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Kabbalah

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Kabbalah (Hebrew: ַקבָּלָה , lit. "receiving") is a discipline and schoolof thought discussing the mystical aspect of Judaism. It is a set ofesoteric teachings that is meant to explain the relationship between aninfinite, eternal and essentially unknowable Creator with the finite andmortal universe of His creation. In solving this paradox, Kabbalahseeks to define the nature of the universe and the human being, thenature and purpose of existence, and various other ontologicalquestions. It also presents methods to aid understanding of theseconcepts and to thereby attain spiritual realization. Kabbalah originallydeveloped entirely within the milieu of Jewish thought and constantlyuses classical Jewish sources to explain, demonstrate, or prove itsesoteric teachings. These teachings are thus held by kabbalists todefine the inner meaning of both the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) andtraditional Rabbinic literature, as well as to explain the significance ofJewish religious observances.[1]

Contents1 Overview2 Concepts

2.1 Kabbalistic understanding of God2.2 Sefirot

2.2.1 Ten Sephirot as process of Creation2.2.2 Ten Sephirot as process of ethics

2.3 Human soul in Kabbalah2.4 Tzimtzum2.5 Number-Word mysticism

3 Primary texts4 Scholarship

4.1 Claims for authority5 Critique

5.1 Dualism5.2 Perception of non-Jews5.3 Orthodox Judaism5.4 Conservative, Reform and ReconstructionistJudaism

6 History6.1 Origins of Judaic mysticism

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Related topicsAntisemitism · Criticism

Philo-Semitism · Slavery · Yeshiva · Zionism

Part of a series on

Kabbalah

SubtopicsSephirot · Qliphoth ·Ein Sof · Tzimtzum ·Tree of Life · Seder

hishtalshelus · Jewishmeditation ·Kabbalistic

astrology · Jewishviews of astrology

TextsZohar · Sefer

Yetzirah · Bahir ·Heichalot · SeferRaziel HaMalakh

CategoriesKabbalah · Judaism ·

Jewish mysticismPeople

Vilna Gaon · Shimonbar Yochai · Moshe

Cordovero · Isaac theBlind · Bahya ben

6.1.1 Origins of terms6.1.2 Mystic elements of the Torah

6.2 Mystical doctrines in the Talmudic era6.3 Middle Ages6.4 Early Modern era: Lurianic Kabbalah

6.4.1 Ban against studying Kabbalah6.4.2 Sefardi and Mizrahi6.4.3 Maharal6.4.4 Failure of Sabbatian Mysticism6.4.5 Frankists6.4.6 1700s

6.5 Modern era6.5.1 Bnei Baruch6.5.2 Kabbalah Centre

6.6 Personalities in Kabbalah7 Kabbalah in Fiction8 See also9 Notes10 References11 External links

OverviewAccording to the Zohar, generally considered the foremost kabbalistic text, Torahstudy uses four levels (PaRDeS) of interpretation (exegesis) of its text:[2]

Peshat (lit. "simple")—the direct meaning.Remez (lit. "hint[s]")—the allegoric meaning (through allusion).Derash (from Heb. darash: "inquire" or "seek")—midrashic (Rabbinic) orcomparative meaning.Sod (lit. "secret" or "mystery")—the inner meaning—a foundation of thekabbalah.

Kabbalah is considered, by its followers, as a necessary part of the study of Torah –the study of Torah (the Law of God) being an inherent duty of observant Jews.[3]

Kabbalah teaches doctrines that are accepted by some Jews as the true meaning ofJudaism while other Jews have rejected these doctrines as heretical and antithetical toJudaism.

The origins of the actual term Kabbalah are unknown and disputed to belong either toSolomon ibn Gabirol (1021 - 1058) or else to the 13th century CE Spanish KabbalistBahya ben Asher. While other terms have been used in many religious documentsfrom the 2nd century CE up to the present day, the term Kabbalah has become themain descriptive of Jewish esoteric knowledge and practices. The Kabbalisticliterature, which served as the basis for most of the development of Kabbalistic

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Blind · Bahya benAsher · Nahmanides ·Azriel · Isaac Luria ·Chaim Vital · JacobEmden · Jonathan

Eybeschutz · Chaimibn Attar · Nathan

Adler · ShalomSharabi · Chaim

Joseph David Azulai ·Shlomo Eliyashiv ·Baba Sali · Ben Ish

Chai

literature, which served as the basis for most of the development of Kabbalisticthought, divides between early works such as Heichalot and Sefer Yetzirah (believedto be dated 1st or 2nd Century CE) and later works dated to the 13th century CE, ofwhich the main book is the Zohar representing the main source for the ContemplativeKabbalah ("Kabbalah Iyunit").

According to Kabbalistic tradition, knowledge was transmitted orally by the Patriarchs,prophets, and sages (Hakhamim in Hebrew), eventually to be "interwoven" intoJewish religious writings and culture. According to this tradition, Kabbalah was, inaround the 10th century BCE, an open knowledge practiced by over a million peoplein ancient Israel,[4] although there is little objective historical evidence to support thisthesis.

Foreign conquests drove the Jewish spiritual leadership of the time (the Sanhedrin) tohide the knowledge and make it secret, fearing that it might be misused if it fell intothe wrong hands.[5] The Sanhedrin leaders were also concerned that the practice ofKabbalah by Jews deported on conquest to other countries (the Diaspora),unsupervised and unguided by the masters, might lead them into wrong practice andforbidden ways. As a result, the Kabbalah became secretive, forbidden and esoteric to Judaism (“ToratHa’Sod” Hebrew: תורת הסוד) for two and a half millennia.

It is hard to clarify with any degree of certainty the exact concepts within Kabbalah. There are several differentschools of thought with very different outlooks; however, all are accepted as correct.[6] Modern Halakhicauthorities have tried to narrow the scope and diversity within Kabbalah, by restricting study to certain texts,notably Zohar and the teachings of Isaac Luria as passed down through Chaim (Hayyim) Vital.[7] Howevereven this qualification does little to limit the scope of understanding and expression, as included in thoseworks are commentaries on Abulafian writings, Sepher Yetzirah, Albotonian writings, and Berit Menuhah.[8]

It is therefore important to bear in mind when discussing things such as the Sephirot and their interactions thatone is dealing with highly abstract concepts that at best can only be understood intuitively.[9]

Concepts

Kabbalistic understanding of God

In Kabbalah every idea grows from the foundation of God,[10] and the entire study is based on that centralbelief. The statement by Maimonides, from the Mishneh Torah is accepted by all traditional Kabbalists:

The foundation of all foundations, and the pillar of all wisdom is to know that there is God who brought intobeing all existence. All the beings of the heavens, and the earth, and what is between them came intoexistence only from the truth of God's being.

Kabbalah teaches that God is neither matter nor spirit. Rather God is the creator of both.

This question, "what is the nature of God?", prompted Kabbalists to envision two aspects of God, (a) Godhimself, who in the end is unknowable, and (b) the revealed aspect of God that created the universe, preserves

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Kabbalistic tree of the tenSefirot

Ein Sof (in-finite) and theemanation of angelic

hierarchies (Universes orolamot עולמות)

himself, who in the end is unknowable, and (b) the revealed aspect of God that created the universe, preservesthe universe, and interacts with mankind. Kabbalists speak of the first aspect of God as Ein Sof (אין סוף); thisis translated as "the infinite", "endless", or "that which has no limits". In this view, nothing can be said aboutthis aspect of God. This aspect of God is impersonal. The second aspect of divine emanations, however, is atleast partially accessible to human thought. Kabbalists believe that these two aspects are not contradictory but,through the mechanism of progressive emanation, complement one another. See Divine simplicity; Tzimtzum.The structure of these emanations have been characterized in various ways: Four "worlds" (Azilut, Yitzirah,Beriyah, and Asiyah), Sefirot, or Partzufim ("faces"). Later systems harmonize these models.

Some Kabbalistic scholars, such as Moses ben Jacob Cordovero, believe that all things are linked to Godthrough these emanations, making us all part of one great chain of being. Others, such as Schneur Zalman ofLiadi (founder of Lubavitch [Chabad] Hasidism), hold that God is all that really exists; all else is completelyundifferentiated from God's perspective.

Such views can be defined as monistic panentheism. According to this philosophy, God's existence is higherthan anything that this world can express, yet he includes all things of this world down to the finest detail insuch a perfect unity that his creation of the world effected no change in him whatsoever. This paradox is dealtwith at length in Chabad Chassidic texts.[11]

Sefirot

The Sefirot (סְפִירֹות)—singular, Sefirahare the ten—("enumeration"=סְפִיָרה)emanations of God with which He creates theuniverse. The word "sefirah" literally means"counting," but early Kabbalists presented anumber of other etymological possibilitiesincluding: sefer (text), sippur (recounting),sappir (sapphire, brilliance, luminary), separ(boundary), and safra (scribe). The termsefirah thus has complex connotations withinKabbalah.[12]

Ten Sephirot as process of Creation

According to Lurianic cosmology, the Sephirot correspond to various levelsof creation (ten sephirot in each of the four worlds, and four worlds withineach of the larger four worlds, each containing ten sephirot, which themselves

contain ten sephirot, to an infinite number of possibilities,[13]) and are emanated from the Creator for thepurpose of creating the universe. The Sephirot are considered revelations of the Creator's will (ratzon),[14] andthey should not be understood as ten different "gods" but as ten different ways the one God reveals his willthrough the Emanations. It is not God who changes but the ability to perceive God that changes.

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The names of the ten Sephirot are:

Keter (will)Chochmah (wisdom)Binah (understanding)Chesed (sometimes referred to as Gedolah or Gedulah) (mercy or loving kindness)Gevurah (sometimes referred to as Din (justice) or Pachad (fear)) (severity or strength)Tiferet (harmony or beauty)Netzach (victory)Hod (glory or splendour)Yesod (power or foundation)Malchut (kingdom)

Ten Sephirot as process of ethics

Divine creation by means of the Ten Sefirot is an ethical process. Each side of the graph is associated with adifferent aspect of divine emanation; the right column being positive, masculine, the left being negative,feminine, and the central being a mediator between the two. Examples: The Sefirah of "Compassion" or"Mercy" (Chesed) being part of the Right Column corresponds to how God reveals more blessings whenhumans use previous blessings compassionately, whereas the Sephirah of "Judgement" or"Restriction"(Geburah) being part of the Left Column corresponds to how God hides these blessings whenhumans abuse them selfishly without compassion. Thus human behavior determines if God seems present orabsent.

"Righteous" humans (Tzadikim) ascend these ethical qualities of the Ten Sefirot by doing righteous actions. Ifthere were no "Righteous" humans, the blessings of God would become completely hidden, and creation wouldcease to exist. While real human actions are the "Foundation" (Yesod) of this universe (Malchut), theseactions must accompany the conscious intention of compassion. Compassionate actions are often impossiblewithout "Faith" (Emunah), meaning to trust that God always supports compassionate actions even when Godseems hidden. Ultimately, it is necessary to show compassion toward oneself too in order to share compassiontoward others. This "selfish" enjoyment of God's blessings but only if in order to empower oneself to assistothers, is an important aspect of "Restriction", and is considered a kind of golden mean in Kabbalah,corresponding to the Sefirah of "Adornment" (Tiferet) being part of the "Middle Column".

Moses ben Jacob Cordovero, wrote a book, Tomer Devorah (Palm Tree of Deborah), in which he presents anethical teaching of Judaism in the kabbalistic context of the Ten Sefirot. Tomer Devorah, as a consequence,has become also a foundational text of Mussar [15].

Human soul in Kabbalah

The Kabbalah posits that the human soul has three elements, the nefesh, ru'ach, and neshamah. The nefesh isfound in all humans, and enters the physical body at birth. It is the source of one's physical and psychologicalnature. The next two parts of the soul are not implanted at birth, but can be developed over time; theirdevelopment depends on the actions and beliefs of the individual. They are said to only fully exist in peopleawakened spiritually. A common way of explaining the three parts of the soul is as follows:

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Nefesh (נפש) - the lower part, or "animal part", of the soul. It is linked to instincts and bodily cravings.Ruach (רוח) - the middle soul, the "spirit". It contains the moral virtues and the ability to distinguishbetween good and evil.Neshamah (נשמה) - the higher soul, or "super-soul". This separates man from all other life-forms. It isrelated to the intellect, and allows man to enjoy and benefit from the afterlife. This part of the soul isprovided at birth and allows one to have some awareness of the existence and presence of God.

The Raaya Meheimna, a section of related teachings spread throughout the Zohar, discusses fourth and fifthparts of the human soul, the chayyah and yehidah (first mentioned in the Midrash Rabbah). Gershom Scholemwrites that these "were considered to represent the sublimest levels of intuitive cognition, and to be within thegrasp of only a few chosen individuals". The Chayyah and the Yechidah do not enter into the body like theother three - thus they received less attention in other sections of the Zohar.

Chayyah (חיה) - The part of the soul that allows one to have an awareness of the divine life force itself.Yehidah (יחידה) - the highest plane of the soul, in which one can achieve as full a union with God as ispossible.

Both rabbinic and kabbalistic works posit that there are a few additional, non-permanent states of the soul thatpeople can develop on certain occasions. These extra souls, or extra states of the soul, play no part in anyafterlife scheme, but are mentioned for completeness:

Ruach HaKodesh (רוח הקודש) - ("spirit of holiness") a state of the soul that makes prophecy possible.Since the age of classical prophecy passed, no one (outside of Israel) receives the soul of prophesy anylonger. See the teachings of Abraham Abulafia for differing views of this matter.Neshamah Yeseira - The "supplemental soul" that a Jew can experience on Shabbat. It makes possible anenhanced spiritual enjoyment of the day. This exists only when one is observing Shabbat; it can be lostand gained depending on one's observance.Neshamah Kedosha - Provided to Jews at the age of maturity (13 for boys, 12 for girls), and is related tothe study and fulfillment of the Torah commandments. It exists only when one studies and followsTorah; it can be lost and gained depending on one's study and observance.

Tzimtzum

The act whereby God "contracted" his infinite light, leaving a "void" into which the light of existence waspoured. The primal emanation became Azilut, the World of Light, from which the three lower worlds, Beriah,Yetzirah and Assiyah, descended.

Number-Word mysticism

Among its many pre-occupations, Kabbalah teaches that every Hebrew letter, word, number, even the accenton words of the Hebrew Bible contains a hidden sense; and it teaches the methods of interpretation forascertaining these meanings. One such method is as follows:

As early as the 1st Century BCE Jews believed that the Torah (first five books of the Hebrew Bible) containedencoded messages and hidden meanings. Gematria is one method for discovering its hidden meanings. Eachletter in Hebrew also represents a number; Hebrew, unlike many other languages, never developed a separatenumerical alphabet. By converting letters to numbers, Kabbalists were able to find a hidden meaning in each

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Title page of first edition ofthe Zohar, Mantua, 1558.

numerical alphabet. By converting letters to numbers, Kabbalists were able to find a hidden meaning in eachword. This method of interpretation was used extensively by various schools.

There is no one fixed way to "do" gematria. Some say there are up to 70 different methods. One simpleprocedure is as follows: each syllable and/or letter forming a word has a characteristic numeric value. The sumof these numeric tags is the word's "key", and that word may be replaced in the text by any other word havingthe same key. Through the application of many such procedures, alternative or hidden meanings of scripturemay be derived. Similar procedures are used by Islamic mystics, as described by Idries Shah in his book, "TheSufi".

Primary textsLike the rest of the Rabbinic literature, the texts of Kabbalah were once partof an ongoing oral tradition, though, over the centuries, much of the oraltradition has been written down.

Jewish forms of esotericism existed over 2,000 years ago. Ben Sira warnsagainst it, saying: "You shall have no business with secret things".[16]

Nonetheless, mystical studies were undertaken and resulted in mysticalliterature, the first being the Apocalyptic literature of the second and first pre-Christian centuries and which contained elements that carried over to laterKabbalah.

Throughout the centuries since, many texts have been produced, among themthe Heichalot literature, Sefer Yetzirah, Bahir, Sefer Raziel HaMalakh and theZohar.

ScholarshipBecause it is by definition esoteric, no popular account (including anencyclopedia) can provide a complete, precise, and accurate explanation ofthe Kabbalah. However, a number of scholars from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, including GershomScholem, Joseph Dan, Yehuda Liebes, Rachel Elior, and Moshe Idel[17], as well as some from other locations,such as Arthur Green and Daniel Matt[18], have made Kabbalist texts objects of modern scholarly scrutiny.Some scholars, notably Gershom Scholem and Martin Buber, have argued that modern Hassidic Judaismrepresents a popularization of the Kabbalah.[19] According to its adherents, intimate understanding andmastery of the Kabbalah brings one spiritually closer to God and enriches one's experience of Jewish sacredtexts and law.

Claims for authority

Historians have noted that most claims for the authority of Kabbalah involve an argument of the antiquity ofauthority (see, e.g., Joseph Dan's discussion in his Circle of the Unique Cherub). As a result, virtually allworks pseudepigraphically claim, or are ascribed, ancient authorship. For example, Sefer Raziel HaMalach, an

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astro-magical text partly based on a magical manual of late antiquity, Sefer ha-Razim, was, according to thekabbalists, transmitted to Adam by the angel Raziel after he was evicted from Eden.

Another famous work, the Sefer Yetzirah, supposedly dates back to the patriarch Abraham. This tendencytoward pseudepigraphy has its roots in Apocalyptic literature, which claims that esoteric knowledge such asmagic, divination and astrology was transmitted to humans in the mythic past by the two angels, Aza andAzaz'el (in other places, Azaz'el and Uzaz'el) who 'fell' from heaven (see Genesis 6:4). In Islam, the angels'Harut' and 'Marut' were sent to teach magic only as a test to mankind (see Qur'an, Ch. 2: 102).

Critique

Dualism

Although Kabbalah propounds the Unity of God, one of the most serious and sustained criticisms is that itmay lead away from monotheism, and instead promote dualism, the belief that there is a supernaturalcounterpart to God. The dualistic system holds that there is a good power versus an evil power. There are twoprimary models of Gnostic-dualistic cosmology: the first, which goes back to Zoroastrianism, believes creationis ontologically divided between good and evil forces; the second, found largely in Greco-Roman ideologieslike Neo-Platonism, believes the universe knew a primordial harmony, but that a cosmic disruption yielded asecond, evil, dimension to reality. This second model influenced the cosmology of the Kabbalah.

According to Kabbalistic cosmology, the Ten Sefirot correspond to ten levels of creation. These levels ofcreation must not be understood as ten different "gods" but as ten different ways of revealing God, one perlevel. It is not God who changes but the ability to perceive God that changes.

While God may seem to exhibit dual natures (masculine-feminine, compassionate-judgmental, creator-creation), all adherents of Kabbalah have consistently stressed the ultimate unity of God. For example, in alldiscussions of Male and Female, the hidden nature of God exists above it all without limit, being called theInfinite or the "No End" (Ein Sof) - neither one nor the other, transcending any definition. The ability of Godto become hidden from perception is called "Restriction" (Tzimtzum). Hiddenness makes creation possiblebecause God can become "revealed" in a diversity of limited ways, which then form the building blocks ofcreation.

Later Kabbalistic works, including the Zohar, appear to more strongly affirm dualism, as they ascribe all evilto a supernatural force known as the Sitra Achra[20] ("the other side") that emanates from God. The "left side"of divine emanation is a negative mirror image of the "side of holiness" with which it was locked in combat.[Encyclopaedia Judaica, Volume 6, "Dualism", p.244]. While this evil aspect exists within the divine structureof the Sefirot, the Zohar indicates that the Sitra Ahra has no power over Ein Sof, and only exists as anecessary aspect of the creation of God to give man free choice, and that evil is the consequence of this choice.It is not a supernatural force opposed to God, but a reflection of the inner moral combat within mankindbetween the dictates of morality and the surrender to one's basic instincts.

Rabbi Dr. David Gottlieb notes that many Kabbalists hold that the concepts of, e.g., a Heavenly Court or theSitra Ahra are only given to humanity by God as a working model to understand His ways within our ownepistemological limits. They reject the notion that a Satan or angels actually exist. Others hold that non-divinespiritual entities were indeed created by God as a means for exacting his will.

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spiritual entities were indeed created by God as a means for exacting his will.

According to Kabbalists, humans cannot yet understand the infinity of God. Rather, there is God as revealed tohumans (corresponding to Zeir Anpin), and the rest of the infinity of God as remaining hidden from humanexperience (corresponding to Arich Anpin[21]). One reading of this theology is monotheistic, similar topanentheism; another a reading of the same theology is that it is dualistic. Gershom Scholem writes:

It is clear that with this postulate of an impersonal basic reality in God, which becomes a person - or appearsas a person - only in the process of Creation and Revelation, Kabbalism abandons the personalistic basis ofthe Biblical conception of God....It will not surprise us to find that speculation has run the whole gamut -from attempts to re-transform the impersonal En-Sof into the personal God of the Bible to the downrightheretical doctrine of a genuine dualism between the hidden Ein Sof and the personal Demiurge of Scripture.(Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism Shocken Books p.11-12)

Perception of non-Jews

Theologically framed hostility may be a response to the demonization of Jews which developed in Westernand Christian society and thought, starting with the Patristic writings.[22] This view can be compared with theChristian doctrine that baptized Christians form part of the Body of Christ while (at least according toAugustine of Hippo) all others remain in the massa perditionis.

According to Isaac Luria and other commentators on the Zohar, righteous Gentiles don't have this demonicaspect and in many ways similar to Jewish souls. A number of prominent Kabbalists, e.g. Rabbi PinchasEliyahu of Vilna, the author of Sefer ha-Brit, held that only some marginal elements in the humanity representthese demonic forces. On the other hand, the souls of Jewish heretics have much more satanic energy, than theworst of idol worshippers; this view is popular in some Hasidic circles, especially Satmar Hasidim.

Later Kabbalistic works build and elaborate on this ideas. The Hasidic work Tanya stresses the uniqueness ofthe Jewish soul, in order to argue that Jews have an additional level of soul that other humans do not possess.While a non-Jew, according to Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi, can achieve a high level of spiritually, similarto an angel, his soul is still fundamentally different from a Jewish one.[23] A similar view is found in YehudaHalevi's medieval philosophical book Kuzari.

However, many prominent Kabbalists rejected this idea and believed in essential equality of all human souls.Menahem Azariah da Fano, in his book Reincarnations of souls, provides many examples of non-JewishBiblical figures being reincarnated into Jews, and visa versa; the contemporary Habad Rabbi and mystic DovBer Pinson teaches that seemingly discriminatory statements in the Tanya and other Kabbalistic works are notto be understood literally.[24]

Another prominent Habad Rabbi, Abraham Yehudah Khein, believed that spiritually elevated Gentiles haveessentially Jewish souls, "who just lack the formal conversion to Judaism", and that unspiritual Jews are"Jewish merely by their birth documents".[25] The great 20th century Kabbalist Yehuda Ashlag viewed theterms "Jews" and "Gentile" as different levels of perception, available to every human soul.

David Halperin[26] theorizes that the collapse of Kabbalah's influence among Western European Jews over thecourse of the 17th and 18th Century was a result of the cognitive dissonance they experienced between

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course of the 17th and 18th Century was a result of the cognitive dissonance they experienced betweenKabbalah's very negative perception of gentiles and their own dealings with non-Jews, which were rapidlyexpanding and improving during this period due to the influence of the Enlightenment.

For a different perspective, see Wolfson.[27] He provides extensive documentation to illustrate the prevalenceof the distinction between the souls of Jews and non-Jews in kabbalistic literature. He provides numerousexamples from the seventeenth to the twentieth centuries, which would challenge the view of Halperin citedabove as well as the notion that "modern Judaism" has rejected or dismissed this "outdated aspect" of thekabbalah. There are still kabbalists today, and many influenced by them, who harbor this view. It is accurate tosay that many Jews do and would find this distinction offensive, but it is inaccurate to say that the idea hasbeen totally rejected. As Wolfson has argued, it is an ethical demand on the part of scholars to be vigilant withregard this matter and in this way the tradition can be refined from within.

However, as explained above, many well known Kabbalists rejected the literal interpretation of theseseemingly discriminatory views, added a chain of intermediary states between Jews and idolworshipers, orspiritualized the very definition of "Jews" and "non-Jews", thus solving the gap between traditionalKabbalistic literature and modern egalitarian worldview.

Orthodox Judaism

The idea that there are ten divine sefirot could evolve over time into the idea that "God is One being, yet in thatOne being there are Ten" which opens up a debate about what the "correct beliefs" in God should be,according to Judaism.

Rabbi Saadia Gaon teaches in his book Emunot v'Deot that Jews who believe in reincarnation have adopted anon-Jewish belief.

Nachmanides (12th Century) provides background to many Kabbalistic ideas. His works, especially those inthe Five books of Moses (Pentateuch) offer in-depth of various concepts.

Maimonides (12th Century) rejected many of the texts of the Hekalot, particularly Shiur Komah whose starklyanthropomorphic vision of God he considered heretical.

Rabbi Abraham ben Moses ben Maimon, in the spirit of his father Maimonides, Rabbi Saadiah Gaon, andother predecessors, explains at length in his book Milhhamot HaShem that the Almighty is in no way literallywithin time or space nor physically outside time or space, since time and space simply do not apply to HisBeing whatsoever. This is in contrast to certain popular understandings of modern Kabbalah which teach aform of panentheism, that His 'essence' is within everything.

Around the 1230s, Rabbi Meir ben Simon of Narbonne wrote an epistle (included in his Milhhemet Mitzvah)against his contemporaries, the early Kabbalists, characterizing them as blasphemers who even approachheresy. He particularly singled out the Sefer Bahir, rejecting the attribution of its authorship to the tanna R.Nehhunya ben ha-Kanah and describing some of its content as truly heretical.

Rabbi Yitzchak ben Sheshet Perfet, (The Rivash), 1326-1408. Although as is evident from his responsa on thetopic (157) the Rivash was skeptical of certain interpretations of Kabbalah popular in his time, it is equallyevident that overall he did accept Kabbalah as received Jewish wisdom, and attempted to defend it from

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evident that overall he did accept Kabbalah as received Jewish wisdom, and attempted to defend it fromattackers. To this end he cited and rejected a certain philosopher who claimed that Kabbalah was "worse thanChristianity", as it made God into 10, not just into three. Most followers of Kabbalah have never followed thisinterpretation of Kabbalah, on the grounds that the concept of the Christian Trinity posits that there are threepersons existing within the Godhead, one of whom became a human being. In contrast, the mainstreamunderstanding of the Kabbalistic Sefirot holds that they have no mind or intelligence; further, they are notaddressed in prayer and they cannot become a human being. They are conduits for interaction, not persons orbeings. Nonetheless, many important poskim, such as Maimonidies in his work Mishneh Torah, prohibit anyuse of mediators between oneself and the Creator as a form of idolatry.

Rabbi Leone di Modena, a 17th century Venetian critic of Kabbalah, wrote that if we were to accept theKabbalah, then the Christian trinity would indeed be compatible with Judaism, as the Trinity closely resemblesthe Kabbalistic doctrine of the Sefirot. This critique was in response to the knowledge that some EuropeanJews of the period addressed individual Sefirot in some of their prayers, although the practise was apparentlyuncommon. Apologists explain that Jews may have been praying for and not necessarily to the aspects ofGodliness represented by the Sefirot.

Rabbi Yaakov Emden, 1697-1776, wrote the book Mitpahhath Sfarim (Veil of the Books), a detailed critiqueof the Zohar in which he concludes that certain parts of the Zohar contain heretical teaching and thereforecould not have been written by Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai. Opponents of his work claim that he wrote the bookin a drunken stupor. Emden's rationalistic approach to this work, however, makes neither intoxication norstupor seem plausible.

Rabbi Yihhyah Qafahh, an early 20th century Yemenite Jewish leader and grandfather of Rabbi Yosef Qafih,also wrote a book entitled Milhhamoth HaShem, (Wars of the L-RD) against what he perceived as the falseteachings of the Zohar and the false kabbalah of Isaac Luria. He is credited with spearheading the Dor Daimwho continue in R. Yihhyah Qafahh's view of Kabbalah into modern times.

Yeshayahu Leibowitz 1903-1994, brother of Nechama Leibowitz, though Modern Orthodox in his world view,publicly shared the views expressed in R. Yihhyah Qafahh's book Milhhamoth HaShem and elaborated uponthese views in his many writings.

There is dispute among modern Haredim as to the status of Isaac Luria's, the Arizal's kabbalistic teachings.While a portion of Modern Orthodox Rabbis, Dor Daim and many students of the Rambam, completely rejectArizal's kabbalistic teachings, as well as deny that the Zohar is authoritative, or from Shimon bar Yohai, allthree of these groups completely accept the existence and validity of Ma'aseh Merkavah and Ma'asehB'resheet mysticism. Their only disagreement concerns whether the Kabbalistic teachings promulgated todayare accurate representations of those esoteric teachings to which the Talmud refers. Within the Haredi Jewishcommunity one can find both rabbis who sympathize with such a view, while not necessarily agreeing with it,as well as rabbis who consider such a view absolute heresy.

Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism

Since all forms of reform or liberal Judaism are rooted in the Enlightenment and tied to the assumptions ofEuropean modernity, Kabbalah tended to be rejected by most Jews in the Conservative and Reformmovements, though its influences were not completely eliminated. While it was generally not studied as a

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movements, though its influences were not completely eliminated. While it was generally not studied as adiscipline, the Kabbalistic Kabbalat Shabbat service remained part of liberal liturgy, as did the Yedid Nefeshprayer. Nevertheless, in the 1960s, Rabbi Saul Lieberman of the Jewish Theological Seminary, is reputed tohave introduced a lecture by Scholem on Kabbalah with a statement that Kabbalah itself was "nonsense", butthe academic study of Kabbalah was "scholarship". This view became popular among many Jews, who viewedthe subject as worthy of study, but who did not accept Kabbalah as teaching literal truths.

According to Rabbi Bradley Shavit Artson (Dean of the Conservative Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies inthe American Jewish University), "many western Jews insisted that their future and their freedom requiredshedding what they perceived as parochial orientalism. They fashioned a Judaism that was decorous andstrictly rational (according to 19th-century European standards), denigrating Kabbalah as backward,superstitious, and marginal."[28]

However, in the late 20th and early 21st centuries there has been a revival in interest in Kabbalah in allbranches of liberal Judaism. The Kabbalistic 12th century prayer Anim Zemirot was restored to the newConservative Sim Shalom siddur, as was the B'rikh Shmeh passage from the Zohar, and the mystical Ushpizinservice welcoming to the Sukkah the spirits of Jewish forbearers. Anim Zemirot and the 16th Century mysticalpoem Lekhah Dodi reappeared in the Reform Siddur Gates of Prayer in 1975. All Rabbinical seminaries nowteach several courses in Kabbalah--in Conservative Judaism, both the Jewish Theological Seminary and theZiegler School of Rabbinical Studies of the University of Judaism in Los Angeles have fulltime instructors inKabbalah and Hasidut, Eitan Fishbane and Pinchas Geller, respectively. In the Reform movement SharonKoren teaches at the Hebrew Union College. Reform Rabbis like Herbert Weiner and Lawrence Kushner haverenewed interest in Kabbalah among Reform Jews. At the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, the onlyaccredited seminary that has curricular requirements in kabbalah, Joel Hecker is the fulltime instructorteaching courses in kabbalah and hasidut.

According to Artson "Ours is an age hungry for meaning, for a sense of belonging, for holiness. In that search,we have returned to the very Kabbalah our predecessors scorned. The stone that the builders rejected hasbecome the head cornerstone (Psalm 118:22)... Kabbalah was the last universal theology adopted by the entireJewish people, hence faithfulness to our commitment to positive-historical Judaism mandates a reverentreceptivity to Kabbalah".[29]

The Reconstructionist movement, under the leadership of Arthur Green in the 1980's and 1990's, and with theinfluence of Zalman Schachter Shalomi brought a strong openness to kabbalah and hasidic elements that thencame to play prominent roles in the Kol ha-Neshamah siddur series.

History

Origins of Judaic mysticism

According to the traditional understanding, Kabbalah dates from Eden.[30] It came down from a remote past asa revelation to elect Tzadikim (righteous people), and, for the most part, was preserved only by a privilegedfew. Talmudic Judaism records its view of the proper protocol for teaching this wisdom, as well as many of itsconcepts, in the Talmud, Tractate Hagigah, Ch.2.

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Contemporary scholarship suggests that various schools of Jewish esotericism arose at different periods ofJewish history, each reflecting not only prior forms of mysticism, but also the intellectual and cultural milieuof that historical period. Answers to questions of transmission, lineage, influence, and innovation vary greatlyand cannot be easily summarized.

Origins of terms

Originally, Kabbalistic knowledge was believed to be an integral part of the Judaism's oral law (see also,Aggadah), given by God to Moses on Mount Sinai around 13th century BCE, though there is a view thatKabbalah began with Adam.

When the Israelites arrived at their destination and settled in Canaan, for a few centuries the esotericknowledge was referred to by its aspect practice - meditation Hitbonenut (Hebrew: התבוננות),[31] RebbeNachman of Breslov's Hitbodedut (Hebrew: התבודדות), translated as “being alone” or “isolating oneself”, orby a different term describing the actual, desired goal of the practice - prophecy (“NeVu’a” Hebrew: נבואה).

During the 5th century BCE, when the works of the Tanakh were edited and canonized and the secretknowledge encrypted within the various writings and scrolls (“Megilot”), the knowledge was referred to asMa'aseh Merkavah (Hebrew: מעשה מרכבה)[32] and Ma'aseh B'reshit (Hebrew: מעשה בראשית),[33]

respectively "the act of the Chariot" and "the act of Creation". Merkavah mysticism alluded to the encryptedknowledge within the book of the prophet Ezekiel describing his vision of the "Divine Chariot". B'reshitmysticism referred to the first chapter of Genesis (Hebrew: בראשית ) in the Torah that is believed to containsecrets of the creation of the universe and forces of nature. These terms are also mentioned in the secondchapter of the Talmudic tractate Haggigah.

Mystic elements of the Torah

According to adherents of Kabbalah, its origin begins with secrets that God revealed to Adam. According to arabbinic midrash God created the universe through the ten sefirot. When read by later generations ofKabbalists, the Torah's description of the creation in the Book of Genesis reveals mysteries about the godheaditself, the true nature of Adam and Eve, the Garden of Eden, the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil and theTree of Life, as well as the interaction of these supernal entities with the Serpent which leads to disaster whenthey eat the forbidden fruit, as recorded in Genesis 2.[29]

The Bible provides ample additional material for mythic and mystical speculation. The prophet Ezekiel'svisions in particular attracted much mystical speculation, as did Isaiah's Temple vision - Isaiah, Ch.6. Jacob'svision of the ladder to heaven provided another example of esoteric experience. Moses' encounters with theBurning bush and God on Mount Sinai are evidence of mystical events in the Tanakh that form the origin ofJewish mystical beliefs.

The 72 letter name of God which is used in Jewish mysticism for meditation purposes is derived from theHebrew verbal utterance Moses spoke in the presence of an angel, while the Sea of Reeds parted, allowing theHebrews to escape their approaching attackers. The miracle of the Exodus, which led to Moses receiving theTen Commandments and the Jewish Orthodox view of the acceptance of the Torah at Mount Sinai, precededthe creation of the first Jewish nation approximately three hundred years before King Saul.

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the creation of the first Jewish nation approximately three hundred years before King Saul.

Mystical doctrines in the Talmudic era

In early rabbinic Judaism (the early centuries of the first millennium CE), the terms Ma'aseh Bereshit ("Worksof Creation") and Ma'aseh Merkabah ("Works of the Divine Throne/Chariot") clearly indicate the Midrashicnature of these speculations; they are really based upon Genesis 1 and Book of Ezekiel 1:4-28; while thenames Sitrei Torah (Hidden aspects of the Torah) (Talmud Hag. 13a) and Razei Torah (Torah secrets) (Ab. vi.1) indicate their character as secret lore. An additional term also expanded Jewish esoteric knowledge, namelyChochmah Nistara (Hidden wisdom).

Talmudic doctrine forbade the public teaching of esoteric doctrines and warned of their dangers. In theMishnah (Hagigah 2:1), rabbis were warned to teach the mystical creation doctrines only to one student at atime.[34] To highlight the danger, in one Jewish aggadic ("legendary") anecdote, four prominent rabbis of theMishnaic period (first century CE) are said to have visited the Orchard (that is, Paradise, pardes, Hebrew::(lit., orchard פרדס

Four men entered pardes — Ben Azzai, Ben Zoma, Acher (Elisha ben Abuyah),[35] and Akiba. Ben Azzailooked and died; Ben Zoma looked and went mad; Acher destroyed the plants; Akiba entered in peace anddeparted in peace.[36]

In notable readings of this legend, only Rabbi Akiba was fit to handle the study of mystical doctrines. TheTosafot, medieval commentaries on the Talmud, say that the four sages "did not go up literally, but it appearedto them as if they went up."[37] On the other hand, Rabbi Louis Ginzberg, writes in the Jewish Encyclopedia(1901-1906) that the journey to paradise "is to be taken literally and not allegorically".[38] For further analysis,see The Four Who Entered Paradise.

Eminent rabbinic teachers in the Land of Israel held the doctrine of the preexistence of matter (MidrashGenesis Rabbah i. 5; iv. 6), in spite of the protest of Gamaliel II. (ib. i. 9).

In dwelling upon the nature of God and the universe, the mystics of the Talmudic period asserted, in contrastto the transcendentalism evident in some parts of the Bible, that "God is the dwelling-place of the universe;but the universe is not the dwelling-place of God". Possibly the designation ("place") for God, so frequentlyfound in Talmudic-Midrashic literature, is due to this conception, just as Philo, in commenting on Genesis28:11 says, "God is called ha makom (המקום "the place") because God encloses the universe, but is Himselfnot enclosed by anything" (De Somniis, i. 11). This type of theology, in modern terms, is known as eitherpantheism or panentheism. Whether a text is truly pantheistic or panentheistic is often hard to understand;mainstream Judaism generally rejects pantheistic interpretations of Kabbalah, and instead accepts panentheisticinterpretations.

Even in very early times in the Land of Israel, Jewish, as well as Jewish Alexandrian theology recognized thetwo attributes of God, middat hadin, the attribute of justice, and middat ha-rahamim, the attribute of mercy(see: Midrash Sifre, Deuteronomy 27); and so is the contrast between justice and mercy became a fundamentaldoctrine of the Kabbalah. Other hypostasizations are represented by the ten "agencies", (the Sephiroth) throughwhich God created the world, namely: wisdom, insight, cognition, strength, power, inexorableness, justice,right, love, and mercy.

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The tree of life.

right, love, and mercy.

While the Sefirot are based on these ten creative "potentialities", it is especially the personification of wisdomwhich, in Philo, represents the totality of these primal ideas; and the Targ. Jerusalem Talmud i., agreeing withhim, translates the first verse of the Bible as follows: "By wisdom God created the heaven and the earth."Genesis Rabbah equates "Wisdom" with "Torah."

So, also, the figure of the Sar Metatron passed into mystical texts from the Talmud. In the Heichalot literatureMetatron sometimes approximates the role of the demiurgos (see Gnosticism), being expressly mentioned as a"lesser" God. One text, however, identifies Metatron as Enoch transubstantiated (see: Enoch, III). Mentionmay also be made of other pre-existent states enumerated in an old baraita (an extra-mishnaic teaching);namely, the Torah, repentance, paradise and hell, the throne of God, the Heavenly Temple, and the name ofthe Messiah (Talmud Pesahim 54a). Although the origin of this doctrine must be sought probably in certainmythological ideas, the Platonic doctrine of pre-existence has modified the older, simpler conception, and thepre-existence of the seven must therefore be understood as an "ideal" pre-existence, a conception that waslater more fully developed in the Kabbalah.

The attempts of the mystics to bridge the gulf between God and the world are evident in the doctrine of thepreexistence of the soul, and of its close relation to God before it enters the human body — a doctrine taughtby the Hellenistic sages (Wisdom viii. 19) as well as by the Palestinian rabbis. The mystics also employ thephrase from (Isaiah 6:3), as expounded by the Rabbinic Sages, "The whole world is filled with His glory," tojustify a panentheistic understanding of the universe.

Middle Ages

From the 8th-11th Century Sefer Yetzirah and Hekalot texts made their wayinto European Jewish circles. Modern scholars have identified severalmystical brotherhoods that functioned in Europe starting in the 12th Century.Some, such as the "Iyyun Circle" and the "Unique Cherub Circle," were trulyesoteric, remaining largely anonymous.

One well-known group was the "Hasidei Ashkenaz," (חסידי אשכנז) orGerman Pietists. This 13th Century movement arose mostly among a singlescholarly family, the Kalonymus family of the French and German Rhineland.

There were certain rishonim ("Elder Sages") of exoteric Judaism who areknown to have been experts in Kabbalah. One of the best known isNahmanides (the Ramban) (1194-1270) whose commentary on the Torah isconsidered to be based on Kabbalistic knowledge. Bahya ben Asher (theRabbeinu Behaye) (d. 1340) also combined Torah commentary and Kabbalah.Another was Isaac the Blind (1160-1235), the teacher of Nahmanides, who iswidely argued to have written the first work of classic Kabbalah, the Bahir.

Sefer Bahir and another work, the "Treatise of the Left Emanation", probably composed in Spain by Isaac benIsaac ha-Kohen, laid the groundwork for the composition of Sefer Zohar, written by Moses de Leon and hismystical circle at the end of the 13th Century, but credited to the Talmudic sage Shimon bar Yochai, cf.

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Zohar. The Zohar proved to be the first truly "popular" work of Kabbalah, and the most influential. From thethirteenth century onward, Kabbalah began to be widely disseminated and it branched out into an extensiveliterature. Historians in the nineteenth century, for example, Heinrich Graetz, argued that the emergence intopublic view of Jewish esotericism at this time coincides with, and represents a response to, the rising influenceof the rationalist philosophy of Maimonides and his followers. Gershom Scholem sought to undermine thisview as part of his resistance to seeing kabbalah as merely a response to medieval Jewish rationalism. Arguingfor a gnostic influence has to be seen as part of this strategy. More recently, Moshe Idel and Elliot Wolfsonhave independently argued that the impact of Maimonides can be seen in the change from orality to writing inthe thirteenth century. That is, kabbalists committed to writing many of their oral traditions in part as aresponse to the attempt of Maimonides to explain the older esoteric subjects philosophically.

Most Orthodox Jews reject the idea that Kabbalah underwent significant historical development or changesuch as has been proposed above. After the composition known as the Zohar was presented to the public in the13th century, the term "Kabbalah" began to refer more specifically to teachings derived from, or related, to theZohar. At an even later time, the term began to generally be applied to Zoharic teachings as elaborated uponby Isaac Luria Arizal. Historians generally date the start of Kabbalah as a major influence in Jewish thoughtand practice with the publication of the Zohar and climaxing with the spread of the Arizal's teachings. Themajority of Haredi Jews accept the Zohar as the representative of the Ma'aseh Merkavah and Ma'aseh B'reshitthat are referred to in Talmudic texts.[39]

Early Modern era: Lurianic Kabbalah

Following the upheavals and dislocations in the Jewish world as a result of the Spanish Inquisition, theexpulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, and the trauma of Anti-Semitism during the Middle Ages, Jewsbegan to search for signs of when the long-awaited Jewish Messiah would come to comfort them in theirpainful exiles. Moses Cordovero and his immediate circle popularized the teachings of the Zohar which haduntil then been only a modestly influential work. The author of the Shulkhan Arukh (the Jewish "Code ofLaw"), Rabbi Yosef Karo (1488-1575), was also a great scholar of Kabbalah and spread its teachings duringthis era.

As part of that "search for meaning" in their lives, Kabbalah received its biggest boost in the Jewish worldwith the explication of the Kabbalistic teachings of Rabbi Isaac Luria (1534-1572) by his disciples RabbiHayim Vital and Rabbi Israel Sarug, both of whom published Luria's teachings (in variant forms) gaining themwidespread popularity. Luria's teachings came to rival the influence of the Zohar and Luria stands, alongsideMoses de Leon, as the most influential mystic in Jewish history.

Ban against studying Kabbalah

The ban against studying Kabbalah was lifted by the efforts of the sixteenth century Kabbalist Rabbi AvrahamAzulai (1570-1643).

I have found it written that all that has been decreed Above forbidding open involvement in the Wisdom ofTruth [Kabbalah] was [only meant for] the limited time period until the year 5,250 (1490 C.E.). From then onafter is called the "Last Generation", and what was forbidden is [now] allowed. And permission is granted tooccupy ourselves in the [study of] Zohar. And from the year 5,300 (1540 C.E.) it is most desirable that the

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masses both those great and small [in Torah], should occupy themselves [in the study of Kabbalah], as it saysin the Raya M'hemna [a section of the Zohar]. And because in this merit King Mashiach will come in thefuture – and not in any other merit – it is not proper to be discouraged [from the study of Kabbalah]. (RabbiAvraham Azulai)[40]

The question however is whether the ban ever existed in the first place. Concerning the above quote byAvraham Azulai, it has found many versions in English, another is this

From the year 1540 and onward, the basic levels of Kabbalah must be taught publicly to everyone, young andold. Only through Kabbalah will we forever eliminate war, destruction, and man's inhumanity to his fellowman.[41]

The lines concerning 1490 are also missing from the Hebrew edition of Hesed L'Avraham, the source workthat both of these quote from. Furthermore by Azulai's view the ban was lifted thirty years before his birth. Atime that would have corresponded with Rabbi Haim Vital's publication of the teaching of Isaac Luria.

Furthermore Rabbi Moshe Isserles only understood there to be a minor restriction, in his words"One's bellymust be full of meat and wine, discerning between the prohibited and the permitted."[42] He is supported bythe Bier Hetiv, the Pithei Teshuva as well as the Vilna Gaon. The Vilna Gaon says,

There was never any ban or enactment restricting the study of the wisdom of Kabbalah. Any who says thereis has never studied Kabblah, has never seen PaRDeS, and speaks as an ignoramous.[43]

Thus leaving the existence of a ban to be highly debated.

Sefardi and Mizrahi

The Kabbalah of the Sefardi (Portuguese or Spanish) and Mizrahi (African/Asian) Torah scholars has a longhistory. Kabbalah in various forms was widely studied, commented upon, and expanded by North African,Turkish, Yemenite, and Asian scholars from the 16th Century onward. It flourished among Sefardic Jews inTzfat (Safed), Israel even before the arrival of Isaac Luria, its most famous resident. The great Yosef Karo,author of the Shulchan Arukh was part of the Tzfat school of Kabbalah. Shlomo Alkabetz, author of thefamous hymn Lekhah Dodi, taught there.

His disciple Moses ben Jacob Cordovero authored Sefer Pardes Rimonim, an organized, exhaustivecompilation of kabbalistic teachings on a variety of subjects up to that point. Rabbi Cordovero headed theAcademy of Tzfat until his death, when Isaac Luria, also known as the Ari, rose to prominence. Rabbi Moshe'sdisciple Eliyahu De Vidas authored the classic work, Reishit Chochma, combining kabbalistic and mussar(moral) teachings. Chaim Vital also studied under Rabbi Cordovero, but with the arrival of Rabbi Luriabecame his main disciple. Vital claimed to be the only one authorized to transmit the Ari's teachings, thoughother disciples also published books presenting Luria's teachings.

Maharal

One of the most important teachers of Kabbalah recognized as an authority by all serious scholars up until thepresent time, was Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel (1525-1609) known as the Maharal of Prague. Many of hiswritten works survive and are studied for their deep Kabbalistic insights. The Maharal is, perhaps, most

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written works survive and are studied for their deep Kabbalistic insights. The Maharal is, perhaps, mostfamous outside of Jewish mysticism for the legends of the golem of Prague, which he reportedly created.During the twentieth century, Rabbi Isaac Hutner (1906-1980) continued to spread the Maharal's teachingsindirectly through his own teachings and scholarly publications within the modern yeshiva world.

Failure of Sabbatian Mysticism

The spiritual and mystical yearnings of many Jews remained frustrated after the death of Rabbi Isaac Luriaand his disciples and colleagues. No hope was in sight for many following the devastation and mass killings ofthe pogroms that followed in the wake the Chmielnicki Uprising (1648-1654), and it was at this time that acontroversial scholar of the Kabbalah by the name of Sabbatai Zevi (1626-1676) captured the hearts andminds of the Jewish masses of that time with the promise of a newly-minted "Messianic" Millennialism in theform of his own personage.

His charisma, mystical teachings that included repeated pronunciations of the holy Tetragrammaton in public,tied to an unstable personality, and with the help of his own "prophet" Nathan of Gaza, convinced the Jewishmasses that the "Jewish Messiah" had finally come. It seemed that the esoteric teachings of Kabbalah hadfound their "champion" and had triumphed, but this era of Jewish history unravelled when Zevi became anapostate to Judaism by converting to Islam after he was arrested by the Ottoman Sultan and threatened withexecution for attempting a plan to conquer the world and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem.

Many of his followers, known as Sabbateans, continued to worship him in secret, explaining his conversionnot as an effort to save his life but to recover the sparks of the holy in each religion, and most leading rabbiswere always on guard to root them out. The Donmeh movement in modern Turkey is a surviving remnant ofthe Sabbatian schism.

Due to the chaos caused in the Jewish world, the Rabbinic prohibition against studying Kabbalah was wellintact again, and established itself firmly within the Jewish religion. One of the conditions allowing a man tostudy and engage himself in the Kabbalah, was to be of age forty. This age requirement came about duringthis period and is not Talmudic in origin. Many Jews are familiar with this ruling, but are not aware of itsorigins. Moreover, the prohibition is not halakhic in nature. According to Moses Cordovero, halakhically, onemust be of age twenty to engage in the Kabbalah. Many famous Kabbalists, including the ARI, RabbiNachman of Breslov, Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag, were younger than twenty when they began.

Frankists

The Sabbatian movement was followed by that of the "Frankists" who were disciples of another pseudo-mysticJacob Frank (1726-1791) who eventually became an apostate to Judaism by apparently converting toCatholicism. This era of disappointment did not stem the Jewish masses' yearnings for "mystical" leadership.

1700s

The eighteenth century saw an explosion of new efforts in the writing and spread of Kabbalah by four wellknown rabbis working in different areas of Europe:

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Rabbi Israel ben Eliezer, the Baal Shem Tov (1698-1760) in the area of Ukraine spread teachings basedon Rabbi Isaac Luria's foundations, simplifying the Kabbalah for the common man. From him sprang thevast ongoing schools of Hasidic Judaism, with each successive rebbe viewed by his "Hasidim" ascontinuing the role of dispenser of mystical divine blessings and guidance.Rebbe Nachman of Breslov (1772 - 1810), the great-grandson of the Baal Shem Tov, revitalized andfurther expanded the latter's teachings, amassing a following of thousands in Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuaniaand Poland. In a unique amalgam of Hasidic and Mitnagid approaches, Rebbe Nachman emphasizedstudy of both Kabbalah and serious Torah scholarship to his disciples. His teachings also differed fromthe way other Hasidic groups were developing, as he rejected the idea of hereditary Hasidic dynastiesand taught that each Hasid must "search for the tzaddik ('saintly/righteous person')" for himself—andwithin himself.Rabbi Elijah of Vilna (Vilna Gaon) (1720-1797), based in Lithuania, had his teachings encoded andpublicized by his disciples such as by Rabbi Chaim Volozhin who published the mystical-ethical workNefesh HaChaim. However, he was staunchly opposed to the new Hasidic movement and warnedagainst their public displays of religious fervour inspired by the mystical teachings of their rabbis.Although the Vilna Gaon was not in favor of the Hasidic movement, he did not prohibit the study andengagement in the Kabbalah. This is evident from his writings in the Even Shlema."He that is able tounderstand secrets of the Torah and does not try to understand them will be judged harshly, may Godhave mercy". (The Vilna Gaon, Even Shlema, 8:24). "The Redemption will only come about throughlearning Torah, and the essence of the Redemption depends upon learning Kabbalah" (The Vilna Gaon,Even Shlema, 11:3).Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto (1707-1746), based in Italy, was a precocious Talmudic scholar whoarrived at the startling conclusion that there was a need for the public teaching and study of Kabbalah.He established a yeshiva for Kabbalah study and actively recruited outstanding students and, in addition,wrote copious manuscripts in an appealing clear Hebrew style, all of which gained the attention of bothadmirers and rabbinical critics who feared another "Zevi (false messiah) in the making".He was forced toclose his school by his rabbinical opponents, hand over and destroy many of his most preciousunpublished kabbalistic writings, and go into exile in the Netherlands. He eventually moved to the Landof Israel. Some of his most important works such as Derekh Hashem survive and are used as a gatewayto the world of Jewish mysticism.

Modern era

One of the most influential sources spreading Kabbalistic teachings have come from the massive growth andspread of Hasidic Judaism, a movement begun by Yisroel ben Eliezer (The Baal Shem Tov), but continued inmany branches and streams until today. These groups differ greatly in size, but all emphasize the study ofmystical Hasidic texts, which now consists of a vast literature devoted to elaborating upon the long chain ofKabbalistic thought and methodology. No group emphasizes in-depth kabbalistic study, though, to the extentof the Chabad-Lubavitch movement, whose Rebbes delivered tens of thousands of discourses, and whosestudents study these texts for three hours daily.

Rabbi Shmuel Schneersohn of Lubavitch urged the study of kabbala as prerequisite for one's humanity:

A person who is capable of comprehending the Seder hishtalshelus (kabbalistic secrets concerning the higherspiritual spheres) - and fails to do so - cannot be considered a human being. At every moment and time onemust know where his soul stands. It is a mitzvah (commandment) and an obligation to know the sederhishtalshelus.[44]

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The writings of Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook (1864-1935) also stress Kabbalistic themes:

Due to the alienation from the "secret of God" [i.e. Kabbalah], the higher qualities of the depths of Godly lifeare reduced to trivia that do not penetrate the depth of the soul. When this happens, the most mighty force ismissing from the soul of nation and individual, and Exile finds favor essentially... We should not negate anyconception based on rectitude and awe of Heaven of any form - only the aspect of such an approach thatdesires to negate the mysteries and their great influence on the spirit of the nation. This is a tragedy that wemust combat with counsel and understanding, with holiness and courage. (Rabbi Avraham Yitzchak HaCohenKook Orot 2 )

Bnei Baruch

Bnei Baruch is a group of Kabbalists, based in Israel. Study materials are available in over 25 languages [45].

Michael Laitman, established Bnei Baruch in 1991, following the passing of his teacher, Baruch Ashlag.Laitman named his group Bnei Baruch (sons of Baruch) to commemorate the memory of his mentor. BaruchAshlag was the oldest son and successor of the famous Kabbalist, Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag, who was author of acomprehensive commentary on The Book of Zohar called The Sulam Commentary (The Ladder Commentary).

Kabbalah Centre

The Kabbalah Centre was founded in the United States in 1965 as The National Research Institute of Kabbalahby Philip Berg (born Feivel Gruberger) and Rav Yehuda Tzvi Brandwein. After Brandwein's death, and afterseveral years in Israel, Philip Berg and his wife Karen Berg, re-established the U.S. Kabbalah Centre in NewYork.

Personalities in Kabbalah

See also: Category:Kabbalists

Historical

Nathan AdlerAbraham AbulafiaBaruch AshlagYehuda AshlagAbraham AzulaiMoses ben JacobCordovero

Israel ben EliezerSolomon ibn GabirolJoseph ben AbrahamGikatillaMeir ben Ezekiel ibnGabbaiYitzchak KaduriYosef KaroMoses de LeonIsaac Luria

Elijah ben SolomonBaba SaliChaim VitalSimeon bar Yohai

Contemporary

Samuel Ben-Or AvitalAryeh KaplanZalman Schachter-ShalomiAdin Steinsaltz

Kabbalah in Fiction

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Amy Wolff Sorter's 2007 novel [2] (http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/search-handle-url/ref=ntt_athr_dp_sr_1?%5Fencoding=UTF8&search-type=ss&index=books&field-author=Amy%20Wolff%20Sorter) Soul Obsession focuses on the use of Kabbalistic teachings used during anexorcism.

See alsoEmanation (Eastern Orthodox Christianity)Christian Knorr von Rosenroth Christian Hebraist, author of the Kabbala Denudata, or KabbalaUnveiled

Notes1. ^ Imbued with Holiness (http://www.kabbalaonline.org/Introductions/firststeps/Imbued_with_Holiness.asp)2. ^ JewishEncyclopedia.com - ZOHAR (http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&letter=Z)3. ^ The Written Law (The Torah) (http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/The_Written_Law.html)4. ^ Megillah 14a, Shir HaShirim Rabbah 4:22,Ruth Rabbah 1:2, Aryeh Kaplan “Jewish Meditation: A Practical

Guide” p.44 - p.485. ^ Rabbi Yehuda Leib Ha-Levi Ashlag; Preface to the Wisdom of Truth p.12 section 30 and p.105 bottom section of

the left column as preface to the "Talmud Eser HaSfirot"6. ^ seeShem Mashmaon by Rabbi Shimon Agasi. It is a commentary on Otzrot Haim by Haim Vital. In the

introduction he list five major schools of thought as to how to understand the AriZ"L/Haim Vital's understanding ofthe concept of Tzitzum.

7. ^ seeYechveh DaatVol 3, section 47 by Rabbi Ovadiah Yosef8. ^ seeKtavim Hadashim published by Rabbi Yaakov Hillel of Ahavat Shalom for a sampling of works by Haim Vital

attributed to Isaac Luria that deal with other works.9. ^ Kabbala goes to yeshiva | Jerusalem Post (http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?

cid=1139395568990&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull)10. ^ Arthur Kurzweil, Kabbalah for Dummies, p.8411. ^ Wineberg, chs. 20-2112. ^ (Scholem, Kabbalah, p. 100)13. ^ seeOtzrot Haim: Sha'ar TNT"A for a short explanation. The vast majority of the Lurianic system deals only with

the complexities found in the world of Atzilut as is explained in the introductions to both Otzrot Haim and Eitz Haim.14. ^ The Song of the Soul, Yechiel Bar-Lev, p.7315. ^ J.H.Laenen, Jewish Mysticism, p.16416. ^ Sirach iii. 22; compare Talmud, Hagigah, 13a; Midrash Genesis Rabbah, viii.17. ^ Moshe Idel (http://www.ihc.ucsb.edu/events/event_files/past/_spring04/idel/index.html)18. ^ Daniel C. Matt (http://www.srhe.ucsb.edu/lectures/info/matt.html#bio)19. ^ Gerschom Scholem, "Hasidism: The Latest Phase" in Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism and Martin Bubuer,

Hasidism and Modern Man and The Origin and Meaning of Hasidism20. ^ Sitra Achra (http://www.kabbalaonline.org/Introductions/firststeps/The_Other_Side.asp)21. ^ Arich Anpin (http://www.kabbalaonline.org/Safedteachings/gor/Specific_and_General_Connections_115.asp)22. ^ Fundamentals of Jewish Mysticism and Kabbalah By Ron H. Feldman. Pg. 59סידור הרב, שער אכילת מצה ^ .2324. ^ Dov Ber Pinson, Reincarnation and Judaismר' אברהם חן, ביהדות התורה ^ .2526. ^ article, The Seductiveness of Jewish Myth

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27. ^ Wolfson, E.R. Venturing Beyond: Law and Morality in Kabbalistic Mysticism, Oxford University Press, 2006, ch.1.28. ^ Rabbi Bradley Shavit Artson, From the Periphery to the Center: Kabbalah & Conservative Judaism

(http://judaism.ajula.edu/Content/ContentUnit.asp?CID=1525&u=5504&t=0)29. ^ a b Artson, Bradley Shavit (http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=2) .

From the Periphery to the Centre: Kabbalah and the Conservative Movement, United Synagogue Review, Spring2005, Vol. 57 No. 2

30. ^ Introduction to Raziel Hamalach31. ^ Stern, Schneur Zalman. Active vs. Passive Meditation

(http://www.kabbalaonline.org/Meditations/jewishmeditation/Active_vs.Passive_Meditation.asp)32. ^ SparkNotes: The Kabbalah: Ma’aseh merkavah (http://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/kabbalah/section1.html)33. ^ SparkNotes: The Kabbalah: Ma’aseh bereshit (http://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/kabbalah/section2.rhtml)34. ^ Urbach, The Sages, pp.184ff.35. ^ Later, Elisha came to be considered heretical by his fellow Tannaim and the rabbis of the Talmud referred to him

as Acher (אחר"The Other One").36. ^ Babylonian Talmud Hagigah 14b, Jerusalem Talmud Hagigah 2:1. Both available online in Aramaic: Babylonian

Talmud (http://www.mechon-mamre.org/b/l/l2b02.htm) , Jerusalem Talmud (http://www.mechon-mamre.org/b/r/r2b.htm) . This translation based on Braude, Ginzberg, Rodkinson, and Streane.

37. ^ A. W. Streane, A Translation of the Treatise Chagigah from the Babylonian Talmud (Cambridge University Press,1891). p. 83.

38. ^ Louis Ginzberg, Elisha ben Abuyah (http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=296&letter=E) ", JewishEncyclopedia, 1901-1906.

39. ^ The Zohar (http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Zohar.html)40. ^ Rabbi Avraham Azulai quoted in Erdstein, Baruch Emanuel. The Need to Learn Kabbala

(http://www.kabbalaonline.org/Introductions/whatis/The_Need_to_Learn_Kabbala.asp#Tetra3)41. ^ https://www.kabbalah.com/k/index.php/p=about/histmakers/13&page=142. ^ Shulhan Arukh YD 246:443. ^ Shulhan Arukh 246:4 S"K 1944. ^ Sefer HaToldos Admur Maharash: From The Sichos Of The Rebbe Maharash Nshmoso Eden

(http://www.sichosinenglish.org/books/sefer-hatoldos-admur-maharash/09.htm)45. ^ [1] (http://www.kabbalah.info/engkab/learning-center/learning-center) Bnei Baruch Learning Center

ReferencesBodoff, Lippman; Jewish Mysticism: Medieval Roots, Contemporary Dangers and ProspectiveChallenges; The Edah Journal 2003 3.1 [3] (http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/Bodoff3_1.pdf)Dan, Joseph; The Early Jewish Mysticism, Tel Aviv: MOD Books, 1993.Dan, Joseph; The Heart and the Fountain: An Anthology of Jewish Mystical Experiences, New York:Oxford University Press, 2002.Dan, Joseph; Samael, Lilith, and the Concept of Evil in Early Kabbalah, AJS Review, vol. 5, 1980.Dan, Joseph; The ‘Unique Cherub’ Circle, Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1999.Dan, J. and Kiener, R.; The Early Kabbalah, Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press, 1986.Dennis, G.; The Encyclopedia of Jewish Myth, Magic, and Mysticism, St. Paul: Llewellyn Wordwide,2007.Fine, Lawrence, ed. Essential Papers in Kabbalah, New York: NYU Press, 1995.Fine, Lawrence; Physician of the Soul, Healer of the Cosmos: Isaac Luria and his KabbalisticFellowship, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003.Fine, Lawrence; Safed Spirituality, Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press, 1989.Fine, Lawrence, ed., Judaism in Practice, Princeton N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001.

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Green, Arthur; EHYEH: A Kabbalah for Tomorrow. Woodstock: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2003.Hecker, Joel; Mystical Bodies, Mystical Meals: Eating and Embodiment in Medieval Kabbalah. Detroit:Wayne State University Press, 2005.Idel, Moshe; Kabbalah: New Perspectives. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1988.Idel, Moshe; The Golem: Jewish Magical and Mystical Traditions on the Artificial Anthropoid, NewYork: SUNY Press, 1990.Idel, Moshe; Hasidism: Between Ecstasy and Magic, New York: SUNY Press, 1995.Idel, Moshe; Kabbalistic Prayer and Color, Approaches to Judaism in Medieval Times, D. Blumenthal,ed., Chicago: Scholar’s Press, 1985.Idel, Moshe; The Mystica Experience in Abraham Abulafia, New York, SUNY Press, 1988.Idel, Moshe; Kabbalah: New Perspectives, New Haven, Yale Press, 1988.Idel, Moshe; Magic and Kabbalah in the ‘Book of the Responding Entity’; The Solomon GoldmanLectures VI, Chicago: Spertus College of Judaica Press, 1993.Idel, Moshe; The Story of Rabbi Joseph della Reina; Behayahu, M. Studies and Texts on the History ofthe Jewish Community in Safed.This article incorporates text from the 1901–1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, a publication now in the publicdomain.Kaplan, Aryeh; Inner Space: Introduction to Kabbalah, Meditation and Prophecy. Moznaim PublishingCorp 1990.John W. McGinley; 'The Written' as the Vocation of Conceiving Jewishly; ISBN 0-595-40488-XScholem, Gershom; Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism, 1941.Scholem, Gershom; Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism, and the Talmudic Tradition, 1960.Scholem, Gershom; Sabbatai Zevi, the Mystical Messiah, 1973.Scholem, Gershom; Kabbalah, Jewish Publication Society, 1974.Wineberg, Yosef; Lessons in Tanya: The Tanya of R. Shneur Zalman of Liadi (5 volume set). MerkosL'Inyonei Chinuch, 1998. ISBN 0-8266-0546-XWirszubski, Chaim; Pico della Mirandola's Encounter with Jewish Mysticism, Harvard University Press,1989.Wolfson, Elliot; Through a Speculum That Shines: Vision and Imagination in Medieval JewishMysticism, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994.Wolfson, Elliot; Language, Eros Being: Kabbalistic Hermeneutics and Poetic Imagination, New York:Fordham University Press, 2005.Wolfson, Elliot; Venturing Beyond: Law and Morality in Kabbalistic Mysticism, Oxford: Oxford *University Press, 2006.Wolfson, Elliot; Alef, Mem, Tau: Kabbalistic Musings on Time, Truth, and Death, Berkeley: Universityof California Press, 2006.Wolfson, Elliot; Luminal Darkness: Imaginal Gleanings From Zoharic Literature, London: OnworldPublications, 2007.The Wisdom of The Zohar: An Anthology of Texts, 3 volume set, Ed. Isaiah Tishby, translated from theHebrew by David Goldstein, The Littman Library.

External linksGeneral information sites

Resources > Medieval Jewish History > Jewish Mysticism(http://www.dinur.org/resources/resourceCategoryDisplay.aspx?categoryid=450&rsid=478) Jewish

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History Resource CenterFAQ about Kabbalah (http://www.jewfaq.org/kabbalah.htm) JewFaq.orgCabala (http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1&letter=C) JewishEncyclopedia.comOverview of Kabbalah (http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Judaism/kabbalah.html)Chassidic Kabbalah (http://www.inner.org)Bibliographic Surveys of Books on Jewish Mysticism in English (http://www.digital-brilliance.com/kab/karr/index.htm)Rabbinic Kabbalah texts in English (http://www.digital-brilliance.com/kab/biblio.htm)

Lists of Kabbalah terms

Alphabetical list of specialized Kabbala expressions (http://www.aish.com/spirituality/kabbala101)Kabbalah Online.orgGlossary of kabbalistic terms (http://www.kabbalah.info/engkab/glossary.htm) Bnei Baruch

Jewish Kabbalah organizations

Ascent-of-Sefad (http://www.kabbalaonline.org)Authentic Kabbalah (http://www.kabbalah5.com)Iyyun (http://www.iyyun.com/kabbalah/index.html) - Dov Ber Pinson

Online rabbinic Kabbalah texts

Who Should Learn the Hidden Torah? (http://www.chayas.com/merqav.pdf) Rambam (Maimonides),Guide for the Perplexed.English and Aramaic Zohar Online (searchable) (http://www.Zohar.com) Kabbalah CentreKabbalah Library (http://www.kabbalah.info/eng) Bnei BaruchImportant Kabbalah texts in English (http://www.safed-kabbalah.com) KabbalahOnline.org

Orthodox sites

Kabbalah and Jewish Mysticism (http://www.mechon-mamre.org/jewfaq/kabbalah.htm) Talmudistperspective of KabbalahWhat is Kabbalah? (http://www.Chabad.org/article.asp?AID=170308) ChabadKabbalah 101 (http://www.aish.com/spirituality/kabbala101/) AishA-Z Kabbalah Institute (http://www.kblh.org/index.shtml)Bircat Shalom (http://www.kabbalah.org.il)

Online Hasidic Kabbalah texts

letter of the Baal Shem Tov (http://www.baalshemtov.com/story08.htm)Lessons in Tanya (http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=6237) ChabadThe Gate Of Unity (http://www.TrueKabbalah.com) Translation & Commentary of The Gate Of Unity

Jewish criticisms of Kabbalah

Anti-Maimonidean Demons (http://www.chayas.com/kabramb.htm) Article by José FaurMaimonides Agonist: Disenchantment and Reenchantment in Modern Judaism

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This page was last modified on 2 April 2009, at 14:58.All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights fordetails.) Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3)tax-deductible nonprofit charity.

(http://www.covenant.idc.ac.il/en/vol1/issue1/kellner.html) Article by Menachem KellnerMilhamot Hashem (http://www.chayas.com/milhamoth.htm) Attack on the Zohar by Yihhyah Qafahh.HebrewEmunat Hashem (http://www.seforimonline.org/seforim/emunas_hashem.pdf) Reply to MilhamotHashem by Jerusalem rabbis. HebrewIdol worship is still within us(http://www.radicaltorahthought.com/idol%20worship%20is%20still%20within%20us.htm) Interview:Prof. Yeshayahu Leibowitz

Folk and pop Kabbalah sites

Intro to Kabbalah and Self Discovery (http://www.desiretoshare.com/introkabbalah.htm) (12-part audiodownload online)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabbalah"Categories: Kabbalah | Judaism | Hebrew words and phrases | Panentheism | Jewish mysticismHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since March2008 | Articles with unsourced statements since August 2007 | Articles with unsourced statements since May2007 | Articles with unsourced statements since April 2007 | Articles with unsourced statements since February2007 | Articles containing Hebrew language text | Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1906 JewishEncyclopedia

The Zohar is known as the primary text of the Kabbala. Its pre-eminent place in Jewish mysticism does not derive solely from itsantiquity or its authorship. Other basic works of the Kabbala, like Sefer Yetzira and Sefer Habahir, are of earlier origin. The Zohar'simportance must rather be attributed to its comprehensiveness, becoming the source for practically all the later authoritative Kabbalisticteachings of the school of R. Yitzchak Luria and others. Shalshelet HaKabbala (pg. 31b)holds that the Zohar currently in our possessionis a mere fraction of the original work and maintains t According to the Zohar, a text for kabbalistic thought. These four levels are calledpardes from their initial letters, peshat, the direct interpretations of meaning. Derash, midrashic meanings, often with imaginativecomparisons with similar words or verses, sod, the inner, esoteric meanings, expressed in kabbalah. Kabbalah is considered by itsfollowers as a part of the study of Torah – the study of Torah being an inherent duty of observant Jews. A third tradition, related butmore shunned, involves the magical aims of Practical Kabbalah and they can be readily distinguished by their basic i