Kassin Wrightsman 1985
Transcript of Kassin Wrightsman 1985
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ifgp ta r gppagr mbk
mb 4
s.
Ngssmb
gb` C.
[rmkftslgb (A`s.)7
Pfa Zsyifocoky
oe Avm`abia gb` Pr mg c
Zroia`ura .
Havar cy
Fm c c s 4 Ygka Zuhc m ig t mobs
7= 6.Y.
IFGZPAX
9
Iobeassmob Avm`abia
Y QC L NGYYMB
CG[XABIA
Y.
[XMKFPYLGB
[fgt iouc` fgva
lora
mlpgit `urmbk tfa ioursa oe g trmgc tfgb g
ravacgtmob erol tfa wmtbass
stgb`
tfgt tfa `aeab`gbt fg` pravmouscy
iobeassa` to tfa irmla?
Pfa
trutf ms, prohghcy botfmbk. Mb`aa`
[mklora, mb fms icgssmi tragtmsa ob Aum`abia (7=;:), gssarta` tfa
Opmbmob oe savargc gutformtgtmva cakgc sifocgrs tfgt iobeassmobs rgbn gs
fmkfast mb tfa sigca oe avm`abia.
Pfara
gra two hgsas eor tfms gpprgmsgc. Emrst, gctfoukf astmlgtas vgry,
tfara ms ragsob to hacmava tfgt iobeassmob avm`abia ms mbtro`uia` wmtf
gstobmsfmbk eraquabiy mb tfa iourts. G survay oe `aputy `mstrmit
gttorbays mb Cos Gbkacas Ioubty, eor axglpca, ravagca` tfgt iobeas
smobs wara kmvab mb 0; pariabt oe tfa ovar 0::: igsas raporta`
(]oubkar,
7=55).
Gt
tfa
sgla tmla, tfa `mstrmit gttorbay oe Baw ]orn
Imty gssarta` tfgt fa pcgbba` to oeear iobeassmob avm`abia
mb
56 pariabt
oe
tfa
folmim`a igsas
fa
fg` pab`mbk (saa Nguelgb, 7=55). Ngcvab gb`
Taesac's (7=55) axtabsmva survay oe trmgc du`kas mb`migta` tfgt, ovargcc,
`msputa` iobeassmobs (m.a., tfosa tfgt gra abma` or wfosa g`lmssmhmcm
ty
ms
ifgccabka` hy tfa aeabsa) grosa
mb
gpproxmlgtacy 8: pariabt oe tfa
91;5 igsas tfay fg` sglpca` bgtmobwm`a.
Mb g``mtmob to tfa eraquabiy wmtf wfmif iobeassmob avm`abia
ms
raiamva`, g saiob` ragsob eor mts mlportgbia ms tfa ohvmous mlpgit mt
igb smbkca-fgb`a`cy axart ob g `aeab`gbt's egta. Gs LiIorlmin 7=;8)
put mt, tfa mbtro`uitmob oe g iobeassmob lgnas tfa
otfar
gspaits oe g
trmgc mb iourt suparecuous (p. 975). Mb`aa` ovar tfa yagrs, savargc
mbstgbias fgva suregia` oe arrobaous iobvmitmobs hgsa` gclost axicu
smvacy ob ubiorrohorgta` iobeassmob avm`abia. Mb Iobumitmbk tfa
Mbboiabt
eor
axglpca, Horifgr`
7=98)
ravmawa`
51
irmlmbgc igsas,
lgby mbvocvmbk mb`mvm`ugcs wfo wara mbigriargta`
or
axaiuta` ob tfa
5;
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6
PmmA ZY]IFOCOK] OE AUM@ABIA B@ PXMGC ZXOIA@QXA
hgsms
oe
iobeassmobs
suhsaquabtcy
prova` to ha egcsa {saa gcso
Ergbn
Ergbn's Bot Kumcty 7=1;). Pfa iolpaccmbk .
bgtura
oe iobeassmob
avm`abia fgs gcso haab `alobstrgta`
ob gb
alpmrmigc cavac. Mb g loin
dury axparmlabt,
Lmccar
gb`
Hostar
(7=;;)
fg`
suhdaits
rag`
g `asirmp
tmob
oe
g lur`ar trmgc tfgt mbicu`a` (7) obcy imriulstgbtmgc avm`abia, (8)
ayawmtbass tastmloby erol amtfar gb
giqugmbtgbia
or g strgbkar, gb` (9)
tastmloby gccakmbk tfgt
tfa
`aeab`gbt fg` iobeassa`
to
tfa pocmia. Mt
turba` out tfgt tfosa
suhdaits
wfo raiamva` tfa iobeassmob
avm`abia
wara lora cmnacy to vmaw tfa aeab`gbt gs kumcty tfgb tfa
otfar
kroups,
mbicu`mbk tfosa provm`a` wmtf tfa ayawmtbass m`abtmemigtmob.
PFA XQCAYOE IOBEAYYMOBAUM@AB A
B@
ZXO A@QXA
Fmstormigccy, iobeassmob
avm`abia
fgs provm`a` g raiurrmbk
souria
oe
iobtrovarsy mb Glarmigb durmspru`abia,
gs
mt smluctgbaouscy acmimts hotf
prgmsa gb` suspmimob. Ms tfa gccaka` iobeassmob gutfabtmi? Igb tfa
tastmloby oe pgm` mbeorlars, gbkry vmitmls, gb` ovarzagcous pocmia
oeemiars ha
trusta`? Me
so,
wgs tfa
`aeab`gbt oe soub` lmb`,
or
iouc`
fa
or
sfa
fgva iobeassa` to
`aa`s
tfgt
fa
or sfa `m` bot iollmt? [gs
tfa
`aeab`gbt's stgtalabt ioaria` or mb`uia` hy trminary urmbk iusto`mgc
mbtarrokgtmob? [gs fms or far iobstmtutmobgc prmvmcaka gkgmbst sace
mbirmlmbgtmob vmocgta`?
Pfasa
quastmobs
mccustrgta
gb` raprasabt
tfa
iolpcaxmty oe tfa mssuas
surroub`mbk
tfa usa oe iobeassmob avm`abia mb
iourt. .
Haeora `msiussmbk tfa spaimgc rucas tfgt fgva avocva` eor tfa
raiaptmob oe iobeassmob
avm`abia, wa
lust emrst icgrmey
wfgt
iobstmtutas
g iobeassmob. Prg`mtmobgccy, g
iobeassmob wgs
`aemba` gs gb ginbowc
a`kalabt,
mb axprassa`
wor`s, hy
tfa giiusa` mb g irmlmbgc
igsa,
oe tfa
trutf oe
tfa
kumcty egit
ifgrka`
or oe sola assabtmgc pgrt oe mt ([mklora,
7=;:, p. 9:6). Pfms `aembmtmob
fgs
haab iobsm`ara` bgrrow mb siopa, gs mt
axicu`as kumcty iob`uit (a.k., ecaambk erol grrast), axiucpgtory stgta
labts
(a.k., g sace-`aeabsa axpcgbgtmob
or
gpocoky) gb`
otfar
g`lmssmobs
{m.a., tfosa tfgt
`o
bot
hagr
`mraitcy ob
tfa
mssua oe kumct or
egcc
sfort oe gb
ginbowca`klabt oe gcc assabtmgc acalabts oe tfa irmla). Pfasa `mstmbi
tmobs -p.utmiuc.ucy tfcct
hatwaab
iobeassmobs gb`
otfar g`lmssmobs
f ~ u m
mb tft?
p ~ 7 s t ab`hca` tfa iourts to imriulvabt fgvmbk to gppcy tfa
strmbkabt rucas eor mbtro`uimbk iobeassmob avm`abia wfab `agcmbk wmtf
tfa otfar typas
oe sace-mbirmlmbgtory
stgtalabts
(LiIorlmin, 7=;8).
Fowavar, haigusa tfasa `mstmbitmobs
gra
oetab suhtca gb` `meemiuct to
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Yguc
L.
Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia Y. [rmkftslgb
5=
lgna mb
mb`mvm`ugc igsas (saa Ycoukf,
7=1=),
gb`
haigusa tfa Q.Y.
Yuprala Iourt fgs
mb`migta`
tfgt ioaria`
g`lmssmobs
gra
suhdait
to
tfa
sgla
iobstmtutmobgc sgeakugr`s
gs
eucc
iobeassmobs (a.k.,
Gsfirget v.
Pabbassaa
7=00), to`gy's giiapta` opargtmobgc `aembmtmob ms, eor gc7
prgitmigc purposas,
oba tfgt
abiolpgssas g racgtmvacy wm`a rgbka
oe
sace-mbirmlmbgtory hafgvmors ub`ar tfa cghac
iob/assmob.
Fmstormigc Ouarumaw
Giior`mbk to [mklora's
(7=;:)
fmstormigc gbgcysms, tfa
lo`al
cgw's
usa oe
iobeassmobs fgs proiaa`a` tfroukf g sarmas oe msirata stgkas.
@urmbk
tfa
smxtaabtf gb`
savabtaabtf
iabturmas mb Abkcgb`, tfara wgs
bo rastrmitmob, bo `oitrmba ghout axicu`mbk iobeassmobs.
Gcc
gvowgcs oe
kumct wara giiapta`
gt
egia vgcua wmtfout `msirmlmbgtmob.
Mb
egit,
iobeassmbk wgs cmna pcag`mbk kumcty, tfarahy praicu`mbk
tfa baa`
eor g
eorlgc trmgc. [mklora bota` tfgt
gt
cagst tfroukf tfa lm``ca oe
tfa
savabtaabtf iabtury, tfa usa oe pfysmigc
tortura to
axtrgit iobeassmobs
wgs
iollob
gb`
avm`abia
so
ohtgmba` wgs giiapta` wmtfout sirupca.
Mb iobtrgst, hy
tfa
bmbataabtf iabtury tfara wgs g parmo` `urmbk wfmif
tfa
du`mimgry wgs kabargccy iybmigc oe gcc iobeassmobs gb` tab`a`
to
rapu`mgta tfal upob tfa scmkftast prataxt. Pwo hgsas eor tfms mstrust oe
iobeassmobs wara
grtmiucgta`- M)
tfgt
tfa
proiass oe proiurmbk prooe oe
gb
gccaka` iobeassmob tfroukf tfa tastmloby oe
gb
gssoimgta, mbeorlar,
pocmia oeemiar,
or
vmitml,
ms
oe quastmobghca racmghmcmty, gb`
8)
avab wfab
tfa iobeassmob
ms
g wacc-prova` egit, mt lgy fgva cmttca `mgkbostmi vgcua
(m.a.,
gs gb
mb`migtor oe kumct) me
mt
wgs
tfa
rasuct oe ioarimob
or
wgs
mb`uia` hy prolmsas, tfragts,
or otfar
tgitmis oe tfa tfmr` akraa.
@urmbk tfa twabtmatf iabtury, iobeassmob avm`abia fgs haab bamtfar
giiapta` bor radaita` outrmkft. Mbstag` mts g`lmssmhmcmty fgs haab
`atarlmba` ob
gb
mb`mvm`ugc hgsms hy g rgtmobgc iobsm`argtmob oe
tfa
surroub`mbk imriulstgbias
gb`
tfa gcc-mlportgbt raqumralabt tfgt
mt
ha
prova` vo7ubtgry. Giior`mbk
to
[mklora, tfa outstgb`mbk `avacop
labt
mb
raiabt yagrs ms tfa bgtmobgcmzgtmob oe iobeassmob cgws, astgh
cmsfa` tfroukf g sarmas oe Q.Y. Yuprala
Iourt
`aimsmobs
gb`
eoub`a`
upob tfa @ua Zroiass Icgusa oe tfa Eourtaabtf Glab`labt (saa gcso
Ytapfabs,
7=;9). Pfus, mb Hrowb u. Lmssmssmppm (7=95),
tfa iourt
ravarsa` g kumcty var`mit haigusa oe g iobeassmob tfgt wgs raiamva`
tfroukf pfysmigc hrutgcmty, gb` gssarta` tfgt g trmgc ms g lara pratabsa
wfara tfa stgta gutformtmas fgva iobtmbua` g iobvmitmob rastmbk socacy
upob iobeassmobs ohtgmba` hy vmocabia (p. 86;>
saa
gcso
Ifglhars u.
Ecorm`g
7=0:).
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;:
PFA
ZY]IFOCOK]
OE
AUM@ABIA
B@
PXMGC ZXOIA@QXA
Mb g butsfacc,
vocubtgrmbass
fg` alarka` gs tfa prmlgry irmtarmob eor
tfa g`lmssmob oe iobeassmob avm`abia. Pfa lgdor tgsn oe raiabt yagrs
fg` tfus haiola to grtmiucgta tfa.tfaoratmigc rgtmobgca eor tfms irmtarmob
gs wacc gs g proia`urgc strgtaky eor mts mlpcalabtgtmob. [fy gra
mbvocubtgry i=beassmobs axicu`a`? Pfroukf tfa vgrmous Yuprala
Iourt aimsmobs, assabtmgccy two typas oe ragsobs wara g`vgbia`. Emrst
ms tfa iollob cgw axpcgbgtmob tfgt mbvocubtgry iobeassmobs, cmna
tastmloby kmvab wfmca mbtoxmigta`
or
mb raspobsa to cag`mbk quastmobs,
gra ubtrustwortfy gb` ubracmghca (saa [mklora, 7=;:>
Ytamb u Baw
.
]orn, 7=19).
Giior`mbkcy, tfa opargtmobgc tast raiollab`a` eor
du`kas' rucmbks oe g`lmssmhmcmty
ms
wfatfar tfa mb`uialabt wgs sueemimabt
to praicu`a g eraa gb` rgtmobgc ifomia gb` pro`uia g
egmr
rmsn oe egcsa
iobeassmob.
Pfa
saiob` rgtmobgca, emrst grtmiucgta`
mb Cmsabhg u
Igcmeorbmg
(7=07), ms tfgt
''tfa
gml oe
tfa
raqumralabt oe ua
proiass
ms
bot to axicu`a prasulptmvacy egcsa avm`abia hut to pravabt eub`glabtgc
ubegmrbass
mb
tfa usa oe avm`abia wfatfar trua or egcsa (p. 87=). Hotf
sifocgrcy sabtmlabt (LiIorlmin, 7=05> Zgucsab, 7=10) gb` suhsaquabt
igsa
cgw
(a.k., Xokars u Xmiflob`, 7=57) fgva sfmeta` towgr` tfms
iurrabt alpfgsms
ob
iobstmtutmobgccy-hgsa` proia`urgc egmrbass, mb`mvm`
ugc rmkfts, gb` tfa `atarrabia oe oeeabsmva pocmia lmsiob`uit. Gs suif,
gctfoukf mbvocubtgry iobeassmobs
lust
ha axicu`a`
me
hacmava`
to ha
ubtrustwortfy, tfgt irmtarmob ms
bot aboukf-tfay
lust gcso ha
axicu`a` me
mccakgccy
ohtgmba`.
Iurrabt Ytgtus
Uocubtgrmbass
ms
g meemiuct iobiapt to opargtmobgcmza smbia mt raqumras
mbearabia ghout tfa suspait's suhdaitmva stgta oe lmb` gb` alhrgias
. fa `ugc iobiarbs eor trustwortfmbass gb` `ua proiass. Pfa Yuprala
Iourt,
mb egit, fgs avg`a` praimsa `aembmtmob gb` stgta` mb Hcginhurb u
Gcghglg (7=5:) tfgt g iolpcax oe vgcuas ub`arcmas tfa strmitura
gkgmbst usa hy tfa stgta oe iobeassmobs wfmif, hy
wgy
oe iobvabmabt
sfortfgb`, tfms iourt tarls mbvocubtgry, gb` tfa roca pcgya` hy agif mb
gby smtugtmob vgrmas giior`mbk to tfa pgrtmiucgr imriulstgbias oe tfa
igsa p. 8:;). Pfa iobiapt oe mbvocubtgrmbass tfus raprasabts g
sullgry axprassmob eor gcc prgitmias tfgt vmocgta iobstmtutmobgc prmbim
pcas (a.k., tfa rmkft to g
egmr
trmgc, tfa prmvmcaka gkgmbst iolpucsory
sace-mbirmlmbgtmob) gb` igb ha `atarlmba` obcy tfroukf g iolpra
fabsmva gbgcysms oe tfa totgcmty oe tfa racavgbt imriulstgbias
Iuc-
olha
u Iobbaitmiut, 7=57, p. 5:5).
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Yguc L Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia Y. [rmkftslgb
;7
Pfa
igtgcok oe egitors tfgt lgy ha racavgbt
to
g `atarlmbgtmob oe
vocubtgrmbass iovars g wm`a rgbka. Mt mbicu`as ifgrgitarmstmis oe
tfa
giiusa` (a.k., youtf, suhborlgc mbtaccmkabia, pfysmigc `msghmcmty, labtgc
mccbass, mbtoxmigtmob, mccmtargiy), tfa iob`mtmobs oe atabtmob (a.k., acgya`
grrgmkblabt, mbg`aqugta cmvmbk egimcmtmas, cgin oe giiass to ioubsac,
ermab`s, or otfar gssmstgbia), gb`-oe ioursa-tfa lgbbar oe mbtar
rokgtmob (a.k., cabktfy gb` kruacmbk parmo`s oe quastmobmbk, pfysmigc
ghusa, `aprmvgtmob oe baa`s, tfragts oe fgrl or pubmsflabt, g`vmia,
prolmsas or ragssurgbias, `aiaptmob). Bot surprmsmbkcy, tfa igsa cgw
fgs
haab
iobeusmbk gb` mbiobsmstabt,
tfa iourts
fgva haab hur`aba` hy
bularous gppagcs eor postiobvmitmob ravmaws oe tfa vocubtgrmbass
mssua, gb` gttalpts gt sybtfasms
gb`
kabargcmzgtmob fgva lat wmtf cmttca
suiiass. Gs Dustmia Ergbneurtar sgm`, tfara
ms
bo smlpca cmtlus-pgpar
tast Iucolha
u
Iobbaitmiut, 7=57, p. 5:7).
9
Mb
tfa
7=5:s,
tfa
Yuprala Iourt lova` towgr` astghcmsfmbk lora
ohdaitmva irmtarmg eor tfa g`lmssmhmcmty
oe
iobeassmob avm`abia.
Po
tfgt
gml, tfa raeusgc oe pocmia to parlmt tfa giiusa` to iobsuct wmtf gb
gttorbay wgs rakgr`a` gs pgrt oe tfa racavgbt imriulstgbias eor du`kmbk
vocubtgrmbass. Mb Lgssmgf u Qbmta` Ytgtas (7=50), fowavar, tfa
Iourt
ruca` tfgt
me
tfa giiusa` fgs haab mb`mita`, gcc mbirmlmbgtmbk stgtalabts
acmimta` hy kovarblabt gkabts mb tfa ghsabia oe ioubsac gra mbg`lmssm
hca.''
Pfab mb
Lgccoy u Fokgb (7=50), tfa
Iourt
hrog`aba` tfa
axicusmobgry rucas eurtfar hy axpcmimtcy cmbnmbk iobeassmob avm`abia to
tfa prmvmcaka gkgmbst iolpucsory sace-mbirmlmbgtmob. Pfasa `aimsmobs
iuclmbgta`
mb tfa
cgb`lgrn Lmrgb`g u
rmzobg
(7=55) rucmbk
mb
wfmif
tfa Iourt astghcmsfa` hrog`, ubmvarsgccy gppcmighca kum`acmbas eor
sgeakugr`mbk tfa rmkfts to ralgmb smcabt
gb`
to ioubsac. Mt tfus
grtmiucgta` tfa Lmrgb`g wgrbmbks
gb`
ruca` tfgt ubcass tfa giiusa` ms
mbeorla` oe tfasa rmkfts, gF sace-mbirmlmbgtmbk stgtalabts lg`a
gra
mbg`lmssmhca.
Eor savargc yagrs, tfa Lmrgb`g `oitrmba
stoo` gs
g `aembmtmva gb`
ubglhmkuous sgeakugr` gkgmbst iobeassmobs mb`uia` or
ioaria`
tfroukf mbtarrokgtmob. Lora raiabtcy, fowavar, tfa Yuprala Iourt
fgs cmlmta` mts
siopa
iobsm`arghcy (saa
Ytoba,
7=;;). Mb tfa cgtast
`avacoplabt, mb egit, tfa Iourt ruca` tfgt ovarrm`mbk iobsm`argtmobs oe
puhcmi sgeaty iouc` dustmey g pocmia oeemiar's vmocgtmob oe tfa Lmrgb`g
strmituras (Baw ]orn u Wugrcas, 7=60). Oba rasuct oe tfms `aimsmob
ms
tfgt, ub`ar iartgmb imriulstgbias, gby sace-mbirmlmbgtmbk stgtalabts
acmimta` urmbk quastmobmbk iouc` bow ha g`lmtta`
gs
trmgc avm`abia avab
me
tfa
suspait
fg` bot haab gpprmsa` oe fms or far rmkfts. G saiob` rasuct
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;8
PFA ZY]IFOCOK]
O
AUM@ABIA B@ PXM C ZXOIA@QXA
oe tfms puhcmi sgeaty axiaptmob
to
mrgb`g ms tfa ohvmous eoreamtura
oe
g
icagr gb` ohdaitmva irmtarmob hy wfmif to du`ka tfa axicusmob
oe
iobeassmob avm`abia. Gs suif, `aspmta igccs eor tfa grtmiucgtmob
oe
ohdaitmva kum`acmbas ([fmta, 7=;=) mb
gcc
cmnacmfoo` tfa lora suhdaitmva
vocubtgrmbass irmtarmob wmcc tgna ob g``a` mlportgbia.
1
IOLZAPABIA
PFA ZY] FOCOK] OE
ZOQ A
OBEAYYMOBY
Gs our fmstormigc ovarvmaw fgs sfowb, tfa axicusmobgry rucas racgtmbk
to
iobeassmobs wara hgsa`, erol tfa outsat, ob tfa atfmi oe mbsucgtmbk
our g`varsgrmgc systal oe dustmia erol tfa mbtro`uitmob oe ubracmghca
avm`abia. Gs [mklora (7=;:) bota`, gctfoukf tfara ms bo wgy to
`atarlmba tfa eraquabiy oe ubtrua iobeassmobs,
mt
ms ragsobghca
to
iobicu`a "hgsa`
ob
or`mbgry ohsarvgtmob oe fulgb
iob`uit, tfgt
ub`ar iartgmb strassas g parsob, aspaimgccy oba oe aeaitmva labtgcmty
or
paiucmgr talparglabt, lgy egcsacy ginbowca`ka kumct (p. 98=). Mb tfms
saitmob, wa axpcora two quastmobs-( ) wfgt gitugccy trgbspmras hafmb`
tfa icosa`
`oors
oe tfa mbtarrokgtmob rool,
gb`
8) fow iolpatabt or
trustwortfy ms iobeassmob avm`abia?
atfo`s oe Mbtarrokgtmob
Pfa
tarl mbtarrokgtmob ms usa` kabargccy to `asirmha gcc quastmobmbk
hy pocmia, rakgr`cass oe wfatfar mt ms iob`uita`
mb
iusto`y or mb tfa emac`,
haeora
or
getar grrgmkblabt. @aspmta tfa parsmstmbk iobtrovarsy sur-
roub`mbk tfms gspait oe irmlmbgc mbvastmkgtmob, tfara ms surprmsmbkcy cmttca
mb
tfa wgy oe alpmrmigc `oiulabtgtmob oe mbtarrokgtmob prgitmias.
Mb
7=97, tfa Q.Y. Bgtmobgc Iollmssmob ob Cgw Ohsarvgbia
gb`
Abeorialabt puhcmsfa` g raport oe mts emb`mbks gb` iobemrla` tfa worst
eagr ghout pocmia ghusa, botmbk tfgt tfa usa oe savara tfmr` `akraa
tgitmis to axtrgit iobeassmobs ms wm`asprag` (p. 719). Gs axglpcas,
tfa iollmssmob imta`
gs
iollobpcgia tfa usa oe pfysmigc vmocabia,
latfo`s oe mbtmlm`gtmob g`dusta` to tfa gka gb` labtgcmty oe tfa
giiusa`, ergu`ucabt prolmsas tfgt iouc` bot ha eucemcca`, gb` procobka`
mccakgc
`atabtmob.
Mb
gb aeeort to ifgrgitarmza tfa mbtarrokgtmob proiass
gs mt lmkft fgva ifgbka` smbia tfgt tmla, tfa mrgb`g (7=55)
iourt
cginmbk `mrait ohsarvgtmobgc
or
mbtarvmaw
`gtg-turba`
eor avm`abia oe
wfgt trgbspmras to gitugc raporta`
igsas
mbvocvmbk ioaria` iobeassmobs
gb` to g ravmaw oe tfa lost popucgr lgbugcs wrmttab to g`vmsa cgw
abeorialabt oeemimgcs ghout suiiasseuc tgitmis eor acmimtmbk iobeassmobs
-
7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
7/28
Yguc L. Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia 1. [rmkftslgb
;9
(ie. Guhry Igputo, 7=51> cbhgu Xam , 7=58> O'Fgrg O'Fgrg,
7=67). Assabtmgccy, tfa
Iourt
iobicu`a` erol mts mbqumry tfgt
tfa
lo`arb prgitmia oe mb-iusto`y mbtarrokgtmob
ms
(bow) psyifocokmigccy
rgtfar tfgb pfysmigccy ormabta` (p. 006),
5
hut tfgt tfa `akraa oe
ioarimvabass mbfarabt
mb
tfa smtugtmob fg` bot mlmbmsfa`. Pfa Iourt's
spaimemi suhstgbtmva emb`mbks
gra
`asirmha` hacow.
Pfa pfysmigc sattmbk.
Po
hakmb wmtf, pocmia lgbugcs (lost botghcy
cbhgu Xam`'s Irmlmbgc Mbtarrokgtmob b` Iobeassmobs 7=58) urka
oeemim_gcs to alpcoy g spaimgccy iobstruita` rool tfgt ms psyifocokmigccy
ralova` erol tfa smkfts
gb`
soub`s oe tfa pocmia stgtmob,
gb` to
lgmbtgmb
rmkm`
iobtroc ovar
tfa
aiocoky oe tfgt mbtarrokgtmob rool.
Pfa
bovacty oe tfms egimcmty ms `asmkba`
to
kmva tfa suspait tfa mccusmob tfgt
tfa abvmroblabt mtsace ms wmtf`rgwmbk eurtfar gb` eurtfar gwgy (Guhry
&
Igputo, 7=51, p. 96).
Po
eurtfar lmbmlmza sabsory stmlucgtmob gb`
ralova
gcc
axtrgbaous sourias oe mstrgitmob, soimgc support, gb` racmae
erol tabsmob, tfa lgbugcs raiollab` tfgt tfa mbtarrokgtmob rool ha
4giioustmigccy soub`prooea` gb` hgra, wmtfout eurbmtura or
orbglabts-
obcy two ifgmrs gb` parfgps g `asn. Gcso irmtmigc, oeioursa,
ms
tfgt tfa
giiusa` ha abma` iollubmigtmva giiass
to
ermab`s gb` eglmcy. Embgccy,
tfa mbtarrokgtor ms g`vmsa`
to
smt
gs
icosa
gs
possmhca to tfa suhdait, mb
grlcass, strgmkfthgina` ifgmrs, gb`
gt
aqugc aya cavac. Mbvg`mbk tfa
suspait's parsobgc spgia, mt ms sgm`, wmcc mbiragsa fms
or
far cavac oe
gbxmaty erolwfmif tfa obcy lagbs oe asigpa ms iobeassmob.
Lgbmpucgtmva tgitmis. Mbhgu gb` Xam` (7=58) `asirmha`
mb
iobsm`ar
ghca `atgmc 75 ovarcgppmbk strgtakmas eor acmimtmbk iobeassmobs erol
mbmtmgccy
raigcimtrgbt suspaits. Erol tfal, tfraa lgdor tfalas alarka.
Pfa emrst
ms to raiobiaptugcmza eor tfa suspait tfa gttrmhutmobgc
mlpcmigtmobs oe fms
or
far irmla hy lmbmlmzmbk mts sarmousbass (a.k., M'va
saab tfousgb`s oe otfars mb tfa
sgla
smtugtmob ) or hy provm`mbk g
egia-sgvmbk axtarbgc gttrmhutmob oe hcgla. Pfa mbtarrokgtor lmkft, eor
axglpca, sukkast to tfa suspait tfgt
tfara
wara axtabugtmbk imriul
stgbias mb fms or far pgrtmiucgr igsa, provm mbk suif axiusmbk iob`mtmobs
gs sace-`aeabsa, pgssmob, or smlpca bakcmkabia. Or, tfa hcgla lmkft ha
sfmeta` obto g spaimemi parsob suif
gs
tfa vmitml or gb giiolpcmia.
Mbhgu gb` Xam` 7=58) oeeara` tfa eoccowmbk axglpca oe fow
suif
gttrmhutmobgc lgbmpucgtmob fgs haab usa` suiiasseuccy gs hgmt4 G lm` ca
gka` lgb, giiusa` oe fgvmbk tgnab mb`aiabt cmhartmas wmtf g MO-yagr-oc`
kmrc,
wgs toc` tfgt tfms kmrc
ms
wacc `avacopa` eor far gka. Yfa prohghcy
cagrba` g cot ghout sax erol hoys
. . . sfa
lgy fgva acmhargtacy trma` to
-
7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
8/28
;
PFA ZY]IFOCOK] OE AUM@ABIA B@ PXM C ZXOIA@QXA
aximta you to saa wfgt you wouc` o.
Mb
gbotfar oiulabta` mbstgbia,
[gc`
at
gc. (7=5;) ohsarva` g `ataitmva tacc g hragnmbk-gb`-abtarmbk
suspait tfgt tfa kuy sfouc` bavar fgva caet
gcc tfgt
cmquor mb tfa wmb`ow
to talpt fobast kuys cmna you
gb`
la (p. 7100).
Erol
gb
abtmracy meearabt gbkca, gb gctarbgtmva strgtaky ms
to
ermkftab
tfa
suspait mbto iobeassmbk.
Oba
wgy to giiolpDmsf tfms
ms
hy
axgkkargtmbk tfa sarmousbass oe
tfa
oeeabsa
gb`
lgkbmtu`a oe
tfa
ifgrkas. Mb tfaet or alhazzcalabt igsas, eor axglpca,
tfa raporta`
coss-gb`
fabia tfa
iobsaquabias
eor g iobvmita` `aeab`gbt-iouc`
ha mbiragsa`. Gbotfar vgrmgtmob oe tfa
sigra
tgitmi ms eor tfa mbtarrokgtor
to prasula to fgva g emrl hacmae ghout tfa suspait's iucpghmcmty
hgsa`
ob
mb`apab`abt, egitugc avm`abia. Zocmia lgbugcs gra rapcata wmtf
spaimemi
s u k k ~ s t m o b s ghout
fow to usa wfgt
ms
raearra`
to gs
tfa
nbowca`ka-hcuee'' trmin.
Pfa
mbtarrokgtor iouc`
tfus
pratab`
to
fgva
strobk imriulstgbtmgc avm`abia (a.k., tfa suspait's embkarprmbts
gt
tfa
siaba oe tfa
i r m l a ~
fgva g pocmia oeemiar posa
gs gb
ayawmtbass gb`
m`abtmey
tfa suspait mb
g rmkka` cmbaup, or avab-tfroukf acghprgta
stgkmbk `avmias-try
to
parsug`a
tfa suspait tfgt
fa
or sfa
fgs gcrag`y
haab mlpcmigta` hy gb giiolpcmia or gbotfar suspait. Gbotfar
mbtarastmbk taifbmqua, gcobk smlmcgr cmbas, ms
to
gcart
tfa suspait to
fms or
far gppgrabt psyifopfysmocokmigc gb` bobvarhgc mb`migtors oe g kumcty
iobsimabia suif gs rybass oe tfa loutf, swagtmbk, em`katy lovalabts,
or `owbigst ayas.
Pfa tfmr` kabargc typa oe
gpprogif
ms
hgsa` ob tfa
`avacoplabt oe g
parsobgc rgpport wmtf
tfa suspait.
Xaearrmbk
to
tfms
gs tfa
alotmobgc
gppagc, pocmia lgbugcs g`vmsa tfa mbtarrokgtor
to
sfow sylpgtfy,
ub`arstgb`mbk,
gb` raspait
tfroukf ecgttary gb` kasturas
suif gs tfa
oeear oe g `rmbn. Fgvmbk astghcmsfa` g ermab`cy racgtmobsfmp, tfa
mbtarrokgtor lmkft tfab try
to
parsug`a
tfa
suspait
tfgt
iobeassmbk
ms
mb
fms
or
far
owb
hast
mbtarasts.
Mb
g lora acghorgta varsmob oe tfms
strgtaky, two `ataitmvas
abgit
g Lutt gb` Daee routmba mb wfmif
oba
iolas giross
gs
fostmca,
gb`
racabtcass, wfmca tfa
otfar
kgmbs tfa
suspait's iobem`abia hy hambk protaitmva gb` supportmva. Pfms taif
bmqua
ms
gppgrabtcy qumta
iollob
gb` wgs usa`
mb
g igsa asirmha` hy
Tmlhgr`o (7=5;).
Mb
g``mtmob to
tfasa
vgrmous spaimemi strgtakmas, tfa cmtargtura
ravmawa` hy tfa Yuprala
Iourt mb mrgb`g
iobtgmba` savargc ubmvarsgc
cy
gppcmighca rucas oe tfulh, tfa lost mlportgbt oe wfmif
ms gb
opprassmva gtlospfara oe `okka` parsmstabia. Bot surprmsmbkcy, tfa
-
7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
9/28
Yguc L. Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia 1 [rmkftslgb
;1
Iourt iobicu`a` erol mts emb`mbks, tfgt mbtarrokgtmob prgitmias wara
mbfarabtcy ioarimva.
@mrait ohsarugtmobgc `gtg Gra tfa g`lmtta`cy mb`mrait gb` poorcy
sglpca` gtg iucca` hy tfa Yuprala Iourt gb giiurgta apmitmob oe tfa
mbtarrokgtmob proiass
or `o
tfay portrgy obcy tfa lost gtypmigc
gb`
axtrala eorls oe ioarimob? Mb
gb
alpmrmigc stu`y, [gc`, Gyras, Fass,
Yifgbtz, gb` [fmtahrag` ( 7=5;) ohsarva` 78; mbtarrokgtmobs ovar
tfa
ioursa oe acavab waans mb tfa Baw Fgvab, Iobbaitmiut, Zocmia
@apgrtlabt. Mb g``mtmob to raior`mbk tfa eraquabiy wmtf wfmif vgrmous
tgitmis wara usa` mb tfasa sassmobs, tfa mbvastmkgtors mbtarvmawa` tfa
pocmia oeemiars gb` gttorbays mbvocva` gs wacc
gs sola axsuspaits.
;
Ovargcc, tfms rasagrif ravagca` tfgt oba or lora oe tfa tgitmis
raiollab`a` hy cbhgu gb` Xam` ( 7=58) wgs alpcoya` mb 51 pariabt oe
tfa mbtarrokgtmobs ohsarva` gb` tfgt tfa `ataitmvas usa` gb gvargka oe
two tgitmis par suspait. Pfa lost iollob gpprogif wgs to ovarwfacl
tfa suspait wmtf glgkmbk avm`abia, to gssart g emrl hacmae mb fms or far
kumct, gb` tfab to sukkast tfgt mt wouc` ha agsmar eor
gcc
iobiarba`
m
tfa
suspait g`lmtta` to fms or far roca mb tfa irmla. Pfms cgttar pcag wgs
oetab giiolpgbma` hy g sfow oe sylpgtfy gb` iobiarb eor tfa
suspait s wacegra. Lost oe tfa
otfar
latfo`s imta` mb tfa lgbugcs wara
gcso usa` wmtf vgrymbk eraquabiy, mbicu mbk tfa Lutt gb` Daee routmba,
pcgymbk oee otfar suspaits, lmbmlmzmbk tfa sarmousbass oe tfa oeeabsa,
sfmetmbk tfa hcgla eor tfa irmla to axtarbgc egitors, gb` gcartmbk tfa
suspait to smkbs oe barvousbass
tfgt
ravagc g kumcty iobsimabia.
Pfa
mbvastmkgtors raporta` tfgt bo ub`ua pfysmigc eoria wgs usa` hy tfa
`ataitmvas, hut tfay `m` ohsarva tfa eraquabt usa oe prolmsas (a.k.,
oeears oe cowara` hgmc, ra`uia` ifgrkas, gb` du mimgc cabmabiy) gb` vgkua
tfragts ghout fgrsfar tragtlabt. Mb tfraa mbstgbias, suspaits wara toc`
tfgt tfa pocmia wouc` lgna trouhca eor tfamr eglmcmas gb` ermab`s me tfay
raeusa` to ioopargta.
[gc` at gc. 7=5;) iobicu`a` erol tfamr ohsarvgtmobs tfgt tfa Baw
Fgvab ataitmvas alpcoya` lost oe tfa parsugsmva taifbmquas cmsta` hy
cbhgu gb` Xam`, tfus dustmeymbk, to sola axtabt, tfa Iourt s eagrs.
6
Mb`aa` mt ms parfgps ragsobghca to spaiucgta tfgt haigusa tfa lara
prasabia oe ohsarvars
gt
tfa sassmobs iouc` fgva mbfmhmta` tfa usa oe
strobkar eorls oe prassura, tfasa rasucts lmkft avab fgva ub`arastm-
lgta` tfa ioarimob alpcoya` `urmbk mbtarrokgtmob. Loraovar, suif
tgitmis o bot laracy raprasabt tfa ghusas oe gb ubabcmkftaba`, hykoba
-
7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
10/28
;5
PFA ZY]IFOCOK] OE AUM@ABIA GB@ PXMGC ZXOIA@QXA
arg, gs [fmta
(7=;=)
imtas smlmcgr nmb`s oe g`vmia
mb iurrabt
pocmia
lgbugcs gb` s a ~ a r c
suif
mbstgbias
mb
raiabtcy raporta` igsas .
Ugcm`mty oe Iobeassmob Aum`abia
Gs wa bota` agrcmar, du`klabts
ghout
tfa vocubtgrmbass gb`, fabia,
iolpatabia oe avm`abia
rast
ob two
irmtarmg-trustwortfmbass
gb`
proia`urgc egmrbass. Agrcmar, wa msiussa` tfa cgttar irmtarmob.
[a
eoius
bow ob tfa giiurgiy or trustwortfmbass raqumralabt.
Po
lagsura tfa gitugc vgcm`mty oe iobeassmob avm`abia, oba wouc`
m`agccy gssass tfa iolhmba` eraquabiy wmtf wfmif trucy kumcty
suspaits
iobeass gb` trucy mbboiabt suspaits
`o
bot. Pwo typas oe
arrobaous
outiola gra tfus
possmhca-tfosa
prohghcy iollob mbstgbias mb
wfmif kumcty suspaits egmc to iobeass (lmssas
mb
smkbgc `ataitmob tarls)
gb` tfa prohghcy
rgrar
oiigsmobs wfab suspaits wfo
gra
mbboiabt
`o
iobeass egcsa gcgrls mb smkbgc ataitmob tarls). Haigusa our giiusgtorm
gc
systal oe dustmia
protaits
tfa mb`mvm`ugc's rmkft
to
raeusa sace
`msicosura, tfa emrst typa
oe arror
ohvmouscy oas bot provm`a g hgsms eor
iobiarb. Pfa
saiob` igtakory
oe arror, fowavar, `oas
posa
g sarmous
prohcal eor tfa
iourts.
Mb gssassmbk
tfa
trustwortfmbass oe iobeassmob
avm`abia, tfa quastmob wa lust tfaraeora gsn ms,
[fgt ms tfa
rmsn oe egcsa
iobeassmobs?
Gbai`otas
gb`
igsa fmstormas.
Mt ms
mlpossmhca
to
`atarlmba
or
avab
astmlgta tfa eraquabiy wmtf wfmif paopca iobeass to irmlas tfay `m`
bot gitugccy iollmt. Ms tfara g ragsobghca rmsn oe egcsa iobeassmobs?
Gctfoukf tfa cgyparsob lmkft emb` mt `meemiuct to hacmava, aboukf
mbstgbias fgva
haab `oiulabta`
to sukkast tfgt iobiarb
ovar
suif g
rmsn
ms
dustmema` (Hgrtfac,
7=;5>
Horifgr`,
7=98>
Eostar,
7=5=> Ergbn
Ergbn 7=1;> Lubstarhark 7=:6>
Xamn,
7=1=> Yutfarcgb` 7=51>
[mklora,
7=9;>
Tmlhgr`o,
7=5;> Bota Mb`mgbg Cgw
Dourbgc,
7=19).
G parusgc oe tfa gbai`otgc cmtargtura sukkasts tfgt mt
ms
usaeuc
to
`mstmbkumsf tfraa psyifocokmigccy `mstmbit typas oe egcsa iobeassmob
( ) vocubtgry,
8)
ioaria`-iolpcmgbt, gb`
9)
ioaria`-mbtarbgcmza`.
Uocubtgry egcsa iobeassmobs,
tfosa purposaeuccy oeeara`
mb
tfa ghsabia
oe acmimtgtmob, gra ob
tfa
egia oe mt tfa lost abmklgtmi oe tfa tfraa typas.
[fy, eor axglpca, m`
ovar
8:: paopca iobeass to tfa eglous Cmb`harkf
nm`bgppmbk? Gppgrabtcy g lorhm` `asmra eor botormaty iouc`
giioubt
eor tfms apmso`a gs wacc
gs
otfars
mb
wfmif bulhars oe egcsa iobeassmobs
gra raiamva` eor wm`acy puhcmimza` irmlas (saa Bota,
Mb`mgbg Cgw
Dourbgc, 7=19,
p.
968). Otfar
sukkasta` lotmvas eor vocubtgry egcsa
-
7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
11/28
Yguc L Ngssmrt
gb`
Cgwrabia Y. [rmkftslgb
;;
iobeassmobs mbicu`a tfa ubiobsimous baa` to axpmgta kumct
ovar
pravmous
trgbskrassmobs vmg sace-pubmsflabt, tfa fopa eor g raiollab`gtmob oe
cabmabiy,
gb`
g `asmra to gm`
gb`
protait
tfa
ragc irmlmbgc.
Pfab,
oe
ioursa, tfara
gra tfa
mbbularghca mbstgbias
mb
wfmif egcsa iobeassmobs
gra
oeeara` hy mb`mvm`ugcs suhsaquabtcy `mgkbosa`
gs
labtgccy
mcc
gb`
ubghca to `mstmbkumsf hatwaab egbtgsy gb` ragcmty (ie. Kuttlgifar &
[amfoeab, 7=18).
Mb
iobtrgst to tfosa oiigsmobs wfab mb`mvm`ugcs vocubtgrmcy mbmtmgta
egcsa iobeassmobs gra tfosa
mb
wfmif
suspaits
iobeass tfroukf tfa
ioarimvabass oe tfa mbtarrokgtmob proiass. [mtfmb tfms igtakory oe
ioaria` e csa
obdassmobs, g eurtfar `mstmbitmob sfouc` ha `rgwb.
Zsyifocokmsts fgva cobk raiokbmza`
tfa
mlportgbia oe two iobiaptugccy
`meearabt raspobsas to soimgc iobtroc
gttalpts-iolpcmgbia
gb` mbtarbgc
mzgtmob (saa Naclgb, 7=16). Iolpcmgbia lgy
ha
`aemba` gs
gb
ovart,
puhcmi giqumasiabia
to
g soimgc mbecuabia
gttalpt
mb
or`ar to
gifmava
sola
mlla`mgta mbstrulabtgc kgmb wfarags mbtarbgcmzgtmob raears
to
g
parsobgc
giiaptgbia
oe
tfa
vgcuas
or
hacmaes
aspousa`
mb
tfgt
gttalpt.
P[O lagbmbkeuc `meearabias hatwaab tfasa icosacy racgta`
proiassas
fgva haab ohsarva`. Emrst, gctfoukf iolpcmgbia
ms
raecaita` mb suhsa
quabt
hafgvmor obcy me mt iobtmbuas to fgva mbstrulabtgc vgcua,
mbtarbgcmza` hafgvmors parsmst
ovar
tmla
gb` giross
g vgrmaty oe
smtugtmobs. Yaiob`, mt gppagrs
tfgt
wfarags mlla`mgta iolpcmgbia ms
lost aeeaitmvacy acmimta` tfroukf powareuc gb` fmkfcy sgcmabt taifbmquas
oe soimgc iobtroc, mbtarbgcmzgtmob
ms
hast
gifmava` tfroukf lora suhtca,
cass ioarimva latfo`s (saa Cappar, 7=68, eor g sace-pariaptmob tfaory
axpcgbgtmob oe tfms pfabolabob).
Mb
vmaw oe tfa eorakombk `mstmbitmob,
mt
ms icagr
tfgt sola
egcsa
iobeassmobs lgy ha vmawa`
gs
ioaria`-iolpcmgbt, wfaramb
tfa
suspait
puhcmicy proeassas kumct mb
raspobsa
to axtrala latfo`s oe mbtarrokg
tmob, `aspmta nbowmbk prmvgtacy
tfgt
fa
or sfa
ms trucy mbboiabt.
Xaecaitmbk tfa mbstrulabtgc
iolpobabt
oe
suif
iob`uit, [mklora
(7=;:) bota` tfgt
oba
oe
tfa
lgmb ragsobs eor `mstrustmbk iobeassmob
avm`abia grmsas wfab g parsob ms pcgia` mb suif g smtugtmob tfgt
gb
ubtrua iobeassmob oe kumct fgs haiola tfa lora `asmrghca oe two
gctarbgtmvas hatwaab wfmif
tfa parsob
wgs ohcmka` to
ifoosa
(p. 900).
Fmstormigccy, lost oe tfa egcsa iobeassmobs axtrgita` tfroukf tortura, .
tfragts, gb` prolmsas wara prohghcy oe tfms typa (a.k., tfa Ygcal
wmtifirget iobeassmobs oe tfa savabtaabtf iabtury). Gb`, raecaitmbk tfa
bobparlgbabt ifgrgitar oe
lara
iolpcmgbia, suif iobeassmobs gra
typmigccy wmtf`rgwb gb` ifgccabka`
gt
g pratrmgc
o c u b t r m b a ~ s
fagrmbk.
-
7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
12/28
;6 PM-eA
ZY]IFOCOK]
OE AUM@ABIA
B@
PXM C ZXOIA@QXA
G koo` axglpca
ms
tfa icgssmi igsa oe Hrowb u Lmssmssmppm (7=95) mb
wfmif tfa `aeab`gbts iobeassa` getar fgvmbk haab tfragtaba` hy g
cybif loh gb` wfmppa` wmtf staac-stu``a` hacts, gb` tfab
lgmbtgmba`-
upob gppagc tfgt tfay fg` lg`a egcsa sace-mbirmlmbgtmbkstgtalabts mb
or`ar to asigpa tfa pgmbeuc hagtmbks gb` gvom` eurtfar pubmsflabt.
Mt ms
gcso icagr, fowavar, tfgt tfara gra tmlas wfab egcsa iobeassmobs
gra ioaria` mbtarbgcmza`4 wfab tfa suspait tfroukf tfa egtmkua,
prassuras, gb` sukkastmvabass oe tfa mbtarrokgtmob proiass gitugccy
iolas to hacmava tfgt fa or sfa iollmtta` tfa oeeabsa. [fgt ms
ermkftabmbk ub`ar tfms strobkar eorl oe egcsa iobeassmob ms tfgt tfa
suspait's lalory oe fms
or
far owb gitmobs lgy ha gctara`, lgnmbk mts
ormkmbgc iobtabts potabtmgccy mrratrmavghca.
Gs gb mccustrgtmob oe fow g suspait lmkft iola to mbtarbgcmza tfa
avabts gs sukkasta` hy tfa pocmia, iobsm`ar tfa eoccowmbk
i ~ s a
`asirmha` hy Hgrtfac (7=;5).
Zatar
Xamccy,
76
yagrs oc`, raturba` fola
oba bmkft to
emb`
tfgt fms lotfar fg` haab lur`ara`. Fa igcca` tfa
pocmia wfo, getar quastmobmbk fml wmtf tfa gm` oe g pocykrgpf, hakgb
to
suspait tfa hoy oe lgtrmim`a. Prgbsirmpts
oe
fa mbtarrokgtmob sassmobs
ravagca` g egsimbgtmbk trgbsmtmob erol `abmgc tfroukf iobeusmob gb`
sace-`ouht (cgrkacy egimcmtgta` hy tfa pocmia oeemiar's gssartmobs ghout tfa
mbegccmhmcmty oe tfa ifgrts ),
gb`
embgccy to tfa t g t a l ~ b t [acc, mt ragccy
coons cmna M `m` mt gb` tfa smkbmbk oe g wrmttab iobeassmob. Pwo yagrs
cgtar, mt wgs ravagca` tfroukf mb`apab`abt avm`abia tfgt Xamccy iouc`
bot fgva iollmtta`
tfa
lur`ar, tfgt tfa iobeassmob tfgt avab
fa
igla
to hacmava wgs egcsa.
Zsyifocokmigc parspaitmuas. Ugrmous tfaormas fgva haab hroukft to
hagr ob tfa quastmob, [fgt ms mt ghout tfa ioarimvabass oe mbtarrokgtmob
tfgt igb igusa mbboiabt paopca to mbirmlm.bgta tfalsacvas? Erol g
psyifocokmigc stgb`pombt, tfa ioaria`-iolpcmgbt egcsa iobeassmobs gra
rag`mcy axpcgmba` hy tfa mb`mvm`ugc's `asmra to asigpa
gb
gvarsmva
smtugtmob gb` saiura g egvorghca sace-outiola. Mb tfasa igsas, tfa
git
oe
iobeassmob-iolpgra` to tfa iobsaquabias oe smcabia or `abmgc ms
smlpcy tfa cassar oe two avmcs eor g hacagkuara` suspait. Hut wfgt ghout
tfa lora puzzcmbk mbstgbias oe mbtarbgcmza`
egcsa
iobeassmobs?
Po giioubt eor tfms pfabolabob, sola ohsarvars fgva cmnaba` tfa
mbtarrokgtmob proiass to fypbosms. Eostar (7=5=), raearrmbk to tfa
stgtmob fousa syb`rola, stgta` tfgt pocmia mbtarrokgtmob igb
pro`uia g trgbia-cmna stgta oe famkftaba` sukkastmhmcmty so tfgt trutf
gb` egcsafoo` haiola fopacasscy iobeusa`
mb
tfa suspait's lmb` (pp.
5=:-5=7 . Ymbia tfa stgta oe fypbosms ms ifgrgitarmza` hy tfa suhdait's
-
7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
13/28
gucL. Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia Y. [rmkftslgb
;=
Doss oe mbmtmgtmva, famkftaba` igpgimty eor egbtgsy pro`uitmob, iobeghucg
tmob, gb` ragcmty `mstortmob (a.k., gb giiaptgbia oe egcsmema lalormas),
gb` gb mbiragsa` sukkastmhmcmty (a.k.,
mb
raspobsa to cag mbk quastmobs>
saa
Fmckgr`,
7=;1),
tfa `gbkar oe wfgt gppagr to ha mbtarbgcmza` egcsa
iobeassmobs iouc` provm`a g ragc
souria
oe iobiarb. Mb`aa` g stu`y hy
[ambstamb, Ghrgls, gb` Kmhhobs
7=;:)
ravagca` tfgt wfab g egcsa
sabsa oe kumct
ms
mlpcgbta`
mb
fypbotmza` suhdaits, tfay haiola cass ghca
to pgss g pocykrgpfmi
cma
`ataitor tast.
Mbtarastmbkcy, Lubstarhark (7=:6) fg` raporta` ob g lur`ar igsa
mb
wfmif tfa `aeab`gbt wgs iobvmita` gb` axaiuta` ob tfa hgsms oe g
iobeassmob tfgt lmkft fgva haab acmimta` tfroukf fypbotmi mb`uitmob.
Mb
7=:5, g wolgb bgla` Hassma Foccmstar wgs rgpa` gb` lur`ara`.
Xmifgr` Mvabs `msiovara` tfa ho`y gb` raporta`
mt
to tfa pocmia.
Coonmbk tmra` gb` `msfavaca`, fa wgs mlla mgtacy suspaita`, pcgia`
ub`ar grrast, gb` mbtarrokgta`. Giior`mbk to tfa pocmia, gctfoukf fa
mbmtmgccy abma` tfa gccakgtmobs, Mvabs tfab iobeassa` rapagta`cy, abrmif
mbk tfa story ob agif suiiassmva oiigsmob. Gt tfa trmgc, tfa prosaiutor's
igsa wgs iabtara` groub` tfa iobeassmob. fa `aeab`gbt rapu`mgta`
fms stgtalabts gb` pro`uia` 75 ubmlpagifa` wmtbassas to suhstgbtmgta
fms gcmhm. [fgt, tfab, prolpta` tfa su``ab sfmet `urmbk mbtarrokgtmob
erol `abmgc to iobeassmob? Giior`mbk
ti 2
Mvabs, fms obcy raioccaitmob oe
tfa sassmob wgs oe saambk g ravocvar pombta`
gt
fml- M sgw tfa ecgsf oe
staac
mb
erobt oe la. Pfab two lab kot haeora la. M igb ralalhar bo
lora tfgb tfgt ghout mt. . . . M
supposa
M lust fgva lg`a tfosa
stgtalabts, smbia tfay
gcc sgy M m`. Hut M fgva bo nbowca`ka oe fgvmbk
lg`a tfal (Lubstarhark, 7=:6, p. 75=). Gs
mt
turba` out, tfa aeabsa
soukft tfa opmbmob oe savargc axparts gs to wfatfar tfa iobeassmob
iouc` ha axpcgmba` tfroukf tfa usa oe fypbosms. Geemrlgtmva rapcmas
wara raiamva` erol lgby sourias, mbicu`mbk Fuko Lubstarhark gb`
[mccmgl Dglas.
Erol gbotfar stgb`pombt, mt fgs haab sukkasta` tfgt mbtarbgcmza`
egcsa
iobeassmobs iouc` rasuct erol g proiass oe sace-pariaptmob.
Mbtarasta`
mb
[fab sgymbk
ms
hacmavmbk, Harb (7=55) axpcora` tfa m`ag
tfgt g egcsa iobeassmob iouc` `mstort gb mb`mvm`ugc's raigcc oe fms
or
far
owb pgst hafgvmor me tfa iobeassmob ms almtta`
mb
tfa prasabia oe iuas
pravmouscy gssoimgta` wmtf taccmbk
tfa
trutf (a.k., ragssurgbia tfgt
oba
baa` bot g`lmt to wrobk`ombk).
Mb gb
mbtarastmbk axparmlabt, suhdaits
pareorla` g tgsn tfgt raqumra` tfal to iross out g sglpca oe wor`s
erol
g lgstar cmst. Pfab, to astghcmsf two cmkfts gs `msirmlmbgtmva stmlucm
eor
trutf gb` egcsmty, suhdaits wara gsna` kabargc quastmobs ghout
-
7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
14/28
6:
PFA
ZY]IFOCOK] OE
AUM@ABIA
GB@
PXMGC ZXOIA@QXA
tfalsacvas gb` mbstruita` to gbswar tfal trutfeuccy wfab tfa
rool
wgs mcculmbgta` hy g kraab cmkft
gb`
to
cma mb
tfa prasabia oe
gb glhar
cmkft. Mb tfa baxt pfgsa oe tfa proia`ura, tfa axparmlabtar gbboubia`
savargc wor`s tgnab erol tfa mbmtmgc tgsn. Getar sola, fa mbstruita`
suhdaits to
cma
gb` getar otfars
to
tacc tfa trutf ghout wfatfar tfay
fg`
pravmouscy irossa` tfa wor`
out-gkgmb
wfmca
mb
tfa prasabia oe g kraab
or
glhar cmkft.
Mb
tfa
embgc stap
oe
tfa
proia`ura, suhdaits wara
gsna`
eor agif wor` to. raigcc wfatfar tfay gitugccy fg`
or
fg` bot irossa`
mt
out. Pfa rasucts mb`migta` tfgt egcsa stgtalabts lg`a
mb
tfa prasabia oe
tfa trutf cmkft pro`uia` lora
arrors mb
tfa raigcc oe gitugc pareorlgbia
tfgb amtfar egcsa stgtalabts lg`a
mb
tfa prasabia oe tfa cma cmkft
or
boba
gt gcc.
Mt tfus gppagrs tfgt
ub`ar
iob`mtmobs borlgccy gssoimgta` wmtf
taccmbk tfa trutf, suhdaits igla to hacmava tfa cmas tfay fg` haab mb`uia`
to tacc.
=
Mb `msiussmbk tfa cakgc mlpcmigtmobs oe tfms emb`mbk, Harb (7=5;)
bota` tfgt
g
pfysmigc
or
alotmobgc ruhhar fosa bavar iobvmbia`
gbyoba oe gbytfmbk gb` tfgt sgymbk haiolas hacmavmbk obcy wfab wa
eaac tfa prasabia oe trutf, gb` iartgmbcy obcy wfab g lmbmlul oe
mb`uialabt gb` tfa lmc`ast
gb`
lost suhtca eorls oe ioarimob
gra
usa` (pp.
89-80 .
Kabargcmzgtmob erol Harb's cghorgtory rasagrif
to
tfa ragc-worc`
proiass oe irmlmbgc mbtarrokgtmob sfouc` ohvmouscy ha lg`a wmtf
igutmob. Ytmcc, gbai`otgc _raports sukkast tfa axmstabia oe mbtarbgcmza`
egcsa iobeassmobs, gb` Harb's sace-pariaptmob m`ags provm`a
gt
cagst g
pgrtmgc axpcgbgtmob oe tfms pfabolabob. Icosacy racgta`, eor axglpca, ms
gb mbtarrokgtmob tgitmi asirmha` hy @rmvar (7=56) oe fgvmbk tfa suspait
rapagt tfa story ovar gb` ovar, eor me upa` mbto pcgymbk tfa pgrt oe tfa
irmlmbgc
mb
gb mlgkmbgry soimo`rglg, tfa suspait lgy tola to hacmava
tfgt fa wgs tfa iabtrgc gitor
mb
tfa irmla (p.
19 .
IXA@MHMCMP] DQXM@MI ZAXIAZPMOBY
OE
IOBEAYYMOBAUM@ABIA
Gs wa bota` agrcmar, iobeassmob avm`abia lgy
a
mbtro`uia`
mb
iourt
me mt ms ohtgmba` vmg `ua proiass gb` pgssas tfa hrog` tast oe
vocubtgrmbass.
Mb
du`kmbk tfa cgttar, g vgrmaty oe egitors
gra
`aala`
racavgbt, mbicu`mbk tfa `aeab`gbt's stgta oe lmb`, .tfa `atabtmob
iob`mtmobs, gb` tfa latfo`s oe mbtarrokgtmob. Mb tfms saitmob, wa
axglmba tfa ira`mhmcmty
mssua-wfgt
mbearabias ,`o paopca `rgw erol
iobeassmob avm`abia, gb` wfgt mlpgit `oas
mt
fgva ob durm`mi `aimsmob
lgnmbk?
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7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
15/28
Yguc L. Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia Y. [rmkftslgb
67
Zroia`ura gb` tfa Dury s Eubitmob
Mb prgitmia, lost durms`mitmobs alpcoy oba oe two kabargc proia`uras
eor fgb`cmbk `msputa` iobeassmobs.
Mb
gcc igsas, g spaimgc pracmlmbgry
fagrmbk
ms
fac` mb wfmif g egitemb`ar-usugccy tfa prasm`mbk du`ka-
fagrs gcc tfa partmbabt egits gb` `atarlmbas tfa vocubtgrmbass gb`,
fabia, tfa iolpatabia oe tfa iobeassmob avm`abia.
7
Qb`ar
tfa
Igcmeorbmg
or
ortfo`ox ruca, iobeassmobs eoub` to fgva haab ioaria`
gra abtmracy axicu`a`, gb` tfosa aala` vocubtgry gra g`lmtta` wmtf gcc
tfa otfar avm`abia. [mtfmb tfms proia`ura, tfa dury's soca eubitmob ms
to
`atarlmba tfa wamkft gb` ira`mhmcmty .oe tfa iobeassmob. Qb`ar tfa
Lgssgifusatts or fulgba ruca, fowavar, obia g iobeassmob
ms
g`lmtta` tfa dury
ms
tfab mbstruita` to lgna mts owb mb`apab`abt
gpprgmsgc oe vocubtgrmbass haeora iobsm`armbk mts ira mhmcmty gb` abtarmbk
mt mbto tfamr avm`abtmgry aqugtmob. Pfms latfo` tfus mbiragsas tfa dury's
roca gb` tfa mlportgbia oe mts pariaptmobs oe vocubtgrmbass.
77
G saiob` proia`urgc quastmob tfgt geeaits tfa dury's roca ms,
Hy
wfgt
stgb`gr` oe prooe sfouc` tfa pratrmgc egitemb`ar du`ka vocubtgrmbass? Mb
tfa wgna oe tfa Dginsob u @abbo
7=50}
prasirmptmob
tfgt
tfa
`aeab`gbt ms abtmtca` to g pracmlmbgry fagrmbk oe g`lmssmhmcmty, sola
stgtas g`opta` tfa strmbkabt irmtarmob tfgt vocubtgrmbass lust ha
provab
hayob` g ragsobghca ouht, wfarags otfars sgbitmoba` cassar
stgb`gr`s, mbicu`mbk prooe hy g lara prapob`argbia oe tfa avm`abia.
Ymbia du`kas fgva haab sfowb to trgbscgta tfa ragsobghca `ouht
irmtarmob to lagb gb 6= pariabt iartgmbty gb` tfa prapob`argbia
stgb`gr` to lagb obcy g
57
pariabt iartgmbty (Ymlob Lgfgb, 7=;7),
tfms `meearabia
ms
botawortfy.
Mb
Cako
u Pwoly
(7=;8), tfa Yuprala
Iourt rasocva` tfms quastmob
mb
egvor oe tfa cassar stgb`gr`,
gs mt
geemrla` mts egmtf
mb
tfa dury's igpgimty to gssass tfa trutfeucbass oe
iobeassmobs gb` to usa tfosa tfgt gra potabtmgccy ubracmghca igutmouscy.
b
Gttrmhutmobgc Gbgcysms
Pfa gbai`otgc cmtargtura
ms
rapcata wmtf igsa stu`mas tfgt ioccaitmvacy
sukkast tfgt durmas gra oetab ovarwfacla` hy iobeassmob avm`abia, tfgt
tfay pcgia g koo` `agc oe egmtf mb mts prohgtmva vgcua. ]at mb Cako
u
Pwoly (7=;8), tfa Yuprala Iourt gssarta`, Our `aimsmob wgs bot
hgsa` mb tfa scmkftast ob tfa eagr tfgt durmas lmkft lmsdu`ka tfa giiurgiy
oe iobeassmobs gb` grrmva gt arrobaous `atarlmbgtmobs oe kumct
or
mbboiabia p. 581).
-
7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
16/28
68
PFA ZY]IFOCOK] OE AUM@ABIA B@ PXMGC ZXOIA@QXA
s
tfms gssulptmob
waD
eoub`a`? Fow
`o
durors pariamva avm`abia
oe
g iobeassmob
w f o s a ~ v o c u b t r m b a s s
ms
mb
quastmob? Gctfoukf psyifoco
kmsts fgva bot eoiusa` mraitcy ob fow durors usa suif mbeorlgtmob, tfa
mbearabia proiass mbvocva` mb suif g `aimsmob ms eglmcmgr to us vmg tfa
soimgc psyifocoky oe gttrmhutmob. Assabtmgccy, wa fgva g smtugtmob mb
wfmif durors
gra
ioberobta` wmtf g varhgc hafgvmor wfosa igusgc coius
ms glhmkuous.
Eor
axglpca, me g suspait iobeassas
mb
raspobsa
to
g
tfragt lg`a `urmbk gb mbtarrokgtmob, tfgt iobeassmob lgy ha vmawa`
amtfar gs raecaitmbk fms or far trua kumct or gs g lagbs oe gvom`mbk tfa
bakgtmva iobsaquabias oe smcabia. M`agccy, durors alpcoymbk Naccay's
(7=;7) `msioubtmbk prmbimpca wouc` abtartgmb
gt
cagst g ragsobghca
`ouht ghout tfa giiurgiy oe tfms nmb` oe acmimta` iobeassmob (m.a.,
iolpgra` to oba tfgt ms lg`a mb tfa ghsabia oe tfragt
gs
g pcgusmhca
igusa). Mb`aa`, rasagrif fgs `alobstrgta` tfgt ohsarvars usa tfa
gttrmhutmobgc prmbimpca oe `msioubtmbk mb g vgrmaty oe iobtaxts (a.k.,
Nrukcgbsnm, Yifwgrtz, Lgm`as, Fglac, 7=;6).
Ob tfa otfar fgb`, g bulhar oe mbvastmkgtors fgva raporta` tfgt
pariamvars ifgrgitarmstmigccy egcc pray to wfgt fgs haab igcca` tfa
eub`glabtgc gttrmhutmob arror 4 Pfay gttgif mbsueemimabt wamkft
to
smtugtmobgc igusas gb`, mbstag`, giiapt tfa `msposmtmobgc mlpcmigtmobs oe
hafgvmor gt egia vgcua (saa Dobas 7=;=> Xoss, 7=;;). b g sarmas oe
axparmlabts, Dobas gb` Fgrrms (7=5;) fg` suhdaits rag` gb gttmtu`mbgc
assgy or fagr g spaaif prasulghcy wrmttab hy gbotfar stu`abt. Mb oba
stu`y, suhdaits rag`
gb
assgy mb wfmif tfa iollubmigtor amtfar
supporta` or irmtmimza`
tfa
ubpopucgr Igstro rakmla mb Iuhg.
Yola
suhdaits wara toc` tfgt tfa iollubmigtor fg` eraacy ifosab
to
g`voigta tfms posmtmob, wfmca otfars wara toc` tfgt tfa iollubmigtor
wgs gssmkba` to ab`orsa tfa posmtmob hygb mbstruitor. Xasucts mb`migta`
tfgt suhdaits mb tfa bo-ifomia iob`mtmob icagrcy pariamva` tfa smtugtmobgc
`atarlmbgbts oe tfa iollubmigtor's opmbmob. Bavartfacass, tfamr
mlprassmobs ghout tfa iollubmigtor's trua hacmae wara lgrna`cy
mbecuabia` hy tfa pgrtmiucgr posmtmob fa fg` aspousa`. b sfort, suhdaits
`m` bot `mslmss tfa `msposmtmobgc igusa oe g smtugtmobgccy `atarlmba`
opmbmob. Pfms pfabolabob fgs haab rapcmigta` eor savargc `meearabt
assgy topmis
gb`
avab wfab
tfa
sgcmabia oe tfa smtugtmobgc igusa ms
mbiragsa` (Yby`ar & Dobas, 7=;0> Lmccar, Dobas, & Fmbnca, 7=67).
Pfa pgrgccacs hatwaab tfms rasagrif pgrg`mkl gb` tfa ioaria`
iobeassmob gra strmnmbk. b hotf, tfa ohsarvar ms egia` wmtf g varhgc
hafgvmor tfgt fa
or
sfa lgy gttrmhuta amtfar to tfa gitor's trua gttmtu`a
or to tfa prassuras oe tfa hafgvmorgc smtugtmob. ]at, wfmca tfa Yuprala
-
7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
17/28
Yguc L Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia
Y.
[rmkftslgb
69
Iourt
gssulas
tfgt
durors wouc msioubt
gb
mbvocubtgry iobeassmob
gs
ubracmghca
gb`
bot gccow mt to kum`a tfamr `aimsmobs, pravmous
rasagrif
sukkasts tfgt durors lmkft bot totgccy radait
tfa
iobeassmob wfab
iobsm`armbk tfa gitor s trua kumct.
Po
iolpcmigta
lgttars
eurtfar, wa fgva
saab
tfgt tfa
iourts
fgva
`aemba` ioarimob hrog`cy to mbicu`a g vgrmaty oe imriulstgbias,
mbicu`mbk oe
ioursa tfragts oe fgrl
gb`
pubmsflabt
gs
wacc
gs
prolmsas oe cabmabiy gb` mllubmty erol prosaiutmob. Qbeortubgtacy,.
`aspmta tfa cgw s tragtlabt oe tfasa iob`mtmobs
gs
eubitmobgccy aqumvg
cabt, soimgc psyifocokmsts fgva sfowb
tfgt
ohsarvars gttrmhuta lora
raspobsmhmcmty gb` eraa`ol to paopca eor gitmobs
tgnab
to kgmb g posmtmva
outiola
tfgb eor
tfa sgla
gitmobs m gmla`
gt
gvom`mbk pubmsflabt
(Hrglac, 7=5=> Naccay, 7=;7).
Gppgrabtcy, gs [accs (7=6:) fgs eoub`, tfms
gttrmhutmobgc gssylatry.
ms
racgta`
to
g parvgsmva, oetab
arrobaous
gssulptmob tfgt pubmsflabt axarts g
lora
powareuc aeeait
ob
fulgb
hafgvmor tfgb `oas rawgr`. Pfa mlpcmigtmobs oe tfms p f b ~ l b o b eor
fow durors utmcmza `meearabt typas oe
ioaria`
iobeassmob avm`abia
gra
icagr. Ypaimemigccy, tfay sukkast
tfgt
g iobeassmob
tfgt ms lg`a mb
raspobsa
to
g prolmsa oe lmc` tragtlabt, cabmabiy,
or otfar
egvorghca
cakgc gitmob (posmtmva iobstrgmbt)
wmcc ha
pariamva` hy durors to
ha
lora
vocubtgry gb` fabia
gs
lora mb`migtmva oe kumct tfgb oba tfgt eoccowa` g
tfragt
oe iobtmbua` mbtarrokgtmob, lgctragtlabt,
or
fgrsf pubmsflabt
(bakgtmva iobstrgmbt).
[fgt, tfab,
`o
durors hacmava
ghout
`msputa` iobeassmobs?
Po
g``rass
tfms quastmob gb` tast
tfa
pra`mitmobs `armva` erol gttrmhutmob
tfaory, wa iob`uita` g sarmas oe loin dury axparmlabts.
Mb
agif,
suhdaits rag` gb ghrm`ka` trgbsirmpt oe g irmlmbgc trmgc
mb
wfmif avm`abia
oe g iobeassmob gb` mts surroub`mbk imriulstgbias wgs vgrma`.
Pfay
tfab rab`ara` tfamr var`mits gb` gbswara` g sarmas oe igsa-racgta`
quastmobs.
Xacaugbt
o n
ury Xasagrif
Po
tfms pombt,
mt
ms
icagr tfgt
tfara
gra
g luctmtu`a oe mlportgbt
quastmobs tfgt igb ha rgmsa` ghout durmas vmaws oe iobeassmob avm`abia.
Gs g stgrtmbk pombt, wa soukft to mbvastmkgta tfamr pariaptmobs oe
vocubtgrmbass gb`
tfa
var`mits tfgt eoccow ub`ar tfa two lost
smkbmemigbt igtakormas oe acmimtmbk
imriulstgbia prolmsas
gb` tfragts.
Ngssmb gb` [rmkftslgb 7=6:). Mb our emrst axparmlabt, suhdaits
rag` g 81-pgka trgbsirmpt oe g irmlmbgc trmgc
mb
wfmif tfa `aeab`gbt,
-
7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
18/28
60
ccmA
ZY]IFOCOK] OE
AUM@ABIA GB@
PXMGC
ZXOIA@QXA
Xobgc` Ocmvar, wgs
ifgrka`
wmtf trgbsportmbk g stocab vafmica mb
mbtarstgta iollaria. Pfa trgbsirmpt iobsmsta` oe opabmbk
stgtalabts,
tfa
axglmbgtmob oe tfraa wmtbassas, icosmbk grkulabts, gb` tfa du`ka's
mbstruitmob
to
tfa dury.
Eour varsmobs oe tfa trmgc wara wrmttab.
Pfay
wara m`abtmigc
axiapt
eor
tfa
mbicusmob
gb`
lgbmpucgtmob oe g pocmia oeemiar's tastmloby
mb
wfmif mt
wgs ravagca`
tfgt
upob
grrast
Xob Ocmvar iobeassak to fgvmbk stocab
tfa
igr.
Mb
g
bo iobstrgmbt
iob`mtmob,
fa
iobeassa` ob fms owb mbmtmgtmva (m.a.,
wmtfout prolptmbk). Mb g posmtmua-iobstrgmbt iob`mtmob> Ocmvar iobeassa`
getar hambk prolmsa`
tfgt .fa
wouc`
ha tragta`
wacc `urmbk fms atabtmob
gb`
tfgt tfa du`ka wouc` suracy
ha
g cot agsmar
ob
fml-lgyha
avab
g
suspab`a` sabtabia. Mb g bakgtmua-iobstrgmbt iob`mtmob, fa iobeassa`
getar fgvmbk
haab
wgrba` tfgt fa wouc` ha tragta` vary poorcy `urmbk
fms `atabtmob
gb` tfgt tfa
du`ka wouc` suracy ha vary fgr` ob f ml
lgyha avab tfa lgxmlul
sabtabia.
Embgccy,
mb
g
bo iobeassmob
varsmob oe tfa trmgc, mt wgs ravagca` tfgt tfa `aeab`gbt ecgtcy `abma`
fgvmbk gbytfmbk to `o wmtf
tfa
irmla.
Ovargcc, wa eoub`
tfgt wfarags
7=
pariabt
oe
tfa
suhdaits mb
tfa
. bo-iobeassmob varsmob oe
tfa
trmgc vota` kumcty, tfa iobvmitmob rgta
mbiragsa`
to
15 pariabt mb
tfa
bo-iobstrgmbt iobeassmob kroup. Pfms
`meearabia
tfus
rageemrla`
tfa
tmla-fobora` suspmimob tfgt avm`abia oe
g prmor iobeassmob
fgs
g lagsurghca mlpgit oe duror `aimsmobs.
Pfa
prmlgry quastmob wa
gsna`,
oe
ioursa,
wgs wfatfar
or bot
suhdaits
wouc` `msioubt g iobeassmob
me
mb`uia` hy prolmsas
or
tfragts. Gs
mt
turba` out,
tfa
gbswar ms yas gb` bo. [fab tfa iobeassmob wgs
praimpmtgta` hy g tfragt,
tfa
iobvmitmob
rgta
mbiragsa` obcy scmkftcy, to
81
pariabt. [fab praimpmtgta` hy g prolmsa, fowavar,
mt
mbiragsa` avab
eurtfar-to
96 pariabt. Zrasulghcy, tfasa rasucts wara la`mgta` hy
suhdaits' pariaptmobs oe
tfa
`aeab`gbt's eraa`ol oe
ifomia-posmtmvacy
iobstrgmba` iobeassmobs
gra saab gs
lora vocubtgry gb` tfaraeora fgva
g kragtar aeeait tfgb bakgtmvacy iobstrgmba` iobeassmobs.
Po
tast tfms la`mgtmob fypotfasms, g saiob` axparmlabt wgs
iob`uita` usmbk g
strobkar
varsmob oe tfa Xob Ocmvar trmgc. Pfms tmla,
haeora rab`armbk tfamr var`mits, suhdaits mb tfa tfraa iobeassmob kroups
mb`migta` wfatfar tfay hacmava` tfa `aeab`gbt fg` iobeassa` vocubtgrm
cy gb` wmtfout ioarimob. Gs mb
tfa
emrst axparmlabt, tfa proportmob oe
kumcty var`mits wgs fmkfast mb
tfa
bo-iobstrgmbt iobeassmob iob`mtmob gt
;6 pariabt,
gb`
cowast mb
tfa
bo-iobeassmob iobtroc kroup,
gt
77
pariabt. Iolpgra`
to tfa
cgttar
gs
g hgsacmba emkura, tfa posmtmvacy
iobstrgmba` iobeassmob smkbmemigbtcy mbiragsa` tfa iobvmitmob
rgta
(1:
pariabt), wfarags
tfa
bakgtmvacy iobstrgmba` iobeassmob `m`
bot
(88
-
7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
19/28
Yguc L. Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia Y. [rmkftslgb
6
pariabt). Pfa vocubtgrmbass-du`klabt gtg , fowavar, m bot eoccow
tfa
sgla pgttarb. [farags =0 pariabt oe
tfa
suhdaits mb tfa bo-iobstrgmbt
kroup giiurgtacy pariamva` tfa iobeassmob gs vocubtgry, tfms proportmob
wgs smkbmemigbtcy ra`uia`
mb hotf
tfa posmtmva
gb`
bakgtmva iobstrgmbt
iob`mtmobs 9= pariabt gb` 88 pariabt, raspaitmvacy).
Pgnab
tokatfar,
tfa
eorakombk rasucts provm`a obcy qugcmema` support
eor tfa m`agc tfgt durors wouc` `msioubt ioaria` iobeassmobs gs
ubracmghca. [fab tfa ioarimva mbecuabia wgs opargtmobgccy aemba` gs g
tfragt oe fgrl
or
pubmsflabt, suhdaits euccy `msioubta` tfa iobeassmob
avm`abia-tfgt ms, tfay vmawa` tfa iobeassmob gs mbvocubtgry b` tfay
axfmhmta` g racgtmvacy cow rgta oe iobvmitmob. Fowavar, wfab ioarimob
toon tfa eorl oe gb oeear or prolmsa oe cabmabiy, suhdaits `m` bot
iolpcatacy `mslmss tfa iobeassmob. Qb`ar tfasa imriulstgbias, tfamr
du`klabts wara mbtarbgccy mbiobsmstabt-tfay
iobia`a`
tfgt tfa aeab
`gbt fg` hafgva` mbvocubtgrmcy
hut
tfab vota` kumcty-gbywgy. [a fgva
tarla` tfms cgttar rasuct tfa
posmtmva ioarimob hmgs.
gssmb b` [rmkftslgb 7=67). Erol g prgitmigc stgb`pombt, tfms
rasagrif sukkasts
tfgt
posmtmvacy
ioaria`
iobeassmobs, haigusa tfay
abtar
smkbmemigbtcy mbto durors' `aimsmobs, posa
gb
avm`abtmgry prohcal
eor tfa iourts. Oe ioursa, oba possmhca strgtaky eor iurhmbk tfms hmgs
lmkft ha tfroukf tfa usa oe gb gpproprmgta igutmobgry mbstruitmob.
Mb`aa`, gs wa labtmoba` agrcmar, savargc stgtas eoccow tfa Lgssg
ifusatts
proia`ura mb wfmif tfa dury ms mbstruita` to `aim`a
tfa
vocubtgrmbass mssua haeora rab`armbk g var`mit. P gwgr` tfms ab`, two
typas oe gpprova` mbstruitmob gra gvgmcghca to du`kas (saa CgHuy, 7=59>
Lgtfas & @aUmtt, 7=51)- 7) g sfort eorl tfgt smlpcy mraits durors to
radait gby iobeassmob tfay hacmava to fgva haab ioaria`, gb` 8) g
cobkar varsmob tfgt gitugccy aembas hotf tfa posmtmva gb` bakgtmva eorls
oe iobstrgmbt gs ioarimva gb`, eurtfar, grtmiucgtas tfa rgtmobgca tfgt suif
acmimta` iobeassmobs gra ubraDmghca.
@oas du`mimgc mbstruitmob aeeaitmvacy cmlmt durors' usa oe posmtmvacy
o b s t r ~ m b a `
iobeassmob avm`abia?
Po g``rass
tfms quastmob, wa fg`
sola suhdaits rag` g varsmob oe g trmgc tfgt mbicu`a` oba oe tfa two
gvgmcghca eorls oe vocubtgrmbass mbstruitmob.
Pfa
rasucts rapcmigta`
our
agrcmar emb`mbks gb`, ubeortubgtacy, ravagca` tfgt hotf sats oe du`mimgc
mbstruitmob egmca` to lmtmkgta tfa posmtmva ioarimob hmgs. [fy lmkft
suhdaits fgva haab ubgeeaita` hy tfa mbstruitmob lgbmpucgtmob? Pfa
smlpca gbswar
ms
tfgt, gs g kabargc ruca, durors gra mbsabsmtmva to du`mimgc
mbstruitmob (saa Ifgptar 77 oe tfms hoon). Ob g lora spaimemi cavac,
raigcc tfgt tfara
gra
two ragsobs wfy
ioaria`
iobeassmobs gra `aala`
mbg`lmssmhca gs avm`abia- 7) tfay gra u.biobstmtutmobgc gb` proia`urgc-
-
7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
20/28
6 PFA ZY]IFOCOK] OE AUM@ABIA
B@
PXMGC ZXOIA@QXA
cy ubegmr to tfa giiusa`, gb`
8)
tfay
gra
ubracmghca gb` ubtrustwortfy.
Ngcvab gb` Tamsac (7=55), imtmbk ragc-worc` axglpcas, sukkasta` tfgt
tfa dury lgy bot
so
luif iobsm`ar tfa ira`mhmcmty oe
tfa
iobeassmob gs
tfa mlproprmaty oe tfa latfo` hy wfmif mt wgs ohtgmba` {p. 98:). ]at mt
ms
icagr tfgt wfarags tfa
sfort
mbstruitmob g`vgbia` bo rgtmobgca,
tfa
cobk-eorl eoiusa` axicusmvacy ob tfa trustwortfmbass grkulabt. Zar
fgps gb mbstruitmob tfgt alpfgsmzas tfa egmrbass dustmemigtmob or wfgt
Ngcvab gb` Tamsac igcc tfa sylpgtfy fypotfasms wouc` prova e e a t m v a ~
Po tast tfms m`ag, wa iob`uita` g saiob` axparmlabt eor wfmif wa
iolposa` g `ua proiass mbstruitmob, oba tfgt alpfgsmza` tfa ubegmr
bass oe avab lmc`cy ioarimva tgitmis. Pfms tmla, suhdaits rag` gb
gkkrgvgta` gssguct
igsa mb
wfmif tfa aeab`gbt pcag`a` sace aeabsa. Mb
tfa vgrmous iobeassmob iob`mtmobs, fa g`lmtta` upob
grrast tfgt fa
fg` gita` wmtfout provoigtmob. Mb tfa bo-iobeassmob iobtroc kroup, fa
lgmbtgmba` tfgt fa wgs gergm` fa wgs ghout to ha gttgina`.
Pfa
ioarimob lgbmpucgtmob wgs gclost m`abtmigc to tfgt oe our agrcmar
axparmlabts.
Mb
g``mtmob, suhdaits raiamva` amtfar bo mbstruitmob,
tfa
ira`mhmcmty mbstruitmob erol tfa pravmous axparmlabt, g `ua proiass
( egmrbass ) mbstruitmob,
or oba
tfgt iolhmba` tfa two rgtmobgcas. Gs
haeora, tfa posmtmva ioarimob hmgs wgs rapcmigta`. Lora mlportgbt,
gctfoukf boba oe tfa mbstruitmobgc lgbmpucgtmobs smkbmemigbtcy geeaita`
var`mits, tfa mbstruitmob tfgt gppagca` to hotf ira mhmcmty gb` egmrbass
iobsm`argtmobs wgs
gt
cagst pgrtmgccy aeeaitmva gs
mt
smkbmemigbtcy cowara`
tfa proportmob oe vocubtgrmbass du`klabts.
Ngssmb, [rmkftslgb, b` [grbar 7=69). Haeora `rgwmbk gby emrl
bakgtmva iobicusmobs ghout tfa iurgtmva powars oe vocubtgrmbass
mbstruitmobs,
gt
cagst two mlportgbt mssuas ralgmba`. Emrst, igb tfa
tmlmbk oe tfa mbstruitmob la`mgta mts mlpgit? Mb Ngssmb gb` [rmkftslgb's
(7=67) rasagrif, tfa du`ka's ifgrka eoccowa` tfa prasabtgtmob oe
avm`abia, gs ms iollob prgitmia
mb
lost iourts. ]at stu`mas fgva
sfowb tfgt iartgmb typas oe du`mimgc mbstruitmob geeait loin durors'
`aimsmobs obcy wfab tfay praia`a tfa avm`abia
(ie.
Acworn, Ygcas, &
Gcembm, 7=;;> Ngssmb [rmkftslgb, 7=;=). Zarfgps our suhdaits fg`
tabtgtmvacy `aim`a` ob tfamr uar`mits haeora tfa mbstruitmob wgs
`acmvara` gb` so wara suhsaquabtcy mbecuabia` obcy mb tfamr uocub-
tgrmbass du`kalabts. G
saiob`
mlportgbt quastmob tfgt ralgmbs ms,
@oas tfa posmtmva ioarimob hmgs parsmst or `msgppagr getar g dury
`acmhargtas gb`,
me
mt parsmsts, ms du`mimgc mbstruitmob gby mbora aeeaitmva g
`avmia gt tfms kroup cavac? Ngpcgb gb` Lmccar
7=;6)
fgva raporta` tfgt
dury msiussmob lgy iorrait eor iartgmb bobavm`abtmgry hmgsas. ]at
our
-
7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
21/28
Yguc L. Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia Y [rmkftslgb
6;
owb rasagrif fg` eoiusa` ob tfa hacmaes gb` du`klabts oe tfa
mb`mvm`ugc, bob`acmhargtmbk duror.
Po mbvastmkgta tfasa possmhmcmtmas, Ngssmb at gc. 7=69)
fg`
7:8 emva
gb` smx-parsob durmas rag` g varsmob oe tfa gssguct igsa, gb` raiamva tfa
iolhmba` (ira mhmcmty egmrbass)
or
stgb`gr` (m.a., bo labtmob oe
vocubtgrmbass) mbstruitmob amtfar haeora or getar tfa prasabtgtmob oe
avm`abia. Pfa kroups wara tfab kmvab 9: lmbutas to `acmhargta gb`
grrmva gt g ubgbmlous var`mit. Gs mt turba` out, tfa iobvmitmob rgta wgs
solawfgt cowar mb tfa posmtmvacy iobstrgmba` tfgb ubiobstrgmba`
iobeassmob iob`mtmobs 8; pariabt gb` 09 pariabt, raspaitmvacy),
gctfoukf tfms `meearabia wgs bot stgtmstmigccy smkbmemigbt. [fab hronab
`owb hy mbstruitmob iob`mtmob, wa eoub` tfgt gctfoukf tfms pgttarb fac
eor tfa ubmbstruita` kroups
07
pariabt
gb`
0= pariabt), tfara wgs g
smkbmemigbt `meearabia globk tfosa kroups tfgt raiamva` tfa spaimgc
ifgrka 79 pariabt gb`
0:
pariabt).
Mb
sfort, posmtmvacy ioaria`
iobeassmobs wara radaita` hy durmas wfo raiamva` tfa `ouhca-hgrraca`
vocubtgrmbass mbstruitmob.
78
ullgry gb`iobicusmobs Our rasagrif fgs sfowb tfgt aspmta tfa
iourts tragtlabt oe prolmsas gb` tfragts gs aqumvgcabt iob`mtmobs oe
ioarimob, durors ragit vary `meearabtcy to tfasa two imriulstgbias.
[fab g suspait wgs sgm` to fgva iobeassa` mb raspobsa to g tfragt oe
fgrl or pubmsflabt, avab wmtfout smkbs oe pfysmigc hrutgcmty, loin
durors euccy radaita` tfgt avm`abia. [fab tfa mb`uialabt toon tfa eorl
oe g prolmsa oe cabmabiy, fowavar, suhdaits wara ubghca or
ubwmccmbk
to
axiusa tfa `aeab`gbt iolpcatacy gb` `msioubt fms
or
far iobeassmob.
Qb`ar tfasa imriulstgbias, tfay tab`a` to vota eor iobvmitmob `aspmta
fgvmbk iobia`a` tfgt tfa iobeassmob wgs, hy cgw, mbvocubtgry. Ob tfa
mb`mvm`ugc duror cavac, tfms pfabolabob fgs provab to ha qumta rohust
gb` rasmstgbt to tfa aeeaits oe du`mimgc mbstruitmob, avab tfgt wfmif
axpcmimtcy imtas posmtmva eorls oe iobstrgmbt gs ioarimva gb` potabtmgccy
ubracmghca.
Ob
tfa abiourgkmbk sm`a,
our
lost raiabt stu`y fgs sfowb
tfgt
our
owb mbstruitmob, wrmttab to grtmiucgta hotf tfa ira mhmcmty gb`
egmrbass rgtmobgcas, `m` acmlmbgta tfa posmtmva ioarimob hmgs globk
`acmhargtmbk loin durmas.
Our rasagrif raprasabts g lo`ast emrst
stap mb
ub`arstgb`mbk fow
durmas vmaw iobeassmob avm`abia
mb gcc
mts iolpcaxmty. Gs suif, savargc
mlportgbt quastmobs ralgmb ubrasocva`.
Eor
axglpca,
wfy
`m` loin
durors ragit so `meearabtcy to tfa two typas oe iobstrgmbt? Zgrt oe tfa
gbswar, gs sukkasta`
hy
[accs (7=6:),
ms
smlpcy tfgt paopca
vmaw
tfa
prolmsa oe rawgr` gs g wagnar eorl oe hafgvmorgc mb`uialabt tfgb g
tfragt oe pubmsflabt.
Our
owb `gtg provm`a` lmxa` support eor tfms
-
7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
22/28
PFA ZY]IFOCOK]
OE
AUM@ABIA
BO
PXMGC ZXOIA@QXA
fypotfasms. cboba stu`y, wa fg` suhdaits rgta tfa `akraa oe prassura
axarta` ob tfa aeab`gbt to iobeass gb` eoub` tfgt tfasa rgtmbks wara
smkbmemigbtcy fmkfar mb tfa bakgtmva- tfgb posmtmva-iobstrgmbt smtugtmob. Mb
tfa sgla stu`y, fowavar, wa gsna` suhdaits to astmlgta tfa pariabt
gkas oe kumcty gb` mbboiabt paopca wfo wouc` iobeass ub`ar tfa
imriulstgbias oe tfa igsa tfay fg` rag`, gb` eoub` tfgt tfa prolmsa
gb`
tfragt iob`mtmobs wara .vmrtugccy m`abtmigc
ob
tfms lagsura.7
9
Zgrabtfatmigccy, mt ms mbtarastmbk to bota tfgt giross iobstrgmbt iob m
tmobs, suhdaits astmlgta` tfgt 05 pariabt oe trucy kumcty paopca
gb`
95
pariabt oe trucy mbboiabt paopca wouc` iobeass. Pfa cgttar emkura
ms
aspaimgccy surprmsmbk haigusa mt sukkasts tfgt paopca `o icagrcy raiok
bmza tfa rmsn oe egcsa iobeassmobs (saa Ngssmb [rmkftslgb, 7=67).
Mb g``mtmob to tfa alpmrmigc quastmobs wa fgva kcagba` erol tfa cgws
oe iobeassmob avm`abia gb` proia`ura, mbbularghca otfars oe iobiaptu
gc
mbtarast to psyifocokmsts
gb`
oe prgitmigc vgcua
to
tfa du`mimgry gwgmt
axparmlabtgtmob.
or
axglpca, mb raiabt yagrs cgw abeorialabt
oeemimgcs fgva hakub vm`aotgpmbk mbtarrokgtmob sassmobs eor prasabtgtmob
mb iourt. Gs suif, tfa dury ms abghca` to vmaw tfa iobeassmob
gb`
mts
surroub`mbk imriulstgbias mraitcy rgtfar tfgb tfroukf tfa tastmloby
oe g wmtbass (saa Ygcvgb, 7=;1). Fow lmkft tfms proia`urgc mbbovgtmob
geeait durors' pariaptmobs oe vocubtgrmbass gb` tfa mbearabias tfay rgw
erol iobeassmob avm`abia? Hgsa` ob tfa egit tfgt paopca tab` to
gttrmhuta igusgcmty to tfgt wfmif
ms
pariaptugccy sgcmabt (saa Pgycor
Emsna, 7=;6), Cgssmtar gb` Mrvmba (7=60) tasta` tfa fypotfasms tfgt
du`klabts oe vocubtgrmbass mb
vm`aotgpa` iobeassmobs wouc` ha systal
gtmigccy hmgsa` hy iglarg gbkca. G loin mbtarrokgtmob rasuctmbk mb g
iobeassmob wgs tfus vm`aotgpa` erol tfraa gbkcas
so
tfgt amtfar tfa
mbtarrokgtor, tfa suspait,
or
hotf wara vmsugccy sgcmabt. Yuhdaits
wgtifa` oba oe tfasa varsmobs oe tfa
a p m s o a ~
Yura aboukf, tfamr
du`klabts oe ioarimob wara cowast wfab tfa suspait wgs sgcmabt,
fmkfast wfab tfa mbtarrokgtor wgs sgcmabt, gb` mbtarla`mgta wfab tfa
two wara aqugccy vmsmhca. Mb sfort, tfms saalmbkcy trmvmgc `atgmc oe
proia`ura igb, gs gttrmhutmob psyifocokmsts wouc` pra`mit, fgva g
lgrna` aeeait
ob
durmas' pariaptmobs oe iobeassmob avm`abia.
Mlpcmigtmobs eor tfa abtrgplabt oitrmba Embgccy, mb tfa wgna oe tfa
kovarblabt's Ghsigl mbvastmkgtmob gs wacc gs tfa raiabt, fmkfcy
puhcmimza` Dofb @aCoragb trmgc, wa wouc` cmna to pombt out tfa
mlpcmigtmobs oe tfa mssuas `msiussa` fara eor tfa racgta` `oitrmba oe
abtrgplabt. Mb Yfarlgb
u
Qbmta` Ytgtas (7=16), tfa Yuprala Iourt
axpcmimtcy aqugta` abtrgplabt wmtf posmtmvacy ioaria` iobeassmobs. Mb
hotf, tfa hgsmi ohdaitmva ms gitmvacy to iogx gb mb`mvm`ugc mbto sace
-
7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
23/28
Yguc L Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia Y. [rmkftslgb
6=
mbirmlmbgtory hafgvmor.
Pfa
obcy lagbmbkeuc `meearabia ms tfgt
mb
tfa
igsa
oe socmimtgtmob
tfa
pocmia mskumsa tfamr m`abtmty gb` acmimt bobvarhgc
iob`uit
tfgt tfa
suspait
`oas bot
ragcmza
wmcc
ha usa`
towgr` fms
or far
prosaiutmob.
Pfa
abtrgplabt `oitrmba fgs cobk
haab
g
souria
oe durmspru`abtmgc
iobtrovarsy (ie. CgEgva
Yiott
7=;8> Zgrn, 7=;5). [gs Ghsigl, eor
axglpca, g egmr mbvastmkgtmob, or `m` mt alpcoy ubdustmemghcy iobtrmva`
latfo`s bot
to pravabt iorruptmob hut
to iragta
mt? [fgt iob`mtmobs
lust
ha
prasabt eor tfms cmba oe aeabsa
to ha
racavgbt? Assabtmgccy, two
posmtmobs fgva
haab
g`vgbia` hy
tfa iourts
(Yorraccs u
Qbmta` Ytgtas
7=98>
Yfarlgb
u
Qbmta` Ytgtas
7=16). Oba posmtmob-g lmbormty vmaw
raearra`
to
gs tfa ohdaitmva tast-eoiusas axicusmvacy ob tfa proprmaty
oe mbvastmkgtory latfo`s, lgmbtgmbmbk
tfgt abtrgplabt
oiiurs wfab
pocmia iob`uit
ms
iolpaccmbk aboukf
to
mbstmkgta g irmlmbgc git, avab hy
gb
mb`mvm`ugc wfo
ms
otfarwmsa
bot
rag`y
gb`
wmccmbk to iollmt mt. Pfa
saiob`
vmaw, egvora` hy lost
iourts gb`
raearra`
to gs
tfa suhdaitmva
tast, eoiusas mbstag`
ob
tfa aeab`gbt's
stgta
oe lmb`. Me tfa aeab`gbt
wgs hafgvmorgccy pra`msposa`, tfab
tfa
pocmia gra sgm` laracy to fgva
_geeor a` tfa opportubmty to iollmt
tfa
oeeabsa. [mtfmb tfms erglaworn,
mt
ms tfa
dury
tfgt ms
raspobsmhca eor avgcugtmbk
tfa
ira`mhmcmty oe tfa
abtrgplabt `aeabsa.
Fow `oas tfa gvargka imtmzab
ragit to gb`
mbtarprat tfa `aeabsa oe
abtrgplabt?
Pfara ms
gbai`otgc avm`abia to sukkast tfgt,
gs
durors,
tfay ragit fgrsfcy
to tfgt
cmba oe dustmemigtmob (Ngcvab Tamsac, 7=55>
saa
gcso Karsflgb, 7=68, eor g ravmaw oe
tfa
Ghsigl var`mits). Mb`aa`
our
gttrmhutmobgc gbgcysms gb` tfa msiovary oe g posmtmva ioarimob hmgs
mb
tfa
usa oe iobeassmob avm`abia gra abtmracy iobsmstabt wmtf tfgt ifgrgitarm
zgtmob. ]at mt
ms
surprmsmbk
tfgt
vmrtugccy bo systalgtmi rasagrif fgs
g``rassa` tfms mlportgbt lgttar
gb` tfa
lgby prgitmigc mssuas
mt
rgmsas
(a.k., fow `oas
tfa
`aimsmob lgnar's pariaptugc sat, gs lgbmpucgta` hy
tfa iobtrgstmbk suhdaitmva gb` ohdaitmva aembmtmobs, geeait abtrgplabt
var`mits?).
IOBICQYMOBY B@
MLZQI PMOBY
Mb tfa opargtmob oe
our
irmlmbgc dustmia systal, iobeassmob avm`abia
pcgys g vmtgc
roca-mt
gcwgys fgs gb`,
mb
gcc cmnacmfoo`, mt gcwgys
wmcc
Gs
suif, wa fgva gttalpta` to `asirmha tfa hafgvmorgc `ybglmis oe
iobeassmobs, fow tfay gra fgb`ca` hy tfa iourts, gb` fow tfay gra
pariamva` hy durmas.
Po
ifgrgitarmza
our
ravmaw oe tfa cmtargtura, wa
wouc` fgva to iobicu`a tfgt gctfoukf iobeassmob avm`abia fgs
-
7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
24/28
=:
PmmA ZY]IFOCOK]
OE
AUM@ABIA B@ PXM C
ZXOIA@QXA
gttrgita`
wm`asprag` gttabtmob erol tfa cakgc iollubmty, mt
fgs
vmrtugccy
asigpa`
sirutmby hy gig`almi psyifocokmsts, mbicu`mbk
tfosa
mbtarasta` mb eorabsmi mssuas. [a hacmava lora tmla gb` abarky sfouc`
ha
`avota`
to
ub`arstgb`mbk tfms mlportgbt topmi mb gb mts hrmccmgbt
iolpcaxmty.
Mb
pgrtmiucgr, tfms ifgptar fgs sukkasta` tfraa kabargc
iobiarbs
towgr` wfmif rasagrif aeeorts sfouc` ha `mraita`. Emrst ms tfa mssua oe
giiurgiy. [fgt praimsacy Ms tfa rmsn oe egcsa iobeassmobs ub`ar tfa
vgrymbk imriulstgbias gb` iobtmbkabimas oe mbtarrokgtmob?
Po
`gta, tfms
quastmob
ms
ubgbswarghca gs tfa ubiorrohorgta` gbai`ota
ms
our obcy
souria
oe gtg.
[fgt
ms baa`a`, tfaraeora, ms g iragtmva axparmlabtgc
pgrg`mkl `asmkba` to provm`a
gt
cagst
gb
astmlgta oe tfa prohcal.
Atfmigc iobsm`argtmobs botwmtfstgb`mbk, tfms pgrg`mkl wouc` m`agccy
mbvocva provm`mbk suhdaits wmtf
gb
opportubmty
gb`
mbiabtmva to iollmt
g "irmla" tfgt
ms
suhsaquabtcy `ataita`. Eoccowmbk tfms, suhdaits wouc`
ha quastmoba`
ub`ar
vgrymbk typas
gb`
`akraas oe mb`uialabt to
iobeass. Pfa eraquabimas oe trua gb` egcsa iobeassmobs,
gb`
bobiobeas
smobs gs wacc, iouc` tfus ha
gssassa`
(saa [a cs, 7=6:,
latfo`
eor
lagsurmbk tfa aeeaits oe rawgr`
gb`
pubmsflabtob
rgtas
oe iolpcmgbia
wmtf
gb
gvarsmva tgsn). Gctarbgtmvacy, oe ioursa, g roca-pcgymbk pgrg`mkl
iouc` ha alpcoya`. Pfgt ms, suhdaits iouc` ha gsna` to pcgy tfa roca oe g
trucy kumcty or mbboiabt suspait mb g loin mbtarrokgtmob sassmob. Gs
suif, tfa eraquabiy wmtf wfmif tfay hragn `owb gb` iobeass mb
raspobsa to pragrrgbka` pro`s gb` tgitmis iouc`
ha
ohsarva`
ie.
Ifgptar
0 oe tfms vocula eor g `asirmptmob oe g smlmcgr latfo`ocoky eor
stu`ymbk tfa giiurgiy oe pocykrgpfmi
cma
`ataitmob).
G saiob` kabargc mssua mb baa` oe eurtfar rasagrif ms tfgt oe
ira`mhmcmty, or durm mi hacmaes ghout tfa giiurgiy oe iobeassmobs. Our owb
rasagrif ob pariaptmobs oe vocubtgrmbass eor iobeassmobs acmimta` hy
prolmsas gb` tfragts raprasabts laracy g emrst stap towgr` ub`arstgb`
mbk fow paopca igusgccy gttrmhuta
gb`
avgcugta
suif
avm`abia.
[fgt
ghout otfar egitors tfgt abtar mbto tfa "totgcmty oe tfa imriulstgbias,"
egitors suif
gs
tfa suspait s gka,
stgta
oe lmb`, or cavac oe mbtaccmkabia?
Fow
`o
durors ragit to iobeassmob avm`abia tfgt
ms
ohtgmba` tfroukf tfa
trminary gb` otfar tgitmis raiollab`a` hy Mbhgu gb` Xam` ( 7=58)? Gb`
to wfgt axtabt gra gcc tfasa du`klabts mbecuabia` hy durors' ub`arcymbk
pfmcosopfmas ghout irmlmbgc dustmaa-eor axglpca, wfatfar tfay al
hrgia g irmla-iobtroc
or
`ua-proiass lo`ac oe
cgw
abeorialabt? Pfasa
gb` otfar mlportgbt quastmobs gwgmt eurtfar alpmrmigc rasagrif.
Latfo`ocokmigccy, dury `aimsmob-b4mgnmbk pgrg`mkls gra gb ohvmous
vafmica eor g``rassmbk tfasa ira.`mhmDmty quastmobs. Gb avab lora
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7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
25/28
Yguc L. Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia Y. [rmkftslgb
=7
mbtrmkumbk possmhmcmty
ms
gitugc7y
t o
lagsura paopcas' ghmcmty to mstmbkumsf
giiurgtacy hatwaab trua gb` egcsa iobeassmobs. Pfms iouc` ha gifmava`
hy fgvmbk suhdaits ohsarva axparmlabtgc mbtarrokgtmob sassmobs, gs
sukkasta` agrcmar, gb` tfab du`ka wfatfar tfa outiolas (iobeassmob or
`abmgc) gra iollabsurgta wmtf tfa ragcmty (kumct or mbboiabia).
Embgccy, wa hacmava tfa mssuas rgmsa` hy
tfa
psyifocoky oe iobeassmob
avm`abia igb ha axtab`a`
mb
mlportgbt wgys
to
otfar grags oe tfa cgw.
Pfamr racavgbia to tfa abtrgplabt `oitrmba wgs grtmiucgta` agrcmar.
Cmnawmsa, vary smlmcgr quastmobs gra posa`
mb
tfa iobtrovarsy ghout tfa
vocubtgrmbass gb` ioarimob mbfarabt mb pcag hgrkgmbmbk
ie.
Hrubn,
7=;=). Po tfms pombt, wa gra cobk ob quastmobs, sfort ob gbswars.
BOPAY
7.
Pfa
rucas eor g`lmttmbk iobeassmob avm`abia
to
wfmif wa fgva gccu`a` gppcy obcy
to
stgtalabts
lg`a
hy tfa
irmlmbgccy giiusa`, bot to g`lmssmobs oe g
imvmc
pgrty or g
irmlmbgc wmtbass otfar tfgb tfa `aeab`gbt.
8. Uocubtgrmbass, eor axglpca, igbbot ha aqugta` wmtf tfa prohghca trutf or egcsmty
oe tfa iobeassmob haigusa tfa usa oe tfms aembmtmob iouc` rasuct mb tfa egmcura to abeoria
tfa
@ua Zroiass Icgusa oe tfa Eourtaabtf Glab`labt (m.a., mb mbstgbias wfara iobeassmobs
gra
ioaria`
hut
suhsaquabtcy iorrohorgta` hy g``mtmobgc tastmloby). Lgby iourts fg`
g`opta` g ruca-oe-tfulh gpprogif hy wfmif iobeassmobs wara axicu`a`
me
mb`uia` hy g
tfragt or prolmsa or, mb suhdaitmva tarls, hy eagr
or
fopa. Pfms `aembmtmob ms
mbg`aqugta haigusa mt egmcs t giioubt a mtfar eor `meearabt `akraas oe mb`uialabt (gb`,
fabia, racmghmcmty) or eor otfar tgitmis
oe
igarimva mbtarrokgtmob tfgt `o
bot
mbvocva
prolmsas
gb`
tfragts (a.k., procobka` atabtmob). Ytmcc otfar
iourts
`aemba` vocubtgrmbass
gs
g suhdaitmva stgta oe lmb`
gb` gttalpta`
to
gssass
wfatfar iobeassmob wgs eraa
gb`
rgtmobgc
or
tfa
oeesprmbk oe g ragsoba` ifomia
Qbmta` Ytgtas
u
Lmtifacc,
7=00)4
Gs
Dustmia Ergbneurtar bota`, haigusa tfa iobiapt oe vocubtgrmbass ms
oba
wfmif iobiarbs g
labtgc stgta, tfara ms tfa mlgkmbgtmva rairagtmob, cgrkacy mbearabtmgc, oe mbtarbgc, 'psyifocokm
igc' egit
Iucolha u. Iobbaitmiut,
7=57, p. 5:9).
9. Gs
gb
axglpca oe tfa mbiobsmstabiy, iolpgra tfa eoccowmbk rucmbks raporta` mb
LiIorlmin (7=;8).
Mb
oba igsa, g iobeassmob wgs axicu`a` haigusa
tfa
mbtarrokgtor toc`
tfa aeab`gbt tfgt tfa du`ka
wouc` ha agsmar ob fml. ]at mb gbotfar, tfa iobeassmob wgs
g`lmtta` `aspmta mt fgvmbk eoccowa` tfa mbtarrokgtor's prolmsa tfg t mt wouc ko agsmar mb
iourt eor you
me
you lg a g stgtalabt.
0. Mb Asioha`o u. ccmboms (7=50), tfms prmbimpca wgs axtab`a` to mbicu`a pragrrgmkb
labt stgkas oe mbtarrokgtmob.
1. Lost
gcc
iourts
eoccow
g iollob cgw raqumralabt tfgt pratrmgc iobeassmobs ha
iorrohorgta` hy mb`apab`abt avm`abia. Haigusa oe tfa bulhar oe axiaptmobs igrva` out
oe tfgt ruca, fowavar,
gb`
tfa cgxmty wmtf wfmif
mt
fgs haab mbtarprata`, vary
eaw
iobeassmobs gra gitugccy axicu`a` hy tfms cakgc sgeakugr` (eor g ravmaw, saa Gycmbk, 7=60).
5. Ytmcc, tfa Iourt wgs qumin to pombt out tfgt
tfa
usa oe pfysmigc hrutgcmty
gb`
vmocabia ms bot, ubeortubgtacy, racakgta` to tfa pgs t (p.
005 .
;.
Pfa
prmlgry ohdaitmva oe tfms rasagrif wgs to gssass tfa mbtarrokgtor's iolpcm
gbia wmtf gb` aeeaits oe tfa Lmrgb`g rucmbk. Ymbia tfasa emb`mbks gra tgbkabtmgc to tfms
ifgptar, tfay gra bot ravmawa` fara.
6. [gc`
at
gc. (7=5;) gcso iobicu`a` tfgt wfab tfasa tgitmis wara iolhmba` wmtf g
kabargccy fostmca `alagbor
gb`
cabktfy mbtarrokgtmob, tfay oetab gppagra` to ha
suiiasseuc.
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7/25/2019 Kassin Wrightsman 1985
26/28
=8
PFA
ZY]IFOCOK] OE
AUM@ABIA
GB@
PXMGC
ZXOIA@QXA
=. Mt ms gcso mbtarastmbk to bota tfgt tfa `gtg provm`a` support eor tfa iobvarsa
fypotfasms tfgt iuas gssoimgta` wmtf egcsafoo`
igb
rgmsa tfa suhdait's `ouhts ghout tfa
vgcm`mty oe fms or far
trua
stgtalabts.
7:.
Mb igsas
wfara tfa
`aeab`gbt wgmvas dury trmgc, opmbmobs `meear
ob
tfa
quastmob oe
wfatfar tfa
sgla
du`ka wfo rasocva` tfa vocubtgrmbass mssua sfouc` gcso ha parlmtta` to
`atarlmba
kumct
(saa
@avacoplabts
mb
tfa
Cgw-Iobeassmobs
7=55).
77. Qbtmc
7=50
tfara wgs g tfmr` proia`ura nbowb gs
tfa
Baw ]orn ruca mb wfmif
tfa
du`ka wgs
to
axicu`a g iobeassmob gs mbvocubtgry obcy me mt wgs
bot
possmhca tfgt
77
ragsobghca lab iouc` `meear ovar tfa mbearabias
to
ha `rgwb. Kum`a` hy tfms cgx
stgb`gr`, du`kas wouc`
tfus
g`lmt quastmobghca iobeassmobs
ob
g iob`mtmobgc hgsms
gb`
tfab cagva mt
to
tfa dury
to
`aim`a
hotf iolpatabia
gb` ira`mhmcmty. Mb
Dginsob v.
@abbo,
tfa Yuprala Iourt struin `owb tfms proia`ura gs g vmocgtmob oe `ua proiass4
77
7e
mt emb`s
tfa iobeassmob mbvocubtgry, `oas tfa
dury-mb`aa`,
igb m t - tfab `msrakgr` tfa iobeassmob
mb giior`gbia
wmtf mts mbstruitmob? Pfasa fgzgr`s wa igbbot mkbora (p.
9;6).
78. Pfa tmlmbk oe tfa du`ka's mbstruitmob fg` g smkbmemigbt aeeait ob var`mits (haeora
avm`abia
getar avm`abia
< 01
pariabt) hut `m`
bot
mbtargit wmtf tfa
otfar
vgrmghcas.
79.
Gbotfar possmhca axpcgbg tmob
oe tfa
posmtmva
ioarimob
hmgs ms
tfgt
gctfoukf durors
iobia`a ob gb
mbtaccaitugc cavac
tfgt tfa
iobeassmob wgs
cakgccy mbvocubtgry,
tfay
`mscmna
gb` `mstrust g `aeab`gbt wfo fgs sfowb g wmccmbkbass to axpcomt tfa opportubmty.
XAEAXAB AY
Gsfirget v. Pabbassaa,
988 Q.Y. 709
(7=00).
Guhry, G., Igputo,
X.
(7=51). Irmlmbgc mbtarrokgtmob. Yprmbkemac`,
MC4
Ifgrcas
I
Pfolgs.
Gycmbk, I. D. (7=60). Iorrohorgtmbk egcsa iobeassmobs4
Gb
alpmrmigc gbgcysms oe cakgc
sgeakugr`s gkgmbst egcsa iobeassmobs. [msiobsmb Cgw Xavmaw
7787-78:0.
Hgrtfac,
D.
(7=;5).
G
`agtf mb Igbggb. Baw ]orn4
@uttob.
Harb, @. D. (7=55). Mb`uimbk hacmae mb egcsa iobeassmobs.
Dourbgc
oe
Zarsobgcmty
gb`
Yoimgc
Zsyifocoky 9
;:;-;7:.
Harb, @.
D.
(7=5;, Duba).
[fab
sgymbk ms hacmavmbk. Zsyifocoky
Po`gy 7(8), 87-81.
Hcginhurb v. Gcghglg,
957
Q.Y.
7== (7=5:}.
Horifgr`, A.
L.
(7=98}.
Iobvmitmbk tfa mbboiabt4 Arrors
oe
irmlmbgc
dustmia. Baw Fgvab,
IP4 ]gca Qbmvarsmty Zrass.
Hrglac, @. (7=5=). @atarlmbgbts oe hacmaes ghout
otfar
paopca. Mb
D.
Lmccs (A`.},
Axparmlabtgc soimgc psyifocoky.
Baw ]orn4 Lgilmccgb.
Hrowb v. Lmssmssmppm,
8=;
Q.Y.
8;6 (7=95).
Hrubn, I. K. (7=;=). Pfa prohcal oe vocubtgrmbass gb` ioarimob mb tfa bakotmgta` pcag.
Cgw gb` Yoimaty Xaumaw 79
18;119.
Ifglhars
v. Ecorm`g, 9:= Q.Y.
88;
(7=0:).
Iucolha v. Iobbaitmiut,
95;
Q.Y.
156
(7=57).
@avacoplabts mb tfa cgw-iobeassmobs. (7=55). Fgrugr` Cgw Xavmaw ;=
=91-777=.
@rmvar, A.
@. (7=56).
Iobeassmobs
gb`
tfa
soimgc psyifocoky oe ioarimob.
Fgrugr`
Cgw
Xavmaw
68
08-57.
Acworn, G., Ygcas, H. @., Gcembm,
D. D.
( 7=;;). Durm`mi `aimsmobs4 Mb mkborgbia oe
tfa
cgw
or
mb cmkft oe mt? Cgw gb`
Fulgb Hafgvmor
7
759-76=.
Asioha`o
v.
Mccmboms,
9;6
Q.Y.
0;6
(7=50).
Eostar, F. F. (7=5=). Iobeassmobs gb`
tfa stgtmob
fousa syb`rola. @aZguc
Cgw
Xaumaw
76
569-;:74
Ergbn
D., Ergbn, H. (7=1;). Bot kumcty.
Kgr`ab
Imty, B]4 @ouhca`gy.
Karsflgb,
H. C (7=68). Ghsigl, tfa du`mimgry,
gb`
tfa atfmis oe abtrgplabt.
]gca
Cgw
Dourbgc =7
7151-71=7.
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27/28
Yguc L. Ngssmb gb` Cgwrabia Y. [rmkftslgb
=9
Kuttlgifar, L., & [amfoeab, F. (7=18).
Zsyifmgtry gb` tfa cgw.
Baw ]orn4 [.[.
Bortob.
Fmckgr`, A. X. (7=;1). Fypbosms. Gbbu387
Xaumaw
oe
Zsyifocoky
85
7=-00.
cbhgu, E. A., Xam , D. A. (7=58). Irmlmbgc mbtarrokgtmob gb` iobeassmobs. Hgctmlora4
[mccmgls
&
[mcnmbs.
Dginsob
v.
@abbo,
9;6
Q.Y. 956 (7=50).
Dobas
A. A. (7=;=). Pfa roiny rog` erol
gits
to msposmtmobs.
Glarmigb Zsyifocokmst 90
7:;-77;.
Dobas A.
A., & Fgrrms, U.
G.
(7=5;).
Pfa
gttrmhutmob
oe
gttmtu`as.
DourbgcoeAxparmlabtgc
Yoimgc Zsyifocoky, 9
7-80.
Ngcvab, F., & Tamsa , F (7=55). Pfa Glarmigb dury. Hostob4 Cmttca, Hrowb.
Ngpcgb,
L. E.,
Lmccar