided.

It is very important to plant at the begin-ning of the rainy season so that the plant cangain maximum benefit from rainfall duringthe critical months of growth. The first sixmonths of growth are when kava is most sus-ceptible to moisture stress.

• Kava is sensitive to drought stress andalso to being too wet.

• Young plants should be watered well.

• Mulching will help reduce soil mois-ture loss. To avoid retaining too muchmoisture and encouraging disease donot use mulch during extended peri-ods of rainfall.

• Shading young plants will reduce mois-ture stress.

• In windy areas use windbreaks to con-serve moisture.

Cut grass is a useful mulch.

K. Pruning

Each node of the lateral branches sprouts rootsand they root easily on contact with the soil.Allow this to continue without interference forat least the first 10 months of growth. At aboutone year the lateral branches should betrimmed just beyond the root growth from thelast node and at the point where a new shoothas sprouted. The trimming of lateral rootsencourages the development of the root sys-tem rather than the shoots which is preferablesince the roots are the valuable harvested partof the plant.

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L. Pest and disease management

Insects

Kava weevil (Elytroteinussubtruncatus) and other types ofweevils that burrow into the root-stock and stem.Control: change planting site

Slugs and snails (many species)These pests can damage emerging

shoots of young plants.Control: apply snail bait

Ants (many species)They can attack during the dry season and

establish mealy bug colonies that feed on thebark and attract fungi and bacteria.Control: irrigation

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Nematodes

Nematodes are microscopic worm-like peststhat can attack the roots of crops. Nematodesare found all over the Pacific, and 28 specieshave been identified in kava. Because thereare so many kinds of nematodes farmers maybe familiar with the symptoms of some spe-cies but not others. Nematodes are too smallto be seen with the naked eye so the symp-toms can be confused with diseases that havesimilar symptoms.

For example, the root knot nematode(Meloidogyne spp.) of which four have beenfound in kava, produces nodules or lumps onthe roots which may grow up to 1 cm (˚ in)in diameter. The nematodes pierce the cellwalls and absorb the contents, disturb the tis-sue and lay their eggs in it. As soon as theyhatch out, the larvae move towards the healthytissue to feed, which aggravates their harmfuleffect. When the nodules burst they are

quickly infected by a form of root rot, whichcan cause the death of the plant. If the nema-tode attack is severe the plant stops growing,wilts, and dies. Plants that have been attackedare very susceptible to falling over or lodg-ing.

To help avoid nematodes use healthyplanting material; avoid planting material takenfrom infected plants. The determining factoris the choice of a clean planting site wherethere are no harmful nematodes.

Root knot nematodes are controlled byintercropping with nematode-deterring cropssuch as turmeric (Curcuma longa) and mari-gold (Tagates sp.). To avoid the developmentof epidemic nematode populations, plants areusually spaced 2 m (6˚ ft) apart to allowintercropping. The weed problem that occurrsin widely spaced kava plants can be partlysolved by establishing a cover crop such assweet potatoes or unstaked yams.

NEMATODESare too small to beseen by the nakedeye.

➔

1. They pierce root cell walls, absorbcontents and form nodules.

2. They lay their eggs in thenodules.

3. The larvae hatch and feedon healthy tissue.

4.The nodules burst allowing bacteria and fungito enter and cause root rot.

5. The plant wilts and dies.

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Kava dieback

A major constraint to the intensification ofcropping systems today is kava dieback dis-ease, in which some of the stems rot from theapex or from the nodes to the stump.

Evidence from Vanuatu suggests thatkava dieback is linked to low soil fertility andplants which are weak due to nutritional stress.Kava grown on well-drained fertile soils donot often develop kava dieback. To avoid kavadieback attention should be given to growingkava on fertile soils, and any infected plantsshould be removed. It seems clear that thespread of the disease is being facilitated bymonoculture and that growers should be en-couraged to intercrop below a tree canopy —in other words to maintain traditionalintercropping planting methods.

Recent studies (Davies, 1996) haveshown that kava plants inoculated with thecucumber mosaic virus (CMV) developedsymptoms of dieback. It appears that kavadieback may be caused by:

• CMV only;

• an interaction between CMV and anothervirus;

• two or more strains of CMV interacting;or

• an interaction between CMV and a non-viral pathogen.

A number of different plants can be in-fected by CMV, including the followingweeds: Ageratum conyzoides (goatweed);Commelina diffusa (wandering jew);Gomphrena globosa (globe amaranth);Lantana spp.; Physalis angulata (wild capegooseberry); and Solanum nodiflorum (smallflowered nightshade). To reduce the risk ofCMV, weeds that carry CMV should be re-moved from the kava production site and sur-rounding areas.

Cultivated crops that can be infected in-clude: Capsicum annum (peppers); Cucumisspp. (including rockmelon, honey dew, andcucumber); Cucurbita spp. (including pump-kin, squash and marrow); Lycopersiconesculentum (tomato); Musa sp. (banana);Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco); Passifloraedulis (passionfruit); Vigna spp. (including as-paragus bean, black-eyed pea and cowpea);and Zea mays (corn). In an area known tohave CMV, take care when choosing cropsfor intercropping; insects could transfer CMVfrom other infected plants to kava.

See the SPC Pest Advisory Leaflet onkava dieback for further information

Fungi

Twenty species of plant fungi have been iden-tified on kava, but not many have been re-corded as having any economic impact on pro-duction.

On recently cleared land, the remains oftree trunks and stumps may be infected with afungus which lives in the soil and attacks theroot system of kava plants. It then spreadsfrom plants to plant by contact. The first symp-toms of infection are wilting and rotting ofleaf blades. The fungus lives as a parasite inthe rootstock and root rot develops quickly,causing the plant to die within three weeks.This fungus has not been identified, but evenwhen it is, it is unlikely that any very effectivetreatment will be found. It is best to be care-ful in the choice and maintenance of the site.

A kava plant affected by dieback.

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Harvesting and post-harvest handling accountfor 40% or more of the labour involved in kavaproduction. Particular attention should begiven to harvesting, handling, and drying thekava since these operations have a major ef-fect on the quality of the kava and the price.

Kava is traditionally harvested at age threeor four years, but for local ceremonies plantsmay be grown for over ten years before har-vesting. When kava is grown as a commercialcrop the decision as to when to harvest is morecomplicated.

• Some farmers want to obtain the maxi-mum yield per hectare rather than themaximum yield per plant. They increasethe number of plants per unit area, pro-vide better soil fertility, and harvest someof the plants when they become toocrowded. The remaining plants are al-lowed to grow for a few more years be-fore harvesting. There are dangers in thisapproach, such as the risk of the devel-opment and spread of kava dieback orother diseases.

• In general, the kavalactone content ofkava increases with age (kavalactones arethe active compounds in kava). There aresix kavalactones in kava that occur in vari-ous concentrations. However, some re-search indicates that kavalactone contentdepends more on the type of soil, the avail-ability of nutrients for plant growth andthe kava variety than on the age of theplant.

• It is not only the total kavalactone con-tent that determines the quality of thekava but also the proportion of each ofthe six different kavalactones or thechemotype of the kava cultivar (seeKavalactones, page 33). Different va-rieties of kava have differentchemotypes. As the kava export mar-ket develops it will be important to pro-duce kava with a specific kavalactone.

• The kavalactone content is different ineach part of the harvested plant. Thekavalactone percentages of dry weight are15–20% in the lateral roots, 8–12% in thestump, 5–8% in the basal stems, 2–5% inthe stems and less than 1–2% in the leaves.

• The rootstock (stump) and roots becomelarger over time, although soil fertility, ad-equate rainfall and the kava variety aremore important factors than plant age indetermining yield. The green weight ofindividual rootstock varies from 5 to 50kg. In the measurement of 1500 plants inVanuatu, three-year-old plants yieldedabout 10 kg of fresh material; 70% wasthe rootstock and basal stems. The re-maining 30% of the harvested plants wasthe roots. The harvested portion of theplant includes the lateral roots, the root-stock, and part of the basal stems.

II . HARVESTINGA. Harvesting and yields

A proud Fijian farmer with his harvested kava.

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B. Harvesting techniques

The first step is to remove the upper part ofthe plant. Cut the stems above the first node.From the stems there will be adventitious rootsextending directly into the soil. Take care toharvest these small roots without breakingthem, since they are valuable.

The rootstock is the enlarged portion ofthe plant at the base of the stems. Dependingon the variety the thickness of the rootstockcan reach 30 cm (1 ft) to 60 cm (2 ft), andsome creeping roots may measure over 2 m

(6˚ ft) in length. You will need to carefullydig around and under the rootstock and rootsto harvest the plant. Care should be taken notto break the thin fragile roots. A digging forkwith flat blades like the ones used for harvest-ing potatoes is ideal for harvesting kava sinceit normally doesn’t cut or damage the thinroots.

Kava is often planted on ridges, or soil ismounded around the plant. It is easier to har-vest plants in ridges or mounds.

Transporting kava to the market in Pohnpei FSM.

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Drying kava on raised metal roof sheets in FijiIslands.

In general you must take care not to damagethe kava plant before it is dried. Physical dam-age or bruising of the kava can cause rot thataffects its quality.

A. Washing

After you have dug up the the rootstock androots, wash them carefully in water to removethe soil particles. Access to sufficient waterfor washing the kava and moving the bulkyfreshly harvested kava to a water source canpose a problem. If the kava is washed in atank a small quantity of soap should be addedto the water for easier cleaning.

B. Cutting and sorting

After the kava is washed, it is ready to be cutup and divided into the various plant parts be-fore drying. The basal stems (the first 20 cm(8 in) of the stems) are cut from the rootstock,peeled and cut into pieces. The roots are re-moved from the rootstock, which is thenpeeled, and the peeled rootstock is then cutinto small pieces. Each part of the harvestedkava is kept separately because kavalactonecontent and the price for each of the plant partsis different. For more details see pages 32-33. For this reason kava buyers for the localmarket or exports require that the kava beseparated into basal stems, peeling of rootstock, chips of root stock and roots.

C. Drying

Lay the rootstock and the roots out to dry inthe sun after cutting them into small pieces.The pieces of stem, peelings, and chips shouldbe thin slices to accelerate the drying process.The valuable thin long roots are not cut upbefore drying. Never dry kava on the groundbut always on raised platforms to avoid mix-ing it with dirt, insects, grass or other foreign

matter. Metal roofing sheets are often used asa drying platform to increase the temperatureand keep the kava clean.

Drying in the sun gives a good qualityproduct but may not be possible if there isfrequent rain. If it starts to rain the kava willget wet and it may become discoloured or rot.In the rainy season, use a solar hot air dryingmethod instead. Kava can also be left to drymore slowly in the shade.

Several drying technologies have been de-veloped and tested in Vanuatu. Two are pre-sented here: the clear and black plastic cover,and the vented roof design drying facility.

Analysis of the composition of kava root-stock indicates that fresh material on averageis 80% water. In very humid climates, the re-covery of dry kava from green kava is about25%. Tests carried out on drying times andweight losses showed that a sample of cut-upfresh roots weighing 10 kg placed in the sunto dry for 10 hours followed by 14 hours in

III. Postharvest handlingand marketing

.

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Black plastic

Clear plastic

Drying rack

Clear and black plastic solar dryer

This is a simple and cheap drying technology that increases the temperature because it encloses the dryingplatform and the black plastic absorbs the rays of the sun. The clear plastic panels should face the sun. Thisstructure also protects the kava from rain.

Kava drying on screen racks in Vanuatu.

Drying technologies

the shade over 3 days weighed 2 kg at the endof the experiment.

The speed of drying depends on the wa-ter content of the fresh root, and the drynessof the air (relative humidity).

To avoid any risk of mould, the dry prod-uct should not contain more than 12% mois-ture. To test for moisture content, bend a driedroot — if it is sufficiently dry it will break butif it needs further drying it will not break. Itseems that if the root breaks the moisture con-tent is actually about 6% moisture.

After drying, the basal stems, rootstockpeelings, rootstock chips and roots are pack-aged separately in 25 kg polypropolene wo-ven bags (similar to flour sacks) which per-mit the pieces of kava to continue to dry.

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A kava drying shed in Samoa with clear plastic roof and vents on sides.

Vented roof design solar dryer

This is a permanent building for drying kava. It has a vented roof made of clear fibreglass and the sides arealso vented. The design increases the air temperature while maintaining air flow to speed the drying of thekava. This building also protects the kava from wind and rain.

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D. Storage

Storing kava is similar to storage of other driedagriculture commodities.

Dried agricultural products arehygroscopic: they attract and absorb moisturefrom the air particularly in high humidity cli-mates such as the Pacific. A dried product leftin the open will continue to absorb moistureuntil there is no further movement of mois-ture in or out of the product, when the kava issaid to have acheived equilibrium moisturecontent. Unfortunately, in the high humidityenvironment of the Pacific the equilibriummoisture content of kava allows the deterio-ration of the commodity, and development offungus and a mouldy smell, which results in alow quality or useless product.

The storage of kava requires special at-tention to avoid loss in quality. Kava mois-ture content needs to be monitored duringstorage. Kava will need to be dried again if itis stored for a few months. Kava can be stored,but the following points should be considered.

• After kava is dried it will start to veryslowly absorb moisture from the highhumidity air unless it is protected in amoisture-proof container.

• Dried kava can be stored at any tem-perature below 50°C if it is kept inmoisture-proof containers.

• Well-ventilated storage areas are notsuitable for extended storage of kava ina high humidity environment.

• The moisture content of the kava mustbe monitored and tested by smell,looking for mould, and noticing if theroots bend rather than break.

• Although kava can be redried if neces-sary, multiple drying will cause thequality to deteriorate.

Kava storage in Suva Fiji at kava exporterPharmakava.

Drying kava on black plastic in Tonga beforepounding.

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Chips

Basal stems

Roots

E. Commercial parts ofthe kava plant

There are five commercial products from thekava plant: basal stems, chips of the rootstock,roots, peeling of the rootstock and residues.The kavalactone content of each part of theplant is quite different. (There may have beensome confusion in the past between the peel-ings of the rootstock, which are high inkavalactones, and peelings of the basal stem,which are low in kavalactones.) The five com-mercial products and approximate kavalactoneranges are:

Basal Stems: stems more than 20 cm(8 in) above the rootstock. Low inkavalactones (3–5%) and used only asplanting material.

Chips of the rootstock: made from t h epeeled rhizome or rootstock or the first20 cm (8 in) of the stems; 3–8% kavalactones.Used for drinking.

Peelings of the rootstock: peelings orskin of the rhizomes/rootstock and first 20cm (8 in) of the stems. Ithas been preferred for ex-port because of its highkavalactone content(7–11%). Used for drinking and thepharmaceutical market.

Roots: very high kavalactone content(8–16%).

Residues: the mixed small pieces ofthe other commercial parts of thekava plant of variablekavalactone content. Usedfor drinking.

Peelings

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F. Kavalactones

Fifteen kavalactones have been isolated fromkava. Each kavalactone has a different physi-ological effect.They are divided into the ma-jor kavalactones and minor kavalactones. Thesix major kavalactones account for 96% ofthe fat soluble extract from kava and are con-sidered to be the most important activeingredience. They are: demethoxy-yangonin,dihydrokavain, yangonin, kavain,dihydromethysticin, and methysticin. Kavain,for example, is rapidly absorbed by the bodyand quickly creates a feeling of relaxation.Dihydromethstysticin and dihydrokavain arevery potent and produce nausea and long-termdrowsiness. These two kavalactones are foundin high concentrations in the famous ‘tudei’kava cultivar of Vanuatu, which is known tomake the drinker feel drunk for two days. Formore details of the different effects of eachkavalactone read the research by Lebot (seebiblography).

Although such kavalactones as kavainand methysticin can now be synthesised, theseartificial kavalactones do not induce the samephysiological effects as the natural extracts.The efficacy of kava evidently does not stemfrom a single active substance but rather froma mixture, a blending of several kavalactonesthat results in a synergistic physiologicaleffect.

Chemotypes:The kavalactones are num-bered and used to define the kavalactone pro-file of kava cultivars. The kavalactone profileis referred to as the chemotype of that par-ticular kava cultivar.

1 = demethoxy-yangonin2 = dihydrokavain3 = yangonin4 = kavain5 = dihydromethysticin6 = methysticin

The chemotype of a kava cultivar is de-fined by listing, in decreasing order, the pro-portion of the six major kavalactones. Nor-mally the first three kavalactones in the codefor the chemoptype represent over 70% of thetotal kavalactone content. Consequently buy-ers and producers pay attention to the firstthree kavalactones of the chemotype. For ex-ample two popular chemotypes in Vanuatu are246531 and 426135, both of which havedihydrokavain, kavain and meththysticin as thefirst three kavalactones.

The chemotype of a kava cultivar maynot be important for the local drink market.However there is interest by the pharmaceu-tical industry in Europe to buy only kava withcertain chemotypes. Hawaii, in the develop-ment of its kava industry, is increasinglycultivating the preferred chemotypes. In thefuture most kava producers and international

34

kava exporters will need to pay attention tothe production of preferred chemotypes. Kavacontent and the chemotype can be determinedby analysis in the laboratories of the Instituteof Applied Sciences of the University of theSouth Pacific in Suva.

Fresh kava rootstock, when prepared bymastication, pounding or grinding, yields agreenish milky solution that is considerablystronger in kavalactone content and taste thanthe grey mixture obtained from dry roots. Themain factor determining the psycho-active im-pact of kava is the degree of separation in wa-ter of the resinous active ingredients calledkavalactones. The active substance in thisresin, insoluble in water, becomes available tothe drinker after emulsification. However, thisemulsion is not stable and infused kava istherefore a suspension of lipid-like compoundsrather than a real emulsion.

The resinous compounds are present ineach cell as microscopic drops ofkavalactones that are dispersed when the roottissues are pounded or ground, macerated andinfused. When the beverage is ingested, thou-sands of these microscopic particles are ab-sorbed rapidly through the stomach mem-brane to the bloodstream. If the emulsion isrich in active compounds, this will induce arapid and pronounced psycho-active effect.

The resin becomes more fluid when tem-perature increases and if hot water is drunkafter absorbing kava, the effects will be mag-nified. Kavalactones are soluble in alcohol andthere is a synergistic effect when a drinkermixes the two beverages.

Kavalactones cause a greater biological ef-fect when given in combination, possibly be-cause constituents are more readily absorbedwhen consumed as part of a mixture. The phar-macological effect of kava is dose-dependent.Kava and its constituents have been shown tohave sedative, hypnotic, anticonvulsant, mus-cle relaxant, anaesthetic, antimycotic, andanxiolytic properties. Clinical trials with stand-ardised kava extracts have shown pharmacologi-cal activity comparable to benzodiazepines (e.g.Valium). Benzodiazepines are the most com-monly used pharmaceuticals for anxiety. Kavaproducts are used as a substitute and have fewerside effects and have not been shown to be ad-dictive or to lead to dose tolerance.

Key points:

• The kavalactone is the chemical respon-sible for changing how you feel.

• 15 kavalactones have been identified.

• The mix of kavalactones in a kava varietyis known as a chemotype.

• Each part of the kava plant has a differrentmix of kavalactones. Scientists are notsure but it seems that you need a mixtureof differrent kavalactones to achieve a par-ticular effect. Naturally producedkavalactones are still much stronger thanthe synthesised kavalactone.

• How you prepare the kava drink and whatyou drink after the kava changes the ef-fects of kava on your body.

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G. High quality kavaHow to improve the quality through good harvest and postharvest practices

Age

Kava should be at least three years old whenharvested for an acceptable yield andkavalactone content.

Cleaning

Wash kava in clean running water, or in atank of water with a bit of household deter-gent if running water is not available. If youcan still see dirt on the kava it is not cleanenough.

Drying

Dry kava on a clean surface such as metal roofsheets.

Mildew and mould will grow on the kavaif it is too damp. Although you may not see it,it could be present by the time the kava reachesyour buyer. If the kava is brittle (snaps whenbent) it is dry enough to prevent mouldgrowth.

Remember that kava will attract moisturein the high humidity conditions of the Pacific.

Heat Damage

Do not dry your kava at temperatures too hotto touch (above 70°C). Kava that is over-heated can become discoloured and it will haveless value to the buyer.

Sorting

Buyers will pay on the basis of the class ofkava, so the different classes should be keptseparate. However the price also depends onthe kavalactone content that buyer expects.The laboratory at the Institute of Applied Sci-ences at the University of the South Pacificcampus in Suva, Fiji, offers quality kavalactoneanalysis at a reasonable price.

Foreign matter or kava residues

Do not try to add kava residues, poundedleaves or other adulteration to the kava. Mostbuyers have equipment to detect foreign mat-ter or spent kava. It will be detected and yourreputation as a reliable supplier of quality kavawill be damaged.

Kava ceremony in Tonga.

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Appearance and aroma

The kava should appear clean and notdiscolored and have the characteristic aromaof kava without the smell of mould.

Storage

Do not store your kava near strong smellingsubstances such as petrol, spices, or kerosenethat can affect the aroma of the kava. Store innew polypropylene bags in a clean, well-ventilated area and off the floor.

Remember, you will have higher quality kavaif it:

• is at least three years old;

• is clean and free of soil;

• is dry;

• is not heat-damaged;

• is free of mould and mildew;

• is separated into peelings, chips, and roots;

• contains no foreign matter or spent kava;

• has good appearance and aroma;

• is stored in clean bags under good condi-tions.

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H. Quality specifications

The quality of an agricultural product is al-ways an important issue. In the world ofinternational trade, sellers and buyers relyon quality specifications to facilitate thetrading of products. A quality specificationis a pre-sale agreement on the quality ofthe product which is to be traded. Qualityspecifications exist for most internationallytraded products. An essential part of qual-ity monitoring is taking representative sam-ples of consignments and testing of sam-ples. The quality specifications are en-forced by the industry and/or by legisla-tion and licensing of exporters.

There is no established physical orchemical quality specification for kava ex-ported to the pharmaceutical industry. Theresult has been that buyers and importers haveexperienced problems and possible rejectionof exported kava when there are quality-related problems.

Kava has been traded for many yearsboth domestically and between islands of thePacific without a quality specification. In-stead the quality is based on the buyer exam-ining the kava before purchasing it. The farm-

ers and middlemen who sell the kava havelearnt through experience the factors kavabuyers and exporters are looking for so thatthey can get the best price. But there havealways been problems and the farmer, themiddlemen and the buyers have all suffered.

More recently, developed countries havebecome involved in the international trade ofkava. Furthermore, more advanced analyticaltechniques have been introduced which haveled to the introduction of detailed, indisput-able quality specifications for kavalactones

As we get to know more about the chemi-cal make-up of kava, we have been able todevelop a set of quality specifications (stand-ards) which can be checked and verified any-where in the world.

The establishment and use of a qualityspecification for kava can protect Pacific Is-land kava producers and traders in the eventof a dispute over quality. SPC funded the In-stitute of Applied Sciences of the Universityof the South Pacific in 1995 to develop a draftquality specification for kava. These specifi-cations are explained in the following pages.

The kavalactone analysis in a laboratory at the University of the South Pacific.

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Filth

Soil adhering to the product can be removedand measured. Soil contains a very largenumber of bacteria and unfairly adds to theweight of the kava. It is important to removeas much soil as possible from the kava to en-sure that the bacterial level is as low as possi-ble and to ensure that the purchaser does notin effect pay for soil.

Moisture

The keeping quality of vegetable matter de-pends to a large degree on the moisture con-tent. Reducing the moisture content below12% is essential. Above this figure the kava islikely to become mouldy. If the roots breakwhen bent that is a good indication of lowmoisture content. There are also oven-dryingtechniques used in the laboratory to determinemoisture content.

Chemical characteristics

Ash

Ash testing is one of the ‘indicator tests’. Itgives a guide to other characteristics such asage, cleanliness, moisture content and con-tamination with other plant material. The testis inexpensive and simple and is a means ofverifying other tests.

Kavalactones

The most important the characteristic of kavafor international buyers is the kavalactonecontent. Six kavalactones are tested for eachpart of the plant. Experience indicates that forthe root and rootstock, the range of values ob-tained for each kavalactone is fairly narrow.Values falling outside these accepted valuesmay indicate blending with other less valu-able parts of the plant, blending with ‘kosa’or previously used kava residues or contami-nation with other plant material. Furthermore,values outside these ranges would indicatethat the kava is not of export quality.

Background information on quality specifications

This is an explanation of each of the fac-tors that are normally included in the qualitystandards of a commodity. They include:physical and chemical characteristics forkava.

Description

The offical description for a quality specifi-cation normally contains the botanical nameand a brief description of the product. Thusadulteration means that the product does notconform to the specification and the purchasermay reject the consignment. It can be diffi-cult to visually detect adulteration but thereare tests that can detect when other vegetablematter has been added. Adulteration has beencommon in the food industry and a numberof instances have been reported in which kavahas been adulterated with ‘spent’ (used) kavaand other matter.

Physical properties

A series of simple physical tests can give aquick, easy assessment of quality. For in-stance, because the appearance of kava is wellknown, discoloration, insect fragments, to-bacco, stones and other vegetable matter canbe easily detected. Kava aroma is also wellknown and common contaminants such asdiesel, petrol or spices can be detected veryquickly by simply smelling the kava. A lackof aroma may indicate staleness.

Flavour

This can be tested informally by simply pre-paring a solution and assessing it. A taste panelcan score the flavour using a previously ac-ceptable product for comparison. In so do-ing, very small differences can be assessedand the flavour profiles can be assessed ob-jectively. Taste panels in which as many as20 panellists assess flavour, appearance, andaroma can be used for dispute resolution.

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These are the draft physical and chemicalquality specifications based on research at theInstitute of Applied Sciences of the Univer-sity of the South Pacific.

Description

Kava will be the roots, rootstock, basal stemsor scrapings derived from the plant Pipermethysticum. It will be sound, clean and sub-stantially free from filth, soil and other con-taminants.

It will be prepared in accordance withgood manufacturing practice and will not con-tain vegetable matter derived from other spe-cies, insect fragments, or any other extrane-ous matter. It will have the following physi-cal and chemical properties.

Physical characteristics

Colour

Kava will have a characteristic light brown/grey colour.

Aroma

Kava will have the aroma characteristics ofthe product. The aroma will be free of extra-neous aromas indicating contamination withother plant material, solvents or other vola-tile matter.

Flavour

In the event of dispute, kava samples will besubject to a taste panel assessment using thetriangular taste test. There will be at least 20panellists and results will be subjected to sta-tistical analysis. Statistically significant sam-ples will be treated as contaminated.

Filth

Using standard methods heavy filth will notexceed 0.63% on a dry weight basis. Heavyfilth exceeding 0.63% but less than 0.7% willbe considered to be second grade. Heavy filthexceeding 0.7% will be rewashed and redried.

Moisture

The moisture content will not exceed 12.54%when dried to constant weight at 105°C.Moisture content exceeding 12.54% but lessthan 12.88% will be considered to be secondgrade kava. Kava samples with a moisturecontent in excess of 12.88% will be redried.

Chemical Characteristics

Ash

The ash content will not exceed 5.36% whenorganic matter is removed at 440°C. Samplesexceeding 5.36% but less than 5.93% will beconsidered to be second grade kava. Sampleswith an ash content in excess of 5.93% willbe washed and redried.

Kavalactones

A quality specification for kavalactone con-tent is still under development and it is verydifficult to specify because of the great varia-tions between kava varieties. The importantpoint, especially if large consignments are in-volved, is the need for both buyer and sellerto test the kavalactone content. Once the re-sults are available prices can be accuratelynegotiated.

Proposed kava quality specifications

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I. Advanced processing

For kava to be used in the pharmaceutical in-dustry the kavalactones must be extracted sothat they can be contained in capsules for easyuse by patients. In the pharmaceutical indus-try the most commonly used method for ex-tracting kavalactones is the solvent extractionmethod. Kavalactones are insoluble in water,so extraction is done with volatile solvents.Volatile solvents are used because they don’tleave a residue in the kavalactone extract. Thevolatile solvents are recyclable by evapora-tion and distillation, but are flammable, andthus should be handled carefully. The ex-tracted kavalactones are in the form of a darkthick viscose substance that is not easy to usedirectly. It is combined with an inert substancesuch as starch to create a powder with 30%kavalactone content that is then placed incapsules.

Steps in the solvent extraction process:

1 – Dry matter

2 – Crushing

3 – Reduction to fine powder

4 – Maceration, hot or cold in a solvent

5 – Filtration

6 – Elimination of solid residues

7 – Evaporation and recovery of solvent

8 – Extraction of a brown coloured resin

9 – Resin mixed with a base to create a30% kavalactone powder

The kava residues from domestic con-sumption still contain significant levels ofkavalactones. Processing offers the potentialto extract the kavalactones from these resi-dues, which are normally discarded. A suit-able economical extraction method, perhapsusing a combination of organic solvents,needs to be developed.

Another method of processing is spraydrying. Spray drying is a well-establishedagro-industrial technique that produces watersoluble powders such as milk powder that areeasy to handle and store. This technology iswell suited to kava because the powder dis-solves in water and it is more rapidly absorbed

by the body in this form than in capsules.This technique is expensive however, and re-quires an investment of about US$500,000for a small spray drying unit capable ofprocessing about one tonne of fresh roots perday.

Steps in the spray drying process:

1 – Fresh root

2 – Crushing

3 – Filtration

4 – Fresh juice

5 – High pressure pump

6 – Spray drying

7 – Water-soluble powder obtained

Much of the attraction of kava is the cer-emony attached to its preparation and socialconsumption in the Pacific. For the local mar-ket and export there is a need for a high qual-ity, pre-dried, ground kava for those who wantto consume kava in this manner.

Ready-to-drink extracted kava with othertropical flavours is now available. There arealso kava candies and other novel productson the market. These products have not gen-erated significant consumer demand, how-ever.

There continues to be interest from theprivate sector in establishing kavalactoneextraction facilities in the Pacific. One facil-ity was established in Port Vila but it is nolonger functioning. Another facility was es-tablished in Savusavu, Fiji Islands, but at atime of a decline in the market and demandwas not sustained. Currently there are plansto relocate this plant elsewhere in the Pacificregion. The key aspect in the establishment ofviable processing facilities is that they mustbe connected directly to the company that willfurther process the kavalactone extract andproduce the final product. Large pharmaceu-tical and natural products companies havesubstantial investments in their own process-ing facilities to use with a wide variety of rawmaterial. They prefer to use their own process-ing facilities to control quality and in order toadd value to the raw material themselves.

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toms of stress. This market is very precise.Buyers seek kava with a specific chemotypeand the pharmaceutical laboratories processthe kava to make a capsule with an exactkavalactone content. There has been a con-sistent demand for high quality kava for thismarket.

Nutritional supplement market: In theUnited States many non-prescription herbalremedies are considered nutritional supple-ments by the Federal Drug Administration, andkava recently became popular in this market.Kava is packaged in capsules, as teabags, andadded to other beverages. This market saw adramatic growth particularly in 1998, but sincethen the demand has declined. Kava became a‘fad’ in the herbal products market whichmeant that people tried it once. If a product inthis market is poor quality, people quickly loseinterest, and the market fades as quickly as itappeared. Some authorities believe that thelack of a standardised, high quality kava prod-uct for the consumer contributed to the de-cline in consumption in the US market.

Buyers

The export market demands high quality. Thebuyer is interested in finding the lowest pricepossible for a high quality kava. Buyers willdiscuss purchases with exporters in severalcountries before negotiating a quantity andprice. They prefer to buy sorted kava ratherthan pounded kava so they can verify the qual-ity immediately

Price is related to three factors:

Quality: High quality kava will have ahigher price than low quality kava. For exam-ple, kava that is clean and free of soil, welldried, with a fresh kava aroma will fetch ahigher price than kava that is dirty, only some-what dry, and mouldy smelling.

Consistency: Buyers of kava prefer toestablish more long-term business relation-ships with kava exporters. Not only do buy-ers want high quality, they also want to be

J. Marketing

There are several distinct markets for kava,but in all markets there is a demand for highquality kava.

Domestic drinking market

The local market is still the most importantmarket for kava in terms of total size and cashvalue. At the village level there is still a sub-stantial amount of production for householdand village consumption. Middlemen often buyat the village or villagers bring their kava tosell at markets in the urban centres. There isan increasing demand for pounded kava soldin packets for local consumption in kava shopsand in private homes.

This market is also less risky than theexport market for the buying and selling ofsmall quantities of kava. Producers know thebuyers and the prices they will get.

Export market

Kava exporters have emerged to serve anumber of markets. The exporters usually havetheir own buyers, who purchase the kava atthe village from known producers of qualitykava. Some large growers sell directly to theexporters. On occasion large growers formpartnerships with overseas kava buyers andprocessors. The exporter make the growersaware that they must follow many of theprincples outlined in this publication for pro-duction of high quality kava in order to re-ceive a good price.

Drinking market: The main drinkingmarkets are in the Pacific, such as Fiji Islands,Vanuatu, New Caledonia and Tonga. There isalso kava drinking in Australia, New Zealand,the United States particularly in California, andCanada.

Pharmaceutical market: In Germanyand France kava has been a prescription drugfor many years, prescribed in capsule formfor patients with psychological problems. Aspreviously explained, the kavalactones areconsidered a natural replacement for otherdrugs such as Valium that relieve the symp-

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able to buy kava of consistently high quality.This is how a grower, middleman or exporterestablishes a good reputation. Customers willkeep coming back to purchase more kava.However, if the quality of your kava is notconsistent then buyers will find suppliers whoare more reliable.

Part of the plant: The roots and peel-ings are higher in kavalactones and demand ahigher price than the chips and stems. Inter-national buyers often prefer the peelings,which they feel are better value and have thequality kavalactone they need.

Marketing of fresh kava at “The Kava Store” in Port Vila, Vanuatu..

Supply and demand: When there an isabundant supply available for the market,prices will be lower. Conversely, when supplyis low the prices will rise. A good example ofthe effect of supply and demand on kava priceswas seen during 1998. Buyers from the UnitedStates herbal market made substantialpurchases in 1998 and prices moved to veryhigh levels. However by the end of 1998, therewas very little kava being purchased for theexport market and prices declined substan-tially.

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There is good potential for growth in the localand export kava market. However, the futuregrowth and development of the kava industryneeds attention in the areas of production,research and marketing.

Production research

It is often debated which is more important:markets or production? It would appear thatfurther market opportunities are constrainedby production, as the large domestic marketrestricts the amount available for export.

Kava needs attention as a commercialcrop. Effective cropping systems adapted tothe local conditions need to be developed forsmallholders as well as for large-scale planta-tions.

Organic kava production systems needfurther study because of the high value nichemarket for organic products.

There are also major bottlenecks andneeds for agronomic research:

• Establishment of national germplasm col-lections needed.

• Selection of kava varieties of the bestchemotype and kavalactone content. Ha-waii has undertaken this and only goodchemotypes are promoted for production.

• Development of reliable tissue culturetechniques and micropropagation systemsfor virus-free planting material. Hawai‘ihas made progress in this area but the sur-vival rate of plants from tissue culture isstill only 50%

• Identification, prevention and controlof existing kava pests and diseases,including dieback, and a comprehen-sive study of the epidemiology.

• Determining the suitability of kavamonocropping by smallholders in thePacific.

• Kava fertility management for maxi-mum production and sustainability.

IV. ConclusionProcessing research

Further research into appropriate processingtechniques for the smallholder and for large-scale production is necessary. Appropriateequipment and packaging techniques are alsoneeded. Among the different processing tech-niques to be studied, priority should be givento the improvement and development of spraydrying techniques, ultra-high temperaturetreatment, and identifying the ideal combi-nation of organic solvents for the treatmentof residues from domestic consumption. Na-tional Kava Councils should be establishedto encourage intiative and coordinate devel-opment of the industry.

Facilitation of marketing activities

Inconsistent supply and poor quality of kavainhibit market development and destabiliseprices. The kava industry needs to establishkava quality specifications.

National or regional names should be de-veloped and protected to symbolise qualitykava from original sources and to protect itfrom competition from other tropical coun-tries.

Organic certification

A valuable niche market with potential forPacific Islands kava producers is the organicmarket. Much of the kava grown in the Pacifiis grown without the use of pesticides andchemical fertilizers. An organic certificationsystem for kava is needed to verify the or-ganic production methods used for the growthof the industry.

Working group of Kava Industry leaders at Regional Kava inmeeting, 1998.

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On 11 May 1998 the Association for Hawai-ian Awa (AHA) was formed as a non-profitorganisation for reserach, education, and pres-ervation of the cultural and medical values as-sociated with the awa (kava) plant.

Hawai‘i has a long tradition of growingand consuming kava that is now being revived.Hawaiian kava growers are applying modernproduction and propagation technologies tokava. Gowers in other Pacific Islands may beinterested in the technical information, whichprovides a much different approach to kavaproduction. If you are interested in experi-menting based on the following information,please do so on a small scale and with cau-tion.

Different soils

There are five basic production systems inHawai‘i, depending on the type of land wherethe kava is planted.

Appendix AHawaiian kava production

Deep soil

These lands, formerly used for sugar or pine-apple, are often depleted of nutrients. Thesesoils are deep-ploughed and rotor tilled withcompost and /or manure. Calcium and otherminerals may be added depending on the soilanalysis. The field are then formed into ridgesthat are as much as 150 cm (5 ft) wide and75–100 cm (2˚–3˘ ft) high to promote gooddrainage.

Rocky soil

These soils are often not very deep but ridgesare still made in the field. The same proce-dure as above is followed, with no deepploughing because of the often shallow soils.

Forested and rocky with limited soil

The trees are left growing on this land. Kavais grown among and under the trees onmounds of cinder, soil, compost and fertilisermix.

Jerry Konanui in a kava plot that will be used for cuttings.

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Fertility managementMany different methods of fertility manage-ment are are used, includeing both organic andnon-organic approaches. There is very littledocumented data on kava nutrient require-ments. Farmers are experimenting with a widerange of fertiliser application methods suchas pre-plant, side dressing and foliar applica-tion. The timing of fertiliser application is alsoan area of experimentation. Ginger farmers usetheir usual method with some variations. Tarogrowers are also using their knowledge andexperiences in formulating their own adapta-tion of fertility management.

Here are two examples:

Monthly application of NPK of differentformulations:

14-14-14 time release(1–3 months)14-14-14 commercial(3 months–1 year)16-16-16 commercial(1–2 years)10-20-20 commercial(After 2 years)

Monthly application of NPK of these formu-lations in rotation:

14-14-1410-20-2014-14-14 or 16-16-16

Fertiliser rates

A small handful of NPK is spread around andover the mound for small plants. A handfulfor 30 cm (1 ft) tall plants is well broadcastaround the plant and two to four handfuls ofNPK are applied for plants over 120 cm (4 ft)tall. It is important not to throw handfuls ofNPK into piles on the mounds, as it will burnyour plant. It is better to have more frequentlight applications of fertiliser than less frequentheavy applications.

Rocky with very little or no soil

These lands, where papaya or anthurium mayhave been grown before fertility depletion orthe disease of ring spot virus on papaya oranthurium blight, are cleared of weeds. Thekava is grown in mounds of a mixture of cin-der, soil, and compost with fertiliser added.

Basket systemThe weed mat basket method, though not ex-tensively used, is attractive for smaller farm-ers including backyard kava growers. Thismethod consists of wire baskets varying from75 cm (2˚ ft) to 130 cm (4˘ ft) tall madefrom welded steel wire, hog wire, or wire meshused for concrete reinforcement. The openwire baskets are lined with weed mats andfilled with a mix of cinder, soil, compost andfertiliser. The savings in labour costs and main-tenance time, ease of pest and disease con-trol, and the ease of harvesting make this anattractive alternative for small growers want-ing to supplement their income.

Kava planted in a large basket.

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Height and Yield of Kava

A three year old plant can yield from 8 to 17kg of green kava. One organic farmer got 16kg in twelve months; his fertiliser applicationis not known. The plant height at harvest de-pends to a great extent on the variety. Plantswith short nodes can reach a height of only1.2 to 1.8 m (4 to 6 ft). Plants with longinternodes can reach a height of 3.5 to 5 m(12 to 16˚ ft) in the shade, or a bit shorter indirect sunlight.

Weed managementEspecially during the period just after trans-planting, weeds are a major problem. Farm-ers transplant large plants from the nursery tohelp beat the weeds’ growth rate. Mulches ofcinders, grass clippings, shade tree chips andtrimmings, weed mats, and rows of shade andnitrogen fixing windbreaks help keep theweeds down until the kava canopy can pro-vide its own weed control.

In some areas with no irrigation, farmersallow a ground cover of weeds to grow, claim-ing that this helps maintain moisture duringthe hot summer months.

Herbicides are not approved for use in kavacultivation. The drift or wind carry ofRoundup, a systemic herbicide, from roadmaintenance on non-organic farms can havedevastating effects on kava.

IrrigationIrrigation is a real bonus for those fortunateenough to have it. To get better irrigation cov-erage, an emitter style head is recommendedrather than a drip head.

Farmers who have to rely on rainfall needways to ensure that the kava plants will haveenough moisture throughout the year, espe-cially during the hot summer months.

In high rainfall areas, large, well-drained,high mounds or ridges with a high proportionof moisture-holding materials can help pro-vide the right drainage.

For drier and windy areas, shade-provid-ing, nitrogen-fixing windbreaks are very help-ful in preventing the kava from drying out.Nitrogen-fixing windbreak species includeCasuarina equisetifolia, Calliandra calo-thyrsus, Gliricidia sepium, and Leucaenaleucocephala. Ask forestry or agricultureextension agents for the best trees for wind-breaks for your area. In this situation, rockymounds and hills aid in retaining moisture, soleave the rocks in. Mulch, weed mats, blackplastic mulch, and cover crops also help toretain moisture.

Irrigation in a field of young kava plants.

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Pruning

Due to the urgent need for planting materialkava crops were pruned drastically. It was thennoted that a healthy kava plant can handledrastic pruning twice a year without adverseeffect. On the contrary, the plants seem ableto not only to recover but to increase in size:more shoots come out; more roots developfrom these shoots, the rootstock increasesbecause there are more branches developing.About 10–30% of the stems are removed onceor twice a year, depending on how the plantsare growing. The woody stem closer to theground branches is removed, leaving thesofter and more succulent stems.

It is believed that Hawaiian ancestors wereright when they said that the Awa Kau Laau,

a variety of Hawaiian kava, famous for itsstrength, which grew in the crotch of trees inthe district of Puna, Hawai‘i, was strong be-cause the roots coming down the tree wereexposed to the sunlight. I feel that pruning isan extension of that idea. It opens up thecanopy of the plant and lets the sunlight pen-etrate to the base of the plant. Testing doneon Hawaiian kava in 1998 also supports this.

Advantages of pruning

1) Pruning provides planting material.

2) It promotes an increase in rootstock size.

3) It enhances production of kavalactones.

Spacing and shading

Spacing

The initial frenzy of kava planting broughtspacing as close as 60 cm (2 ft) betweenplants within the rows and 120 cm (4 ft)between rows. Experience has now shownthat this spacing was too close. Now 180cm by 180 cm (6 ft by 6 ft) or 240 cm by240 cm (8 ft by 8 ft) is the recommendedspacing.

Rows of kava plants properly spaced and shaded by windbreak trees.

Shading

Planting out acclimatised young plants callsfor shade or at least partial shade. Plantingkava between rows of pigeon pea or nitrogen-fixing windbreak trees seems to work well.After one year, or when the kava plants allowit, the shade trees are pruned and chipped onsite and added to the top of the mounds orridges as mulch or later as compost.

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Buds (eyes) developing becauseof pinching.

Pinching — removing the upper portion of axillarybud to stimulate the development of more buds.

Fast propagation method

A major constraint to expanding kavaproduction in Hawa‘i is lack of plantingmaterials. There has been a high degree ofinnovation to get large amounts of vigor-ous planting material from a small numberof plants in a short period of time. In thetipping and pinching approach, the buds arestimulated to grow into shoots while theyare still on the plant rather than after plant-ing, with the result that you can have muchfaster growing plants once they are put inthe ground.

Kava stem (primary branch) before tipping.

1. Plant preparation (before takingcuttings)

A. Fertilise plants one or two weeks beforetipping.

B. Tipping – the removal of the primarybranch tip:

(i) Tip only hard, woody branches (if yourthumbnail can penetrate the stem or node,it is too soft).

(ii) The purpose of tipping is to acceleratethe growth of the axillary buds into shoots.

(iii) Use only nodes from primary branches.Material from secondary branches willdevelop into plants with horizontal growthcharacteristics.

C. Pinching — the removal of the upper por-tion of the axillary bud, leaving the baseof the node. The purpose of pinching isto prevent damage to the sprouted bud(breaking off of the node). In addition,the pinching stimulates three to four eyesto come out of the base of the axillarybud. This gives you three to four stemsfrom one plant rather than a one-stemplant.

(i) Pinching should be done when axillaryshoots are at least 2.5 cm (1 in). The largerthe shoots the better.

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3. Preparing Nodes in the Nursery

A. Lay nodes in trays with pinched axil-lary buds facing up.

B. Dip the tray of nodes in a marinade offungicide and bactericide to prevent rot(optional but highly recommended).

(i) The length of time to soak the tray de-pends on the type and strength of fungi-cide and bactericide used but a fewmintues is usually sufficient.

(ii) After soaking, rinse with fresh clean wa-ter to prevent burn damage to soft/smallbuds and shoots.

(iii) Let water drain off until dry. Node with shoots facing up.

2. Removing nodes from the stem

A. Cutting individual nodes

(i) Cut with sharp clippers/loppers or a cleancutting saw.

(ii) Cut close to node.

(iii) Place cutting into plastic bucket; dampsphagnum moss is helpful to keep the cut-ting moist.

(iv) Don’t place the bucket in sun or subjectit to heat.

(v) Upon completion immediately transportto nursery.

After the top node is removed from thestem, the next node is allowed to sprout andbe pinched. This process can continue downthe stem. Always leave one node at the bot-tom of the stem to prevent potential entry offungi that can cause rotting of the rootstock.

Nodes in trays with buds facing up.

Sprouted node ready to be cut near the node.

C. Soak tray of nodes in a marinade ofseaweed extract and high phosphatefoliar mix (optional).

(i) Soak for five minutes.

(ii) Remove tray from marinade and let drainand dry.

(iii) Paint freshly cut node ends with pruningpaint (optional).

D. Place tray on a bench in a mist cham-ber so that the nodes are kept moist.

(i) Keep in 60% to 80% shade.

(ii) Every day:a. Check for drop-off (stubs from second-

ary cut branch)b. Check for and remove rotten nodesc. Hose down the nodes to keep them

cleand. Watch for rooting and when roots ap-

pear put the node in a pot of media (seepage 50).

(iii) Weekly: spray or soak in high phosphatefoliar seaweed extract (optional).

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Nodes after planting in pots.

4. Potting rooted nodes

A. Use a 4 litre pot or bag.This is so that you can keep the plant in

the same container until transplanting. Smallerpots can be used but transferring to a largerpot will be necessary before transplanting tothe field. Using a 4 litre pot also means theplant can be grown even if transplanting isdelayed.

B. Media (use sterile media where possible)

(i) 80% cinder/perlite, 20% compost (pre-ferred).

(ii) 100% cinder/perlite (2nd choice).

(iii) Drip or mist irrigation is recommendedthough watering daily is acceptable oncethe plants are well established.

C. Start with 60–80% shade in the nurs-ery. Just before transplanting, gradu-ally increase exposure first to 60–70%for a week and then to 30% shade fora week.

D. Fertiliser application can be done inseveral ways.

(i) Slow release (balanced with minerals) asper directions.

(ii) Foliar spray/soak every other week.

(iii) Manure tea or in the potting mix.

(iv) High phosphate seaweed extract as perinstructions.

E. The size of the plant at transplantingdepends on field conditions (smallplants are under 30 cm (12 in), largeplants are over 30 cm).

(i) Shaded conditions for small plants andunshaded conditions for large plants.

(ii) Weedy conditions require large plants;small plants need weed-free conditions.

(iii) If pests (insects, slugs and snails) arepresent, plant large plants; if field is pest-free you can plant small plants.

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Hawaiian Pacific Kava Company nursery inHilo, Hawai‘i.

Small backyard kava nursery in Hilo Hawai‘i with owner Ed Johnston

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Jim Henderson of Pu‘u O Hoku Ranch inKaunakakai, Hawai‘i, has taken an organicapproach to growing kava. Hawaiian soils arelow in phosphorous and the pH levels wereall well below 6. Much of the fertilisation isbased upon what is known of other plants’needs. What kava needs for high kavalactonecontent and vigorous growth is relatively un-known. It does seem to be a heavy feeder andtherefore foliar fertilising is necessary to keepthe nitrogen at a high level for maximumgrowth. So far, the plants are looking quitevigorous, on the whole. There is no yield datayet because the oldest plants are only 16months old.

1. Soil evaluation: soil nutrient levels varygreatly. A soil test is important to knowwhat to add to the soil. Based on the soilanalysis Jim has developed a soil fertilitymanagement plan.

2. Preplant application of one tonne/hectareof calcium (oyster shell lime) and onetonne/hectare of phosphorous (soft rockphosphate).

3. When possible he plants the field witheither Sudan grass or crotalaria before itis prepared for planting kava. Both areknown to kill nematodes. Crotalaria is alegume that fixes nitrogen thereby addingsoil nutrients. Crotalaria can and shouldbe inoculated with rhizobium bacteria formaximum nitrogen production. There arealso other good tropical cover crops thatcan be used. This crop is allowed to growto crowd out the weeds and enrich thesoil. It is then cut and plowed into thesoil.

4. The kava is grown on raised beds 30 cm(12 in) tall and 1.8 m (6 ft) across that aremade with a tractor and a ridging attach-ment. The three-month-old kava seedlingsare planted 1.6 m (5˘ ft) apart in the row.At planting Jim adds 450 g each of lime,phosphorous, Norwegian kelp (algit), fishor blood meal, and diatomaceous earth.Compost is added at a rate of 28 kg perbed of 65 m. A mulch cover of chippedtrees is overlaid on beds to a depth of10 cm (4 in).

5. There are windbreaks every 150 m(500 ft) and rows of pigeon pea, gliricidiaand sesbania at closer intervals. Shadingis not considered necessary.

6. There is not much pruning of the kava.Exceptions are for propagation andculling out poor stems at fertilisation andweeding.

7. A foliar fertiliser spraying schedule beginsafter planting, using Maxicrop (commer-cial brand) foliar fertiliser and Mermaids(commercial brand) fish powder, appliedwith a small tractor and sprayer at a rateof 9 kg of formulation per 400 litres ofwater per 0.45 hectare. This is ideallydone every three weeks. The process canbe improved upon with the use ofspreader stickers (yucca extract) andoxygen and pH modifiers (hydrogenperoxide or vinegar).

8. At six months of age the kava is sidedressed with 500 kg phosphorus, 500 kglime and 125 kg blood meal per hectare.At 1–1̊ years we side dress with 500 kgalgit and 500 kg fishmeal (potassium andnitrogen) per hectare.

Organic kava production

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The development of the kava industry hasbrought with it new producers and buyers. Inthe rush to produce and sell kava, a problemhas appeared in the form of false kava. Thefalse kava is sold to unsuspecting buyers herein the Pacific or shipped directly to overseasbuyers, usually mixed in with true kava. Theresult is that the shipment will be rejected whenthe kavalactone content is tested.

False kava is a threat to quality kava pro-duced in the region. It gives kava producersand exporters a bad name in the internationalkava market.

In Samoa and Fiji Islands false kava is re-ferred to as ‘Tongan kava’ or ‘yaqona nionolulu’, and in Tonga ‘Hawaiian kava’. Whatare these other kinds of kava? The scientificname of kava is Piper methysticum. Falsekavas are other species within the Piper ge-nus but they do not contain kavalactones.

Piper aduncum. This species is a tree upto 5–6m (15–20 ft) tall with leaves up to 15 cm(6 in) long and flowers borne on cream col-oured drooping spikes about 12 cm (5 in)long. The leaves are bigger and lighter greenthan kava. This species apparently was intro-duced in the 1920s and now is a widespreadweed in the wet and intermediate zones of VitiLevu, Fiji Islands.

Appendix B

Kava leaf.

False kava leaf(Piper auritum)

Piper auritum. This species causes themost confusion in Hawai'i. The distinguishingcharacteristic are:

Vein pattern: there is a central vein withsmaller veins branching off it. This contrastswith the distinctive vein pattern of kava, whichhas 9 to 13 veins all spreading from the baseof the leaf.

Smell: crushed leaves smell strongly ofsafrole (similar to sassafras or root beer).Safrole found in the leaves and stems is con-sidered a carcinogen by the FDA.

Piper spp. There are other members of thePiper genus, such as Piper wichmannii inVanuatu, that may be confused with kava. Ifyou are an experienced kava producer you willnotice the differences on close examination ofthe plant: leaves, stem, flowers, and plantform. If the plant is already dried, the rootswill not have the characteristic smell of kavaand will sometimes be a different colour. Theroots are more woody and contain less starch,and are not slender and flexible.

These other members of the Piper genusare widespread in the Pacific and they do notcontain kavalactones.

Do not let the false kava destroy the reputa-tion of kava from the Pacific.

False kava —a threat to the South Pacific kava industry

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False kava being removed in Fiji Islands.(Piper aduncum)

False kava.

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—. 1997. An overview of kava production in the Pacific Islands: what we do know and what wedon’t. In Journal of South Pacific Agriculture. 4(1 & 2):55–62.

Lebot, V. and Cabalion, P. 1986. Les kavas de Vanuatu : cultivars de Piper methysticum Forst.Paris, France: Office Recherche Scientifique et Technique Outre-Mer (ORSTOM).(Travaux et documents no. 205.)

—. 1988. Kavas of Vanuatu : cultivars of Piper methysticum Forst. Noumea, New Caledonia: SouthPacific Commission (SPC). (Technical paper no. 195).Note: First published as Les kavas de Vanuatu: cultivars de Piper methysticum Forst. Paris,France : ORSTOM, 1986.

Lebot, V. and Lévesque, J. 1989. The origin and distribution of kava (Piper methysticum Forst. f.,Piperaceae) : a phytochemical approach. In Allertonia. (2):223–281.

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—. 1996. Evidence for conspecificity of Piper methysticum Forts. f. and Piper wichmannii C. DC.In Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. 24(7/8):775–782.

Lebot, V., Aradhya, M.K., and Manshardt, R.M. 1991. Geographic survey of genetic variation inkava (Piper methysticum Forst. f. and P. wichmannii C. DC.). In Pacific Science.45(2):169–185.

Lebot, V., Merlin, M., and Lindstrom, L. 1992. Kava the Pacific drug. New Haven, USA: YaleUniversity Press. (Psychoactive plants of the world.)

—. [ca.1997]. The Pacific elixir: the definitive guide to its ethnobotany, history and chemistry.Rochester, Vermont, USA: Healing Arts Press.Note: First published as Kava the Pacific drug. New Haven, USA: Yale University Press,1992.

Milne, M. 1997. Crop profile 1: Kava. Apia, Samoa: Ministry of Agriculture, Forests, Fisheries andMeteorology, Economic Analysis and Planning Unit.Note: Published in 1996 by the Institute for Research, Extension and Training in Agriculture(IRETA) for the Western Samoa Farming Systems Project Phase 2.

Nevenimo, T. and Ngere, O. 1991. Kava, a potential cash crop for Papua New Guinea Lowlands.Keravat, Papua New Guinea: Department of Agriculture and Livestock, LowlandsAgricultural Experiment Station. (Technical bulletin: cash crops diversification series 2/91.)

Onwueme, I.C. and Papademetriou, M.K. 1997. The kava crop and its potential. Bangkok,Thailand: FAO. Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. (RAP publication 1997/12.)

Politoni, K. and Hoponoa, T. 1999. Kava in Tonga. In: Rogers, S. and Thorpe, P., editors. Diffusionand transfer of agricultural technology in the Pacific: reports and papers from the thirdannual meeting of cooperators, Vava’u Kingdom of Tonga, 24–28 November 1997. Suva,Fiji Islands: Pacific Regional Agricultural Programme (PRAP); p. 124. (PRAP report no.6.)

Qioniwasa, J. V. 1985. Planting kava. In South Pacific Ag Teacher. 3(2):39–41.

Valentine, N. 1999. A preliminary report on non-timber forest products in some Pacific Islandcountries: with a case study on Morinda citrifolia. SPC/UNDP/AusAID/FAO. PacificIslands Forests & Trees Support Programme (RAS/97/330). Suva, Fiji Islands: PacificIslands Forests & Trees Support Programme. (Working paper no. 6.)

Kava drying shed in Vanuatu.

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Adulteration is the term used when the product for sale has other foreign material mixedwith it so that it doesn’t conform to the specification agreed on, e.g., thekava is dirty; is mixed with false kava, or has other plant materials mixedin.

Adventitious roots roots which develop spontaneously from the stem when it is placed in amoist environment. In the case of kava these roots develop quite easily. Inother species it can be quite difficult for the roots to develop.

Bacterium very small (microscopic) organisms that can cause diseases in plants.

Basal stem the stem, 20 cm (8 in) above the rootstock.

Bud scar small rough scar on the nodes (stem joints) where shoots will emerge whenthe conditions are right.

Competition plant and root competition occurs when two or more compete with oneanother for light, water, nutrients etc. One plant may grow well and theother dies or grows sickly.

Compost a mixture of dried plant material, animal manure and other organicmaterials such as sea weed or saw dust that is combined and goes though amicrobiological breakdown that turns it into a compound that looks likesoil. It is then used to fertilise the soil.

Cortical layer the part between the bark (epidermis) and the central core of the stem.

Cover crop a crop, often of the legume family, planted to fully cover the soil betweenstands of trees and between other crops. Cover crops are useful becausethey protect and also enrich the soil. Yams and sweet potatoes are oftenused as a cover crop.

Crop rotation refers to planting a sequence of different crops on a plot of land. Thepractice help maintain soil fertility and break the life cycle of many pestsand diseases that may only survive on one crop and thereby reduce pestand disease attack.

Cropping system pattern of growing crops over time as well as the mixture of plants growntogether at the same time.

Cultivar any variety and selected plant that is produced or grown by farmers and isnot found naturally in the wild.

Cultivation shallow digging of the soil to allow water to soak into the soil and also toremove weeds.

Cutting plant stem cut into pieces and planted to start a new plant.

Dieback a disease in which a plant starts to die from the ends of its branches. Seekava dieback.

Direct planting making a hole and planting a cutting without first growing the seedlings ina nursery.

Glossary

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Disease any condition that is not normal in a plant. Diseases usually produce signsand symptoms.

Epidemiology the study of diseases.

Extraneous matter any material which is not in the specification, e.g. foreign matter — dirt,stones, false kava, etc.

Farming system different methods used to grow crops, including shifting cultivation,continuous cropping, mixed cropping, monocropping etc.

Foliar fertiliser a fertiliser which is applied to the leaves of a plant.

Genetic vulnerability A species of plant such as kava that has only a limited number of cultivarswhich means that it has a narrow genetic base and limited variability.These plants are generally more susceptible to environmental stress, pest,and diseases.

Germinating the first stages in growth of a cutting or seed.

Green kava/ not dried.green weight

Intercropping planting together more than one type of crop, in lines and with a definitespacing.

Internode space between two nodes.

Lateral branches side branches.

Maceration breaking up the kava plant bits to release the chemicals or kavalactones.

Markets domestic/local: within a community, district or country.export: outside the country where the kava was grown.nutriceutical: health food, nutritional and diet supplements.pharmaceutical: medicines and drugs.

Mealy bugs Small insects of not more than 5 mm in length that suck the juice fromplants. Usually on the underside of leaves. Mealy bugs get their namefrom the white material that covers their bodies as protection and comesoff when touched. Mealy bugs produce honeydew that is visible as blackstain on the leaves.

Micro-organism any organism that can only be seen with a microscope. Bacteria, virusesand fungi are all microorganisms.

Mixed cropping method of planting crops in which more than one type of crop is planted inthe same garden, at the same time, without any definite spacing andwithout any rows or lines.

Moisture soil moisture is the medium in which plant food is carried from the soilinto the plant.

Monocropping planting only one crop throughout the plantation.

Mulch dried leaves and grasses placed around the base of a plant to reduce waterloss, control weeds and add plant food to the soil. Plastic mulch does all ofthis except add plant food to the soil.

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Multicrop garden growing several different plants in the same garden.

Mutation is a change in the hereditary materials of a plant. Mutations may happenspontaneously or because of specific factors in the environment.

Nitrogen-fixing legume a legume which can change the free element nitrogen in the soil to plantfood substances called nitrates. Examples are peanuts, pigeon pea, andmucuna.

Node point of a stem from which stems or leaves grows. The internode is thepart between the nodes.

Nursery place where cuttings or seeds are planted and tended to grow into youngplants.

Nutrient element or other substance that can be used as a source of plant food.Some nutrients can move in water. The water in the soil transports thenutrient to the plant. Other nutrients are not mobile in the soil and whenthe soil is exhausted the plant needs to grow more roots to reach thenutrients in fertile soil, or the farmer needs to fertilise the soil with mulchand animal manure.

Organic matter decomposed material from living or once living things.

Organic farming/ growing crops with the use of compost, manure and other natural plantorganic production food, and without the use of any chemical pesticides or man-made plant

food.

Physiological effect the effect on the body’s normal functions.

Potting soil a special blend of organic matter and soil which is prepared for nurseryand potted planting.

Pathogen any living thing that can cause disease, e.g. bacteria, fungi, viruses,parasites.

Propagate to increase the number of plants by natural means, e.g. cuttings or seeds.

Relative humidity the moisture in the air at any temperature compared to the maximumamount of moisture the air can contain at that temperature — high levelsof relative humidity are favorable for the the outbreak and spread of plantdisease. High relative humidity is unfavorable for storage of kava.

Representative sample a small sample of a larger quantity of kava product that is obtained in sucha way that it will provide an accurate sample of the larger quantity foranalysis.

Ridging mounding up soil around the plants either individually or in a longcontinuous seedbed or plantbed.

Rot the plant or plant material is attacked by micro-organisms and isdecomposed.

Rotation see crop rotation.

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Scale insects Small insects of not more than 5 mm in length that suck the juice fromplants. Usually on the underside of leaves. They get their name from theround shell that covers their bodies as protection and looks similar toscales on fish. Scales produce honeydew that is visible as black stain onthe leaves.

Shade protection from the sun. Kava needs shade if the roots and young plantsare to grow quickly and easily.

Shade cloth manufactured cloth designed in several different thicknesses, used toshield nursery plants from exposure to too much sun.

Seedling a young plant grown from a cutting or from seed.

Soil fertility ability of the soil to provide essential nutrients in the correct amounts andproportions for plant growth.

Sterile does not produce seeds that will grow. Kava plants are sterile.

Stress when a plant suffers stress it does not grow well or easily. Stress can bedue to a variety of causes, including lack of moisture or lack of nutrients inthe soil.

Systemic herbicide a chemical which will kill the plant by being absorbed by the plant andtransported through the plant’s own systems.

Transplant to transfer a young plant from where it was first grown and looked after, toa permanent place in the garden.

Variety is a grouping below the species (Piper methysticum). A type of kava differsfrom other types e.g. Vanuatu variety and Papua New Guinea variety.

Vegetative propagation propagation by planting part of the plant and not by seed. Each generationis identical to the parent. The danger is that the plants are geneticallyvulnerable.

Vigorous strong and healthy.

Virus small infectious agent that causes disease that passes on from one sick plantto a healthy one. Insects sometimes pass the virus from infected plants tohealthy plants. A virus can produce a variety of symptoms in a plant andreduce yield. Diseases caused by viruses are difficult to control. The diseasekava dieback is thought to be caused by the cucumber mosaic virus(CMV).