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SCIENCE TEACHERS: FACTORS THAT AFFECT JOB SATISFACTION

by

Tania T. Armer

KATHERINE GREEN, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair

ADRIENNE GIBSON, PhD, Committee Member

ELAINE GUERRAZZI, PhD, Committee Member

Barbara Butts Williams, EdD, Dean, School of Education

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Capella University

May 2011

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Tania T. Armer, 2011

Abstract

The objective of the study was to investigate which factors affect the job satisfaction of

middle- and high-school science teachers. The variables were job satisfaction and

demographics. A correlation between each of the variables was investigated to determine

if a relationship existed with science teachers and their overall job satisfaction. The job

satisfaction variables were pay, promotion, supervision, contingent rewards, operating

conditions, coworkers, nature of work, communication, and fringe benefits. While the

demographic variables were age, gender, level of education, years of teaching science,

and total years of teaching experience. A survey was sent to 436 middle- and high-school

science teachers. The survey included Paul Spectors Job Satisfaction Survey (1994) and

demographic data questions. A total of 137 surveys were completed and analyzed by a

series of statistical analysis tests on the variables. These tests included descriptive

statistics, frequency distributions, standard deviations, Pearsons correlation, Spearmans

Rho, and Chi-Square tests. The research questions along with their corresponding

hypotheses were then compared and analyzed with the test results. The studys analysis

results concluded that a moderate positive relationship exists between a science teachers

job satisfaction and the job satisfaction variables of pay, supervision, contingent rewards,

operating conditions, coworkers, and communication, while a low positive relationship

exists with the job satisfaction variable of fringe benefits. Additionally, a relationship was

found to exist between a science teachers job satisfaction and the demographic variables

of age, years of teaching science, and total years of teaching experience. No relationship

was found to exist between a science teachers job satisfaction and the job satisfaction

variables of promotion and nature of work as well as the demographic variables of gender

and level of education. The studys findings would be beneficial to schools and school

systems to help in the hiring and retention of qualified science teachers as it identifies

which factors need to be explored in order to help improve science teachers job

satisfaction.

iv

Dedication

This dissertation is dedicated to my husband, Robby, our daughter, Gabriela, my

parents, David and Rosita, my father and mother-in-law, Chuck and Liz, my sisters

Jeniffer and Ivett, their husbands, Eric and Bruce, and my nieces, Alexandra, Isabel, and

Ileana. They all provided love, support, encouragement and I would not have

accomplished this feat without them.

v

Acknowledgments

I would like first and foremost to thank God, who has given me the strength to

continue and finish this journey. Secondly, I would also like to thank my wonderful

mentor, Dr. Katherine Green, who was placed in my path by divine intervention. She has

been with me through the ups and downs of this journey. Thirdly, I would also like to

thank the rest of my committee members: Dr. Adrienne Gibson who has been part of my

committee from the beginning and has been instrumental in keeping me on my toes, and

Dr. Elaine Guerrazzi, who graciously joined my committee and has also been a

wonderful pillar of support since joining the committee.

In addition, I would like to thank my sister, Ivett, who became my unofficial

mentor, cheerleader, editor-in-chief, and all-around go-to person.

vi

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments v

List of Tables ix

List of Figures xi

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1

Introduction to the Problem 1

Background of the Study 2

Statement of the Problem 4

Purpose of the Study 5

Rationale 6

Research Questions and Hypotheses 7

Nature of the Study 10

Significance of the Study 11

Definition of Terms 13

Assumptions and Limitations 15

Organization of the Remainder of the Study 16

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 18

Introduction 18

Theoretical Framework 18

Teacher Job Satisfaction 24

Factors that May Affect Teacher Job Satisfaction 27

Burnout, Teacher Turnover, and Shortage 45

Science Teachers 47

vii

Job Satisfaction Survey 53

Conclusion 57

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY 60

Introduction 60

Restatement of the Purpose 61


Research Design 65

Population 66

Instrumentation 66

Administration and Data Collection 69

Ethical Issues 72

Limitations of Methodology 73

CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS 74

Introduction 74

Purpose 75


Descriptive Statistics of Demographics 79

Job Satisfaction Survey Results 84

Job Satisfaction Analysis 95

Demographics and Job Satisfaction Analysis 114

Conclusion 119

CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 121

Introduction 121

viii

Summary of the Study 122

Summary of the Findings and Conclusions 124

Implications for Action 135

Recommendations for Future Research 137

Conclusion 138

REFERENCES 139

ix

List of Tables

Table 1. Grade Level Currently Taught 80 Table 2. Average Age of Respondents 81 Table 3. Total Years of Teaching Experience 83 Table 4. Total Job Satisfaction Statistics 86 Table 5. Pay Results 87 Table 6. Promotion Results 88 Table 7. Supervision Results 89 Table 8. Fringe Benefits Results 90 Table 9. Contingent Rewards Results 91 Table 10. Operating Conditions Results 92 Table 11. Coworkers Results 93 Table 12. Nature of Work Results 94 Table 13. Communication Results 95 Table 14. Pearson Correlation of Overall Job Satisfaction and Satisfaction with Pay 97 Table 15. Spearmans Correlation Overall Job Satisfaction and Pay 98 Table 16. Pearson Correlation of Overall Job Satisfaction and Satisfaction with Promotion 99 Table 17. Spearmans Rho Correlation of Overall Job Satisfaction and Satisfaction with Promotion 100 Table 18. Pearson Correlation of Overall Job Satisfaction and Satisfaction with Supervision 101 Table 19. Spearmans Rho Correlation of Overall Job Satisfaction and Satisfaction with Supervision 102 Table 20. Pearson Correlation of Overall Job Satisfaction and Satisfaction with

x

Contingent Rewards 103 Table 21. Spearmans Rho Correlation of Overall Job Satisfaction and Satisfaction with Contingent Rewards 104 Table 22. Pearson Correlation of Overall Job Satisfaction and Satisfaction with Operating Conditions 105 Table 23. Spearmans Rho Correlation of Overall Job Satisfaction and Satisfaction with Operating Conditions 106 Table 24. Pearson Correlation of Overall Job Satisfaction and Satisfaction with Coworkers 107 Table 25. Spearmans Correlation of Overall Job Satisfaction and Satisfaction with Coworkers 108 Table 26. Pearson Correlation of Overall Job Satisfaction and Satisfaction with Nature of Work 109 Table 27. Spearmans Correlation of Overall Job Satisfaction and Satisfaction with Nature of Work 110 Table 28. Pearson Correlation of Overall Job Satisfaction and Satisfaction with Communication 111 Table 29. Spearmans Correlation of Overall Job Satisfaction and Satisfaction with Communication 112 Table 30. Pearson Correlation of Overall Job Satisfaction and Satisfaction with Fringe Benefits 113 Table 31. Spearmans Correlation of Overall Job Satisfaction and Satisfaction with Fringe Benefits 114 Table 32. Chi-Square Test on Age and Job Satisfaction 115 Table 33. Chi-Square Test on Gender and Job Satisfaction 116 Table 34. Chi-Square Test on Level of Education and Job Satisfaction 117 Table 35. Chi-Square Test on Years of Teaching Science and Job Satisfaction 118 Table 36. Chi-Square Test on Total Years of Teaching Experience and Job Satisfaction 119

xi

List of Figures

Figure 1. Gender 80 Figure 2. Years of teaching science 82 Figure 3. Highest level of education 84

1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Introduction to the Problem

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (2007) emphasized that many teachers have faced

stressful working conditions from occupational situations such as lack of student

discipline, lack of administrative support, and lack of resources. Tye and OBrien (2002)

have pointed out that according to their studies an increased workload coupled with large

class sizes was contributing to veteran teachers leaving the field. Furthermore, Hamman

and Gordons (2000) study concurred with Atkins (2003) findings, Heavy workloads

along with inappropriate budgets, long hours, and difficult students contributed to teacher

stress as much as external pressures (Hamman & Gordon, 2000, para. 12). In brief, these

stressors lead to burnout (Hamman & Gordon, 2000). Hamman and Gordon (2000)

further explained their definition of burnout: the dissatisfaction in ones job conditions

that leads to lack of productivity. Moreover, improvements in teaching conditions were

matched by increased student achievement and making teaching more rewarding

(Research Update, para. 4).

The aim of this study was to investigate which factors affect the job satisfaction of

middle- and high-school science teachers. Teacher job dissatisfaction can lead to attrition

2

and may result in teacher shortages (Ash, 2007; Byrne, 1998; Georgia Professional

Standards Commission, 2001; Ingersoll, 2001; 2003; 2006; Marshall, 2004). Ingersoll

(2006) attributed teacher attrition to a disproportionate number of math and science

teachers leaving the profession. The teacher shortage affects recruitment and retention of

teachers in key subjects such as science (Ingersoll, 2003; 2006). Ingersoll (2003; 2006)

believed the trouble with the shortage of qualified teachers should be resolved by

understanding how to both retain and attract quality teachers to the fields of math and

science. Ingersoll (2006) wrote, Moreover,. . . while it is true that teacher retirements are

increasing, the overall amount of turnover accounted for by retirement is relatively minor

when compared to that resulting from other causes, such as job dissatisfaction. . .(p. 208).

The study was quantitative in nature and focused on what possible factors could affect

science teachers job satisfaction.

Background of the Study

The background of the study centered on which possible factors could affect

science teachers job satisfaction. To begin to understand this problem, one must

understand job satisfaction and human motivation. Several studies have reported on the

relationship between job satisfaction and human motivation. Names such as Mayo

(1930), Maslow (as cited in Huitt, 2001) and Herzberg (as cited in Gawel, 1997; Leach &

Westbrook, 2000) have become synonymous with theories related to understanding job

3

satisfaction and human motivation. Though the theories developed varied somewhat, the

basis for each study was the same. Each theorist had worked on the search to understand

what drives workers to achieve job satisfaction.

Mayo (1930) was the first to be credited with starting the movement on studying

job satisfaction. Through the Hawthorne Studies, Mayo (1930) solidified the importance

of understanding employees needs and wants in order to increase profits. Maslows (as

cited in Huitt 2001) studies on human motivation and job satisfaction led him to develop

the theory of human motivation. Although Mayo (1930) identified the importance of

management in considering employees needs, Maslow was able to define what each

need was (as cited in Lindner, 1998). In fact, Maslow defined these needs into five levels.

As a result, the significance of Maslows theory of motivation lies in the fact that

according to Maslow, employees had five levels of needs: physiological, safety, social,

ego, and self-actualization (Lindner, 1998, para. 3).

Further studies on human motivation and job satisfaction were conducted by

Herzberg. In 1959, Herzberg developed and published the two factor hygiene theory

(Gawel, 1997; Lindner, 1998; Leach & Westwood, 2000). The theory focused on two

factors that determined a persons job satisfaction: hygienes and motivators. According to

Herzbergs studies, these two factors, though seemingly independent of each other,

together affected the absence or presence of the factors that predicted if an employee was

satisfied or dissatisfied with his or her job.

4

In general, what has been learned about human motivation and job satisfaction is

that in order for people to be motivated to work, some basic needs must be met. These

identified needs may vary slightly depending on the theorists; however, whether these

needs are defined as Maslows physiological or as Herzbergs hygiene needs, they still

relate to what motivates people to be satisfied (Gawel, 1997; Leach & Westbrook, 2000;

Lindner, 1998; Syptak, Marsland, & Ulmer, 1999).

If Maslows work and Herzbergs work were used to understand teacher job

satisfaction, then teachers as workers and employees would not be so different from other

workers and employees in that they too have basic physiological needs which need to be

addressed before job motivation and satisfaction can be achieved. Although there have

been many studies on understanding job satisfaction, many of these address

generalizations. Gawel (1997) stated that human motivation and job satisfaction studies

were mostly based on general business practices. Moreover, Gawel (1997) suggested that

teachers views and feelings towards motivation and job satisfaction did not necessarily

follow the generality proposed by the theories.

Statement of the Problem

With an increase in educational standards, more emphasis has resurged on the

importance of class and school organization (Wasley, 2002). Likewise, the National

Science Education Standards (NSES) has also become involved in the creation of science

5

standards towards a goal that all students should achieve scientific literacy (p. 1).

Along with an emphasis in the creation of goals and standards for science education,

there should be an emphasis in the hiring and retaining of highly qualified science

teachers. Science teachers are responsible for teaching NSES goals and standards, as a

result, it would be important to understand how to maintain and retain these teachers.

Ingersoll (2000) identified science teachers along with special education and math

teachers as vulnerable positions that are harder to fill due to high turnover and predicted

shortage (p. 2). Ingersoll attributed this turnover and possible shortage to dissatisfaction

with teaching from complaints on low salary, lack of administrative support, and

students lack of discipline among others. Therefore, the aim of the study was to

investigate which factors affect the job satisfaction of middle- and high-school science

teachers.

Purpose of the Study

The overall purpose of the study was to investigate which factors affect the job

satisfaction middle- and high-school science teachers. The focus of the study was divided

into two parts. The primary focus was to determine whether a relationship exists between

middle- and high-school science teachers job satisfaction, and the variables of pay,

promotion, supervision, fringe benefits, contingent rewards, operating conditions,

coworkers, nature of work, and communication. Another focus of the study was to

6

determine whether a relationship exists between middle- and high-school science

teachers job satisfaction and the demographic variables of age, gender, level of

education, years of teaching science, and total years of teaching experience.

Rationale of the Study

Schools throughout the country face the challenge of both recruiting and

maintaining teachers. The shortage problem had been attributed to reasons from

retirement, pregnancies, and relocation, to job dissatisfaction (Ingersoll, 2000; 2003;

2006; Ingersoll & Smith 2003). Ingersoll (2000; 2003; 2006) and Ingersoll and Smiths

(2003) studies attributed the teacher shortage to a revolving door in which many

teachers go into the profession and then leave (p. 1; p. 3; p. 203).

According to the Georgia Professional Standards Commissions (2001) analysis

of teacher retention, the commission stated a 25-30% beginning-teacher attrition rate at a

national level. The Georgia Professional Standards Commission (GPSC) also reiterated a

high attrition in the state of Georgia as well. Again listed under those conditions for

departure indicated a number of teachers were lost to attrition either due to promotion

from teaching positions or because they left the teaching workforce (p. 5). Studies by

Ingersoll (2000; 2003; 2006) and Ingersoll and Smith (2003) corroborate with the

GPSCs report, however, these studies also attribute teacher attrition in general to

dissatisfaction. A key difference from Ingersoll (2000; 2003; 2006), and Ingersoll and

7

Smiths (2003) analysis of attrition is that their studies view most of the teacher shortage

to the lack of teachers in highly sought after fields such as science. Their studies suggest

that the solution to the problem of teacher shortage is for schools and those involved in

the decisions that oversee schools to examine teacher shortage and attrition more in depth

as it relates to teacher job satisfaction.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

Research Question 1

What is the relationship between middle- and high-school science teachers job

satisfaction and the variables of pay, promotion, supervision, contingent rewards,

operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, communication, and fringe benefits?

Hypotheses for Research Question 1

Null hypothesis 1.1. No relationship exists between pay and middle- and high-

school science teachers job satisfaction.

Alternate hypothesis 1.1. A relationship exists between pay and middle- and

high-school science teachers job satisfaction.

Null hypothesis 1.2. No relationship exists between promotion and middle- and


Alternate hypothesis 1.2. A relationship exists between promotion and middle-

and high-school science teachers job satisfaction.

8

Null hypothesis 1.3. No relationship exists between supervision and middle- and


Alternate hypothesis 1.3. A relationship exists between supervision and middle-


Null hypothesis 1.4. No relationship exists between contingent rewards and

middle- and high-school science teachers job satisfaction.

Alternate hypothesis 1.4. A relationship exists between contingent rewards and


Null hypothesis 1.5. No relationship exists between operating conditions and


Alternate hypothesis 1.5. A relationship exists between operating conditions and


Null hypothesis 1.6. No relationship exists between coworkers and middle- and


Alternate hypothesis 1.6. A relationship exists between coworkers and middle-


Null hypothesis 1.7. No relationship exists between nature of work and middle-


Alternate hypothesis 1.7. A relationship exists between nature of work and


9

Null hypothesis 1.8. No relationship exists between communication and middle-


Alternate hypothesis 1.8. A relationship exists between communication and


Null hypothesis 1.9. No relationship exists between fringe benefits and middle-


Alternate hypothesis 1.9. A relationship exists between fringe benefits and


Research Question 2

What is the relationship between the demographic variables of age, gender, level

of education, years of teaching science, or total years of teaching experience and middle-

and high-school science teachers job satisfaction?

Hypotheses for Research Question 2

Null hypothesis 2.1. No relationship exists between age and middle- and high-


Alternate hypothesis 2.1. A relationship exists between age and middle- and


Null hypothesis 2.2. No relationship exists between gender and middle- and high-


10

Alternate hypothesis 2.2. A relationship exists between gender and middle- and


Null hypothesis 2.3. No relationship exists between level of education and


Alternate hypothesis 2.3. A relationship exists between level of education and


Null hypothesis 2.4. No relationship exists between years of teaching science and


Alternate hypothesis 2.4. A relationship exists between years of teaching science

and middle- and high-school science teachers job satisfaction.

Null hypothesis 2.5. No relationship exists between total years of teaching

experience and middle- and high-school science teachers job satisfaction.

Alternate hypothesis 2.5. A relationship exists between total years of teaching

experience and middle- and high-school science teachers job satisfaction.

Nature of the Study

A quantitative study based on correlational research methodology was the basis

for the research design (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003; Gay & Airasian, 2003). The

quantitative study investigated if a relationship existed between job satisfaction and the

variables of pay, promotion, supervision, contingent rewards, operating conditions,

11

coworkers, nature of work, communication, and fringe benefits. The demographic

variables of age, gender, level of education, or years of teaching experience were also

explored. A survey was sent to 436 middle- and high-school science teachers. The survey

included Paul Spectors Job Satisfaction Survey (1994) and demographic data questions.

The survey was administered through SurveyMonkey, an online surveying website. The

data collected was analyzed by a series of statistical analysis tests on the variables

through the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), a statistical software tool.

Significance of the Study

In the state of Georgia, the reported three-year teacher attrition rate was 25.5%

while the five-year teacher attrition rate was 33.4% (Georgia Professional Standards

Commission, 2001). The Georgia Professional Standards Commission (GPSC) also

reported that these numbers went along with the national teacher attrition rate of 25-30%

(Georgia Professional Standards Commission, 2001). Some of the reasons for attrition

have been credited to retirement, departure from teaching, promotions, moving, and

dissatisfaction with working conditions (Ingersoll, 2000; 2003; 2006; GPSC, 2001;

Ingersoll & Smith, 2003).

Which factors lead to teacher job satisfaction? The desire to help students was

ranked at 92% as the number one reason Georgia teachers initially pursued the career

(GPSC, 2001, Figure E). The data results corroborated with other studies that have

12

focused on how teacher job satisfaction is affected by student achievement (Atkins, 2003;

Bryant, 2001; Johnston, 1990; McCabe 2001; Ninomiya & Osoto, 1990).

Dissatisfaction with working conditions has been attributed to the most influential

reason why teachers leave the profession. As stated earlier, Ingersoll (2000; 2003; 2006)

and Ingersoll and Smith (2003) studies identified that most attrition and shortage was

from math and science teachers (16% turnover vs. 14.3% for all teachers) dissatisfied

with their working conditions. When compared to teachers in general, data showed that

together math and science teachers ranked higher than all teachers dissatisfaction with:

class size (6.5 vs. 3.2%), inadequate time (5.5 vs. 3.9%), and lack of faculty influence

(16.5 vs. 12.2%; Ingersoll, 2000; Figure 4). Although the state of Georgias report did not

separate science and math teachers from all Georgia teachers ranking, they did report

dissatisfaction with class size (52%), salary (58%), student behavior (59%), and parental

involvement (71%; GPSC, 2001, Figure D).

This study focused on investigating which factors affect the job satisfaction of

middle- and high-school science teachers. According to Ingersolls (2000) studies,

science teachers along with math teachers make up 16% of the turnover workforce, which

is higher than all other teachers (14.3%), registered nurses (13.4%), and all other

employees (11%). Therefore, this research was important in understanding which factors

may affect the job satisfaction of science teachers, which in turn may help districts

address how teacher job satisfaction may affect issues of teacher attrition, retention, and

13

recruitment. Works by Ingersoll (2001; 2003; 2006), Georgia Professional Standards

Commission (2001), and Cavanagh (2008) have discussed how many school districts are

having trouble both recruiting and keeping science teachers, and it would be beneficial to

find out from the current science teachers point of view which factors affect their job

satisfaction. From the data findings, the knowledge gained would be beneficial to school

systems on what equals success for their science teachers by understanding which factors

affect their job satisfaction. The research results could help identify possible approaches

to both keeping and attracting science teachers within the districts, the state, and the

nation.

Definition of Terms

Burnout. Dissatisfaction in ones job conditions that leads to lack of productivity

(Hamann & Gordon, 2000).

Communication. Dissemination of information within establishment or

organization (Spector, 2007).

Contingent rewards. Recognition and appreciation for a job well done (Spector,

2007).

Coworkers. Professional relationship with the people colleagues (Spector, 2007).

Fringe benefits. Refer to the monetary and non-monetary benefits that may

come with an employment position (Spector, 2007, Job Satisfaction Survey, para. 3).

14

These benefits may include health insurance, life insurance, dental insurance, short-term

disability, long-term disability, sick leave, maternity leave, and retirement plans among

others.

Highly Qualified Teacher. A teacher with the adequate credentials to teach a

specific subject or subjects.

Job Satisfaction. A persons positive feedback to his or her job experience (Yip,

Goldman, & Martin, n. d.).

Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS). Normed-measured instrument created by Paul

Spector to measure job satisfaction based on nine facets: pay, promotion, supervision,

fringe benefits, contingent rewards, nature of work, operating procedures, coworkers, and

communication (Spector, 2007).

Motivation. The resolution to set goals and to achieve them due to an intrinsic

desire to succeed for self and for others (Lindner, 1998).

Nature of Work. The degree of enthusiasm with which one performs job tasks

(Spector, 2007).

No Child Left Behind. Federal Law created in 2001. The law re-authorized the

Elementary and Secondary Act of 1965 and placed emphasis on more accountability from

the states and school districts in order to help disadvantaged students and schools (U.S.

Department of Education, 2001, Executive Summary).

15

Operating Conditions. Governing rules, policies, procedures, and workload

(Spector, 2007).

Pay. Compensation (Spector, 2007).

Promotion. Opportunities to advance in career (Spector, 2007).

Science Teacher. Teachers assigned to teach science subjects: earth science,

physical science, life science, chemistry, physics, biology, and astronomy, each as an

individual course or as a combined integrated science course.

Supervision. Immediate supervisor (Spector, 2007). For teachers, it will refer to

principals.

Teacher Attrition. Teachers who leave the teaching profession (Ingersoll, 2003).

Teacher Retention. Strategies enforced in order to keep teachers in the classroom

(Ingersoll & Smith, 2003).

Teacher shortage. Lack of adequate number of highly qualified teachers in the

classroom (Ingersoll, 2003).

Assumptions and Limitations

Assumptions

1. It was assumed that all science teachers answered truthfully.

2. Because the surveys were answered electronically, it was assumed that errors in scoring were reduced (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003).

16

Limitations

1. The limitations of the study are affected by the scope of the sample of participants, which was limited to middle- and high-school science teachers.

2. The study was limited to the number of participants who accurately completed the survey.

3. Some participants may have chosen not to answer certain questions, thereby limiting the pool of responses being analyzed.

4. Job satisfaction may be related to other factors beyond the studys variables of pay, promotion, supervision, contingent rewards, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, communication, and fringe benefits and the demographic variables of age, gender, level of education, or years of teaching experience.

Organization of the Remainder of the Study

The remainder of the study was organized into the 4 additional Chapters:

literature review, the methodology, data analysis and collection, and results, conclusions,

and recommendations.

Chapter 2 delineated the current research of the literature on the theoretical basis

on the importance of job satisfaction. A discussion of the literature on teacher job

satisfaction and the conditions that may affect teacher retention and recruitment was

conducted. Accordingly, an argument was set as to which factors may affect the job

satisfaction of middle- and high-school science teachers.

17

Next, Chapter 3 outlined the methodology of the research. This Chapter conferred

the researchers philosophy and justification for the instrumentation. The research design,

target population, data collection, and analysis are summarized in this section.

Then, Chapter 4 provided the synopsis of the data collected as well as an analysis

of the data.

Finally, Chapter 5 summarized the results and conclusions from the investigation.

Consequently, recommendations for further research were suggested as these went

beyond the scope of the study.

18

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

The focus of this study was to investigate which factors may affect the job

satisfaction of science teachers. The literature review was divided into seven main

subtopics: human motivation, job satisfaction, teacher job satisfaction; factors that may

affect teacher job satisfaction; burnout, teacher turnover, and shortage; science teachers

and job satisfaction; and the Job Satisfaction Survey (Spector, 1994). Job satisfaction was

the basis for the theoretical framework, while teacher job satisfaction; factors that may

affect teacher job satisfaction; burnout, teacher turnover, and shortage; science teachers

and job satisfaction; and the Job Satisfaction Survey (Spector, 1994) represent the

directional focus of the theory as to how it relates to the study.

Theoretical Framework

The study focused on investigating which factors affect the job satisfaction of

middle- and high-school science teachers job satisfaction. The theoretical framework for

this study was based on the works by Mayo (1930), Maslow (as cited in Huitt, 2001), and

19

Herzberg (as cited in Leach and Westwood, 2000), which focused on understanding

human motivation, job satisfaction, and the factors that affect them.

Yip, Goldman, and Martin (1998) stated from studies conducted by Berry (1997)

that job satisfaction was defined as an individuals reaction to the job experience (para.

1). That is, it is the workers experience, which drives the success of the company. The

idea that job satisfaction would play such a critical role a companys achievement

margin was not begun to be understood until the Hawthorne Studies from 1924 to 1932

(Lindner, 1998). Dickson (as cited in Lindner, 1998) reported on the Hawthorne Studies

and discussed, The study found employees are not motivated solely by money, and

employee behavior is linked to their attitudes (para. 1). The results found by the

Hawthorne Studies increased interest in employee behavior as it related to job

satisfaction, which in turn meant increased productivity for employers.

Consequently, several studies (Berry, 1997; Herzberg as cited in Leach &

Westwood, 2000; Lindner, 1998; Maslow as cited in Huitt, 2001; Mayo, 1930; Yip,

Goldman, & Martin, 1998) resulted from the research to understand what drives workers

to achieve job satisfaction. In addition, out of these studies several theories surfaced on

both job satisfaction and motivation, the latter being the basis for job satisfaction. Names

such as Maslow, Herzberg, and others have become synonymous with theories related to

understanding employee retention and satisfaction.

20

Understanding Human Motivation

Until recently, the search for what affects human motivation was not seen as an

important aspect of industry (Lindner, 1998; Mayo, 1930). Before human motivation was

understood as a valid field of study, businesses only valued finding ways to increase

profit, no matter the cost (Lindner, 1998). According to Lindner (1998), employees were

considered just another input into the production of goods and services (para. 1). In fact,

he noted, what perhaps changed this way of thinking about employees was research

referred to as the Hawthorne Studies, conducted by Elton Mayo from 1924 to 1932

(para. 1).

Through his studies, Mayo (1930) found a link between the way workers became

loyal to their jobs and managements treatment of the workers. In his report, Mayo

discussed that from his studies came an understanding of key factors: the relation

between industry and community; and the conception of human control (p. 326). As a

result, the Hawthorne Studies began the human relations approach to management,

whereby the needs of the motivation of employees become the primary focus of

managers (Lindner, 1998, para. 1).

Through Mayos (1930) findings, the development of theories that dealt with

human development began to surface. These theories tried to explain the very basic needs

of living things to be motivated. Huitt (2001) mentioned that theories on motivation

emphasized that learning does not occur unless there is an internal spark that compels a

21

person to want to learn. This same idea is the basis for Maslows (as cited in Huitt, 2001)

theory of human motivation. The importance of Maslows theory of motivation was the

fact that according to Maslow, employees had five levels of needs: physiological, safety,

social, ego, and self-actualization (Lindner, 1998, para. 3). Whats more, Maslow

believed each level preceded another starting from the basic needs (physiological in

nature) to the higher needs (Huitt, 2001; Lindner, 1998). At once other (and higher)

needs emerge and these, than physiological hungers, dominate the organism. And when

these in turn are satisfied, again new (and still higher) needs emerge and so on (para.

15). Huitt (2001) summarized Maslows stand on his work as humans reach each level,

they become more wise (develops wisdom) and automatically know what to do in a

wide variety of situations (para. 22).

Understanding Job Satisfaction

Ever since the Hawthorne Studies, employers have wanted to find out what

motivates their workers to do their best. In essence, what could help increase workers

productivity could also help increase profits. Mayos (1930) work provided an insight

that was not investigated as in depth as it was after his studies. Mayo noted:

Out of the original study there grew a realization of the advantage of supervision

that listens rather than gives futile orders; that gains understanding of individual

workers and thus is able to aid and guide them to develop self-control and

22

personal efficiency. The passing of the yelling, order-giving supervisor is

presaged. (p. 326)

In addition to Mayos (1930) influence, Maslow had also been given credit for helping in

the understanding of human motivation, particularly as a precursor to the premise of job

satisfaction (Lindner, 1998).

Even if businesses were interested in job satisfaction as a way of increasing profit,

understanding the how and why of job satisfaction had to be addressed. In the end, all

parties were affected from the bottom to the top. Syptak, Marsland, and Ulmer (1999)

concurred that after all, high levels of absenteeism and staff turnover can affect your

bottom line, as temps, recruitment and retaining take their toll (para. 1).

In 1959, Herzbergs two-factor hygiene theory was published (Gawel, 1997;

Lindner, 1998). The theory focused on two factors that determined a persons job

satisfaction: hygienes and motivators. According to Herzbergs studies, these two factors,

though seemingly independent of each other, together affected the absence or presence of

the factors that predicted if an employee was satisfied or dissatisfied with his or her job.

According to Herzberg (as cited in Leach and Westbrook, 2000):

Factors related to hygiene included

Company and administrative policies

Supervision

Salary

23

Interpersonal relations

Working conditions

Factors related to motivation included

Achievement

Recognition

Work itself

Responsibility Advancement. (p. 5, Exhibit 2)

The hygiene factors were also referred to as dissatisfiers. Herzberg believed that

these dissatisfiers did not determine motivation; however, their absence did affect job

satisfaction, in that an employee could become dissatisfied if hygiene factors were not

addressed on the job (Gawel, 1997; Leach & Westbrook, 2000; Syptak, Marsland, &

Ulmer, 1999).

On the contrary, motivators were referred to as satisfiers. These satisfiers were

elements that enriched a persons job (Gawel, 1997, para. 4). Gawel (1997) emphasized

that these motivators (satisfiers) were associated with long-term positive effects in job

performance while hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) consistently produced only short-term

changes in job attitudes and performance, which quickly fell back to its previous level

(para. 5). For example, an increase in salary was only a temporary satisfier.

Following Herzbergs theory, salary, as a hygiene factor, did not have the staying power

of recognition and achievement (Syptak, et al., 1999). As a result, Herzbergs satisfiers

24

could only be achieved once hygiene factors were met. The importance of Herzbergs

study was that the basis of his study related to human motivation towards job satisfaction

(Gawel, 1997; Leach & Westbrook, 2000; Syptak, Marsland, & Ulmer, 1999). Recall that

like Maslows (1943) work on human motivation, basic needs in general must be met

before achieving higher levels of the hierarchy. At the same time, Herzbergs two-factor

hygiene theory worked on relating the importance of the establishment of hygiene factors

to achieving motivators that satisfy job contentment (Gawel, 1997; Leach & Westbrook,

2000; Syptak, Marsland, & Ulmer, 1999).

Teacher Job Satisfaction

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2007), teachers enjoyed excellent

prospects in job opportunities. Furthermore, the Bureaus (2007) Department of Labor

Occupational Outlook Handbook informed that many of these opportunities were due to

the fact that there would be more teachers retiring than teaching jobs being filled. If

teachers enjoy such an excellent job market, why were these positions not being filled? A

closer study of teacher job satisfaction may be able to provide some answers. Following

is a discussion of possible factors that affect teacher job satisfaction.

Maslow, Herzberg, and Teacher Job Satisfaction

The previous sections discussed human motivation and job satisfaction in general.

The report presented how human motivation and job satisfaction were related through an

25

analysis of the works from Mayo, Maslow, and Herzberg (as cited in Gawel, 1997; Huitt,

2001; Huitt, 2004; Leach & Westbrook, 2000; Lindner, 1998; Syptak, Marsland, &

Ulmer, 1999). Although Mayo (1930) was recognized with helping build curiosity for

what drives motivation and job satisfaction, Maslow and Herzberg as cited in Gawel,

1997; Leach & Westbrook, 2000; Lindner, 1998; Syptak, Marsland, & Ulmer, 1999) have

been credited with defining what, according to their studies, forms satisfaction in humans

and their work environment.

Maslow (as cited in Huitt, 2001) was credited for creating the hierarchy of needs,

which defined humans as needing to reach some basic needs requirement before reaching

the stages of higher needs such as esteem and self-actualization (Gawel, 1997). Similarly,

Herzberg (as cited in Gawel, 1997; Leach & Westbrook, 2000) also studied human

motivation and job satisfaction, but he emphasized his own hygiene theory, which

stressed that hygiene factors had to be dealt with before motivation could ensue. Johnston

(1990) wrote, Herzbergs theory represented a substantial departure from the traditional

approach to explaining job satisfaction, which proposed that satisfaction and

dissatisfaction were two ends of the same continuum (para. 6).

Bishay stated (2005), many factors have been examined in an attempt to find

which ones promote teacher motivation (p. 1). These findings correlate to job

satisfaction as Bishay (2005) pointed out. The studies included finding the correlation

with factors such as pay, working conditions, and supervision, to name a few.

26

Although there have been many studies on understanding job satisfaction, many

of these studies addressed generalizations. Do these generalizations also apply to

teachers? Gawel (1997) pointed out, these theories are widely cited in business (para.

1). On the other hand, Gawels (1997) research focused on how Herzbergs (1959) and

Maslows (1943) respective studies coincided with teachers attitudes towards job

satisfaction.

What drives teachers job satisfaction requirements? Are teachers affected by the

same factors as the general population? The importance of Gawels (1997) research was

that the author analyzed the results of a study made by the Tennessee Career Ladder

Program (TCLP) which, found evidence that teachers in the program do not match the

behavior of people employed in business (para. 3). This disagreement related to how

Herzberg and Maslows studies on job satisfaction did not always compliment with

teachers view of human motivation and job satisfaction as it applied to them. According

to Gawel (1997), the findings disagree with Herzberg in relation to the importance of

money as a motivator and, the findings also disagree with Maslow in regard to the

position of esteem in a persons hierarchy of needs (para. 3). Gawel further concluded:

Although Herzbergs (1959) paradigm of hygiene and motivating factors and

Maslows (1943) hierarchy of needs may still have broad applicability in the

business world, at least one aspect of each, salary as a hygiene factor (Herzberg)

and esteem as a lower order need than self-actualization (Maslow), does not seem

27

to hold in the case of elementary and secondary school teachers. (Gawel, 1997,

para. 13)

The significance of Gawels (1997) study, suggested that a reason for teacher turnover

and the lack of pool for highly qualified teachers was that these candidates left their

teaching positions due to either one or both discrepancies in Herzbergs hygiene factor of

salary viewed as a motivator, while Maslows lower hierarchy of esteem as a motivator.

Factors That May Affect Teacher Job Satisfaction

Nature of Work

Spector (2007) described the nature of work both as the job tasks and described to

what degree of enthusiasms the worker enjoys performing the tasks. That is, does the

worker find the job tasks meaningful and self-fulfilling? Plecki, Elfers, and Knapp (2006)

defined teachers as those public teachers whose assignment is the instruction of pupils in

a classroom situation and who have a designation as an elementary teacher, a secondary

teacher, or other classroom teacher (p. 2). Indeed, the nature of work for teachers

requires knowing how to address students needs for academic achievement. However,

the nature of the job of teaching is a complex one. The Bureau of Labor Statistics Report

(2007) discussed that the nature of a teachers work is much more than the definition of

teaching conveys. A further description informed,

28

Teachers act as facilitators or coaches, using interactive discussions and hands

on approaches to help students learn and apply concepts in subjects such as

science, mathematics, or English. They utilize props or manipulatives to help

children understand abstract concepts, solve problems, and develop critical

thought processes. (Bureau of Labor Statistics, para. 1)

Besides working on classroom lectures, lesson plans, and grading, teachers also act as

mentors, disciplinarians, after-school tutors, field trip chaperones, etc. (Bureau of Labor

Statistics, 2006; McCabe, 2001). McCabe (2001) further highlighted that many teachers

continue to work long after the school day has ended, on weekends, and during the

summer.

Teacher candidates enter the workforce with a desire to make a difference in

students lives. Nevertheless, to understand what teaching entails is critical to a

successful career in teaching. The successful nature of the work of teachers requires

work, dedication, and enthusiasm. Levin (2008) wrote, Nothing is more important to the

work in schools than capable and dedicated teachers (p. 223). It involves not only

engagement with the subject matter to be learned, but even more an intense engagement

with all the students in the class, considering them as individuals, since their personal

connection with the teacher affects their learning (Levin, 2008, p. 223).

Keller (2007) noted a teachers importance in student achievement by addressing

that without expertise and care for their craft, a teacher could do nothing to improve a

29

students educational goals. Likewise, McCabe (2001) wrote, I would not be a teacher if

I did not enjoy the work (p. 35). McCabe (2001) considered that teachers were both

educators and learners. The minute I stop trying to learn is the minute I hope I will have

the decency to quit teaching (p.35).

Working and Operating Conditions of Teachers

Work or operating conditions may influence teacher job satisfaction. The work or

operating conditions referred to the governing rules, policies, procedures, and workload,

including paperwork that influence ones job satisfaction (Spector, 1994). Though Gawel

(1997) indicated that certain aspects of teachers motivation and job satisfaction did not

coincide with the theories developed by Herzberg and Maslow, as a whole, teachers

choose this particular profession based on the higher levels of both theories. Seeing

students develop new skills and gain an appreciation of knowledge and learning can be

very rewarding (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2007, para. 13). At the same time, working

conditions for teachers according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2007) can be

dissatisfying especially when teachers confront situations such as unmotivated or

disrespectful students, unruly behavior, and perhaps violence in the schools (para. 13).

Despite some of the adversities that come with teaching, many teachers find their

profession rewarding. A study on teachers working conditions from Loeb, Elfers, Knapp,

and Plecki (2004) confirmed, There is a high level of satisfaction with their choice of

profession and current teaching assignment (p. 1). The ability to reach out and make a

30

difference in their students lives is what keeps many teachers in the profession. McCabe

(2001), author and teacher, wrote, Whether I am complaining about my job or defending

its virtues, the truth is that I love teaching my students (p. 35). This is despite the fact

that McCabe (2001) stated that to teach, Mental toughness is as crucial as physical

stamina (p. 35).

That mental toughness was definitely required when it came to teacher

workload. Though Loeb et al. (2004) reported a high level of job satisfaction amongst the

teachers in their study, those same teachers noted several areas of concern, among them,

overall workload. (p. 1). McCabe (2001) further discussed the misconception of how

others view a teachers work schedule and workload:

Most people have no idea how hard teachers work. . . Instead of our hard work,

most people see us having three-day weekends, winter and spring breaks, and

summer vacation. In actuality, I walk a tight rope between having a life and

letting teaching become my life. . . Clearly, the regular contract hours do not

come close to the actual number of hours necessary to accomplish everything. In

order to get everything done, I work ten hours a day at school, and one to two

hours at home on each weeknight . . . Teachers squeeze a year into ten months.

Summer vacation would just make up for all those weeknight and weekends that

we miss out on, except that many of us work at other jobs, prepare for the next

school year, take courses, or attend conferences during our vacation. (p. 35)

31

There is a growing concern for the amount of work being awarded to teachers. Because

teachers hold such a critical position in the development of future citizens, is there any

damage to the seeming insurmountable amount of work that teachers are responsible for?

Moreover, Naylor and Schaefer (2002) analysis of teacher workload and stress illustrated

the amount of workload of secondary English teachers. Their summary found:

1. The teachers worked more than 50 hours a week during the school year

2. Most of the time-spent working was geared towards lesson planning and preparedness of their subject

3. The teachers complained about the dramatic increase in workload.

4. The number of students with special needs and ESL had also increased

5. Adjustments in teaching methodology and lesson delivery were denoted by the teachers because of workload increases. (pp. 34-35)

Not surprisingly, the enormous amounts of workload lead to stress and burnout. This

stress and burnout came from a feeling of lack of control at what seemed like a never-

ending amount of work and responsibility. Indeed, the Georgia Professional Standards

Commission Report (2001) recommended addressing teacher workload by stating the

amount of paperwork and non-teaching duties needs to be addressed. Paperwork adds to

an already heavy workload that teachers carry. Teachers need classrooms that allow them

to teach (p. 17).

Stress is a part of everyday life for all people; in fact, stress is a natural

consequence of living. Godt (2006) contended that teachers should be able to recognize

32

that the nature of their job is stressful. Godt (2006) addressed a comment from Swick

(1987) who stated, The only people without stress are in the cemetery (p. 58). Though

stress is a natural reaction to a situation, how can too much stress affect teachers?

Pay

How much is a teacher worth? According to Ingersoll (2001), a teachers salary

can be a determining factor to staying or leaving the profession. Ingersolls (2001)

revolving door to teacher turnover is based on his studies on teacher turnover and

shortages (p. 3). Furthermore, Ingersolls study (2004) analyzed the major problems

certain school systems are having in recruiting qualified teachers. Some of those

problems indicated factors such as low salary, discipline problems, and lack of faculty

control among the major factors affecting teacher attrition (pp. 13-15).

Mishel, Allegretto, and Corcoran (2008) highlighted, public school teachers

earned considerably less than comparably educated and experienced people and less than

people in occupations in similar educational and skills requirements such as accountants,

reporters, registered nurses, computer programmers, members of the clergy, and

personnel officers (para. 2). According to See (2004), teachers enter the profession not

with the aspirations of making large sums of money, but with the aspirations to make a

difference and to teach. Sees (2004) study compared teachers, potential teachers, and

other professions and found that teachers and potential teachers top reason to enter the

profession was to share their knowledge of learning, while salary was a distant number.

33

The reverse was true to others who saw salary as a major motivator. Metz (2008)

emphasized, teachers did not expect to become rich, but did expect to be fairly

compensated (p.1). In fact, Viadero (2008) sided with Sees (2004) studys conclusion

that Viaderos own findings found that those that remain teaching do not necessarily do

so because of salary, but because of positive working conditions.

So why would teacher salary and pay be of importance? According to Metz

(2008), teachers, especially science teachers, should be paid comparable to other

professions in the same field. Based on Herzberg (as cited in Leach & Westwood,

2000)hygiene and motivator theory, pay and salary are a motivator, only a temporary fix

if hygiene factors such as working conditions are not addressed. See (2004) suggested

salaries are at least an attractor to more highly qualified candidates who may not have

considered teaching otherwise. Attracting them would provide a more diverse and

qualified pool of teachers.

Supervision

Principals have an important role as teachers supervisors. A teachers experience

with his or her supervisor could have an effect on his or her job satisfaction. Levin (2008)

suggested that school leadership was the single most important factor to teachers

overall, which in turn is also related to improved student achievement (p. 224). The

effect may be positive or negative depending on the experience. According to Byrne

(1998) and Mihans (2009), lack of administrative support may be a cause of teacher

34

burnout and dissatisfaction. A 2001 study on Georgia teacher retention by the Georgia

Professional Standards Commission (GPSC) reported lack of administrative support to be

one of the reasons for leaving the teaching profession. Thus, the participants felt that

administrative personnel need to be more supportive of teachers classroom decisions;

need to ask teachers input on decisions affecting schools; need to show respect for

teachers so that others will follow suit; and need to ensure that teachers have classroom

support and resources they require (GPSC, 2001, p. 12). As stated by the GPSC (2001),

the need for administrative support was a recurring theme in the studys participants.

The issue of having administrative support and respect was another frequently

mentioned issue in focus groups discussions and on survey responses (p. 12).

Moreover, Bradleys (2007) findings concluded, job control predicted stress, and

social support from supervisors predicted intentions to quit (p. 62). Negative working

conditions under ones supervisor are more important than pay as summarized by

Viadero (2008). Supervisors have such an important role because Good teachers will not

work for bad principals. . . .And good principals will see to it that school restrooms are

clean and student discipline policies are enforced (Viadero, 2008, para. 28).

Promotion

Promotion refers to the advancement opportunities within a profession (Spector,

2007). Levine and Haselkom (2008) emphasized more opportunities for promotions for

teachers would help improve teaching conditions, therefore, helping improve teacher

35

retention and reduce turnover. Moreover, opportunities for success provide teachers with

avenues to renew their sense of teaching, especially in experienced teachers. Sheen (as

cited in Holloway, 2003) stated, to promote resiliency, schools should create teacher

career ladders . . . that is a career ladder that gives teachers empowerment and influence

over school and teaching policies (Holloway, 2003, p. 87).

Reducing the high turnover rate of beginning teachers is important, so is that of

keeping experienced teachers. Just as Perrachione, Petersen, and Rosser (2008)

mentioned, Ma and MacMillan (1999) comparison on the satisfaction level of older

teachers was less than those of their younger counterparts; on the contrary, the more

qualified a teacher was in advancement opportunities the more satisfied he or she viewed

his or her position compared to others. Thornton, Perreault, and Jennings (2008)

mentioned opportunities for advancement not only help with issues of turnover, but also

help with transfers, which can have an impact in staffing problems since those who

transfer also have to be replaced by competent teachers. Billingsley and Cross (1992)

pointed out a study by Chapman (1983) and Grissmer and Kirby (1987) that 34% of

teachers considered leaving due to lack of upward mobility in the next five years (p.

453). For the purposes of helping retain and improve teacher morale and satisfaction in

turns of opportunities for promotion and advancement, Lester (1990) suggested the

following:

1. More advancement opportunities should be established within the district

36

2. A system of career ladders should be established

3. Hire all deans, department chairs, and administrative assistants from within

4. Create opportunities that have more responsibilities

5. Have teachers train peers in particular areas of need as well as an established buddy system

6. Encourage teachers to take graduate courses in administration and offer to

supervise the administrative internships. (para. 5)

Contingent Rewards

Contingent rewards refer to recognition and appreciation for a job well done

(Spector, 1985; 2007). Kopkowski (2008) described teaching as a profession that lacks

respect and influence (p. 25). This lack of acknowledgement leads to dissatisfaction.

According to findings by Byrne (1998), and Pearson and Moomaw (2006), the low

ratings of respect and lack of recognition of teachers contribute to low motivation and

dissatisfaction, which can lead to stress and burnout. Moreover, acknowledging

competent teachers for a job well done improves their self-confidence and job satisfaction

(Ma & MacMillan, 2001). Black (2003) and Lester (1990) indicated the following ways

to improve and acknowledge teachers:

1. A teacher recognition program should be developed,

2. Teachers should be honored frequently at yearly milestones (five, ten, fifteen years of teaching, and so on)

3. Personally thank a teacher who takes additional responsibilities

4. Develop a newsletter that highlights personal achievements and successful

events

37

5. Create awards that recognize accomplishments. (para. 6)

More importantly, Tye and OBrien (2002) stressed the importance of beginning to

recognize that teachers hold one of the most influential professions in the country will

lead to satisfaction, motivation, and empowerment, all positive characteristics and

qualities to be successful educators.

Fringe Benefits

Fringe benefits refer to the monetary and non- monetary benefits that may come

with an employment position (Spector, 2007). These benefits may include health

insurance, life insurance, dental insurance, short-term disability, long-term disability, sick

leave, maternity leave, and retirement plans among others. Employers offer fringe

benefits in order to provide employees with a sense of job security. Offering these

benefits makes the organization more attractive to potential employees and current

employees.

For the most part, fringe benefits offered to teachers are considered relatively

good (Tye & OBrien, 2002). Viadero (2008) pointed out, educators . . . have to deal

with an unusual set of working conditions. . .on the other hand, they get job security,

generally good benefits, summers off, and a chance to do work that is meaningful to

them (para. 5-6). With the current economic recession, employers, including school

systems, have had to raise the cost of employees fringe benefits in order to offset their

38

loss in the current recession. Thrall (2007) discussed how changes to employee benefits

can affect job satisfaction in terms of having employees pay higher premiums and co-

pays (p. 25). Initial reaction was not positive wrote Thrall (2008) discussing a hospital

workers survey performed by HR Solutions where employees level of satisfaction

dropped 10% from 68% to 58% in a span of four years from 2003 to 2007 as a result of

the higher premiums (p. 26). Pearson and Moomaw (2006) considered fringe benefits as

part of teachers extrinsic rewards which if absent or lacking could lead to dissatisfaction.

Coworkers and Collaboration

Unlike most professions in which collaboration and teamwork are not only

encouraged, but also vital, such as doctors, nurses, and lawyers, teaching presents itself as

an inherently isolated profession. Except for the organized team of teachers in most

middle schools, the team concept is rarely observed in elementary or high schools (Loeb,

Elfers, Knapp, & Plecki, 2004; National Middle School Association, 2004). Kopkowski

(2008) further described how new teachers are the most affected by the isolation. When

they arrive, they often encounter an isolated, everyone for themselves work environment

vastly different from the collaborative school of education or student teaching

environment they just left (Kopkowski, 2008, p. 22).

Collaborative teaching environments can have an effect on teacher job satisfaction

and the decision of a teacher to stay or leave the profession. A positive collaborative

environment was listed as a factor in remaining in a particular school (Loeb, Elfers,

39

Knapp, & Plecki, 2004). At the same time, the opposite can be true; a negative relation

with co-workers was found to be a factor when considering leaving the profession by

15% of respondents in Loeb, Elfers, Knapp, and Pleckis (2004) study. Viadero (2008)

stated the importance of a positive environment of co-workers in their desires to stay.

Another key to high-quality working conditions is collegialitythe opportunity to work

with a group of motivated colleagues rather than toil in isolation (para. 35).

Furthermore, McClure (2008) indicated the positives of creating and fostering positive

collaboration with co-workers far outweighs the negatives. McClure (2008) also

suggested that positive co-worker relations along with collaboration within schools

benefited the teachers, students, and schools.

Communication

Spector (2007) referred to communication as one that occurs within the

establishment. For teachers, this establishment is the school. Kocabas (2009) identified

effective communication with school members as a source of motivation for teachers

(p. 732). Furthermore, Billingsley and Cross (1992) emphasized communication as a

predictor of teachers commitment to the profession and therefore, job satisfaction. Not

having a clear representation in decisions that affect their roles as teachers provides

excessive role stress, the effects on commitment will be adverse (p. 455).

40

Years of Experience

According to Keller (2007), one aspect that determined student achievement was

an experienced teacher. Keller (2007) stressed the positive effect an experienced teacher

had on motivating a low achieving student that an inexperienced teacher could not have,

unless properly trained. Unfortunately, Portner (2005) reported that many school districts

spend thousands of dollars to recruit, hire, and retain new teachers. Then after a year or

two, the district has to repeat the process again because those same teachers have left

their jobs (p. 30). The cost to continue to train each new teacher was estimated at

$50,000 (Portner, 2005).

Ingersoll (2000) indicated, Teachers decisions to leave or stay are influenced, in

particular, by the length of their teaching experience (p. 5). Though teachers represent

only 4% of the national workforce, the turnover rate of teachers stands at 14%, and it is

higher for both science and math teachers at 16% (Ingersoll, 2000, Figure 1; Liu, 2007).

What accounts for these numbers is the high turnover rate of beginning teachers. Studies

show that first-year teachers are more vulnerable than any other group to leave in the

beginning years of their careers (Byrne, 1998; Georgia Professional Standards

Commission, 2001; Ingersoll, 2000; Liu, 2007; Plecki, Elfers, & Knapp, 2006; Portner,

2005). For first-year teachers, this vulnerability was credited to dissatisfaction and

eventual exit from the profession (Byrne, 1998; Ingersoll, 2000; Liu, 2007; Plecki, Elfers,

& Knapp, 2006; Portner, 2005).

41

Byrne (1998) reported experienced teachers remained in the profession even

though some may experience some form of dissatisfaction with the profession. When

coping with burnout and dissatisfaction, Byrne pointed out:

The first attack occurs because pre-teaching ideals fade quickly when faced with

the realities of the everyday classroom world. The teacher then learns how to cope

with these unexpected difficulties but realizes by the fifth year that coping is not

the same thing as teaching. Those who do not leave teaching by this time resign

themselves to do the best they can under limiting circumstances. (para. 5)

Exiting experienced teachers usually leave at or near the end of their careers due to

retirement. Ingersoll (2000) indicated retirements represented 25% of those who left

teaching (p. 7, Table 1).

Age

Although studies on the correlation of age and job satisfaction have not been

sufficient in gathering enough data to prove a direct relation between both variables, there

are varying degrees of disagreement and agreement on what age has to do with teacher

job satisfaction, and in turn attrition or retention. Ingersoll (2001) stated, a teachers

decision whether to stay or leave the teaching profession is highly influenced by his or

her age (p. 6). According to Ingersoll (2001) a teachers age (or experience, in some

analysis) and their turnover has been following a U-shaped curve (p. 6). As a result,

Ingersoll (2001) further concluded younger teachers have a higher rate of exiting than

42

older ones. According to his analysis, one could conclude that there is a higher rate of

dissatisfaction among younger teachers since they exit the profession at higher rates.

The relative odds of young teachers departing are 184% higher than their middle aged

counterparts (Ingersoll, 2001, p. 17). Similarly, Plecki, Elfers, and Knapps (2006) study

involving the mobility, retention, and attrition of teachers in the Washington state area

found younger beginning teachers make up 47% of the attrition rate of all leavers (Table

3, p. 7).

Are older teachers a more stable workforce? In Ma and MacMillans (1999) study

as quoted by Perrachione, Petersen, and Rosser (2008) stated, Older and more

experienced teachers reported less satisfaction than their younger counterparts (p. 26).

Ma and MacMillans (1999) study discussed that the younger candidates have a higher

satisfaction rate. However, based on the results of their own study on demographic

variables influencing job satisfaction of Missouri public elementary teachers,

Perrachione, Petersen, and Rosser (2008) found no relation between age and job

satisfaction.

Plecki, Elfers, and Knapp (2006) found a close relationship between a teachers

years of experience and his or her age. Their study involving the mobility, retention, and

attrition of teachers in the Washington state area indicated a significant number of

teachers (17.5%) who entered the workforce as beginning teachers were over the age of

40. An older entering workforce has an impact on the retirement population, since a few

43

years after they are vested, older teachers will add to the retirement numbers and

therefore, the impact on teacher recruitment, retention, and attrition. Based on the data

gathered, though the age group of 41-55 is the least likely to exit (9% attrition rate), if

they enter the teaching workforce late, many seem to follow the same pattern of

dissatisfied first year teachers leaving within the first five years (at a 22% attrition rate)

(Plecki, Elfers, & Knapp, Table 3, 2006).

Gender

Women represent the majority of teachers (Ingersoll, 2000; Liu, 2007). For a

profession mostly composed of women, teaching has the highest turnover rate at 14.3%,

with nursing having the second highest turnover rate at 12% (Ingersoll, 2000, Figure 1).

Furthermore, with teachers being a predominantly female population, males who account

for the minority of teachers are more difficult to retain and attract to teaching (Liu, 2007;

Mulholland & Hansen, 2003).

With the need to staff and retain qualified teachers of both genders, could gender

influence teacher job satisfaction? Studies on the direct link between gender and teacher

job satisfaction remain under dispute (Bolin, 2007; Hongying, 2007; Pearson, 2008;

Zhang, 2007). Indeed these studies seem to disagree with finding a relationship if any, of

gender to teacher job satisfaction.

Zhang (2007) mentioned a study summarized by Chan in 1991 which discussed

an analysis on gender and teacher job satisfaction conducted by Oades and Wezermes

44

which found no significant correlation between gender and job satisfaction (p. 43).

Nevertheless, Zhangs (2007) own study on elementary teachers found that female

teachers were less satisfied than their male counterparts. This study attributed this

difference to the fact that there were less male elementary teachers, many of whom were

older and therefore paid more than their female colleagues. Also, many of the male

teachers surveyed held more supervisory positions for which the study concluded that

they would have more satisfaction because of the higher position (Zhang, 2007, p. 43).

Others note that because women are more nurturing, they were more satisfied with their

jobs as teachers due to the nature of the work (Bolin, 2007, p. 50). According to the

studies mentioned, it seems that both genders have different ways of coping with their

views of job satisfaction depending on the aspect.

Level of Education

Teachers are lifelong learners. Dissatisfaction with teacher preparation was listed

as a reason for departure (GPSC, 2001). Those who participated in the study listed lack of

adequate preparation as a reason for leaving (GPSC, 2001). They suggested that besides

the need for more intensive teacher preparation programs and teacher induction

programs, school systems should encourage more teachers to seek professional

development beyond teacher preparation and induction programs. Moreover, other

suggestions were more on-site classes make higher education opportunities more

accessible, and advocated reimbursement or compensation for professional development

45

of furthering their education (GPSC, 2001, p. 13). Studies by Ma and MacMillan (2001)

along with Fuming and Jiliang (2007) emphasized the importance of providing teachers

with opportunities to advance their level of education. The authors indicated that the

improvement of their higher learning academic skills would also benefit their values in

teaching resulting in job satisfaction (p. 93).

Does the pursuit of a higher degree always lead to job satisfaction? Although

Perrachione, Petersen, and Rosser (2008) indicated the answer to be true based on their

review of Ma and Ma and MacMillan (1999) studies, Billingsley and Cross (1992)

disagreed, discussing the fact that higher levels of education would coincide with higher

expectations of working conditions and lead to both dissatisfaction and eventual

departure from the profession. Singh and Billingsley (1998) agreed and suggested level

of education could have a negative effect on commitment (para. 14). Not enough studies

on the relationship between level of education and job satisfaction have proven this to be

true (Billingsley & Cross, 1992; Perrachione, Rosser, & Petersen, 2008; Singh &

Billingsley, 1998).

Burnout, Teacher Turnover, and Shortage

Though stress comes with teaching, too much stress leads to burnout. Marshall

(2004) believed teacher burnout resulted from disproportionate workload compared to

other professions. This many times unaccounted workload exertion went beyond

46

teaching. According to Marshall (2004), only two-fifths of their work was spent

teaching in the classroom (para. 1). The other three-fifths of their work were split

between planning, paperwork, disciplining, parent contact, meetings, and so forth

(Marshall, para. 1). Bryne (1998) delineated other factors such as disruptive student

behavior, extreme workload, negative school environment, unclear expectations, shortage

of teaching time, poor university preparation, as well as teachers gender and marital

status among the primary causes of depression due to burnout (para. 11).

Burnout leads to teacher turnover, which according to Bryne (1998), almost fifty

percent of Americas beginning school teachers leave the classroom within their first

seven years of experience and never return (para. 5). It is important to note that Bryne

(1998) believed those who decided to stay remained not because they never suffered from

burnout, but because they constantly fought against those feelings of stress, burnout, and

depression at seven years, ten years of service and beyond (para. 6). For those teachers

who left the profession, Ash (2007) summarized from a survey made by the National

Center for Education Statistics (2005) that many of those who found new careers after

teaching felt that their workload was more manageable and suited their lifestyle better

than teaching.

The National Center for Education Statistics or NCES (2005) reported that certain

types of turnover were more significant than others. The NCES (2005) noted, from an

administrative point of view, teachers who transfer to another school and teachers who

47

leave are both equally important (para. 4). Consequently, teacher turnover and shortage

have been identified as major problems within the U.S. educational system, especially

among low-income school systems whether they are urban or rural (Ingersoll, 2003).

Ingersoll (2001) proposed that the shortage of qualified candidates impacted not only

low-income schools and school districts, but both Ingersoll (2001) and Ingersoll and

Smith (2003) formulated that teacher turnover and shortage came from a combination of

factors from low salary and bad management to large classes, amongst others.

In addition, Rotherham (2003) implied the requirements of recruiting and

maintaining highly qualified teachers according to No Child Left Behind were to blame

for the current teacher shortage. Regardless of the factors, teacher turnover and shortage

needed to be addressed. Besides, Ingersoll (2001) and Ingersoll and Smith (2003)

proposed to begin by understanding employee turnover as it related to teacher attrition.

Science Teachers

The current economic uncertainty has affected every organizational sector

(Cavanagh, 2008; Kadlec, 2009). Kadlec (2009) mentioned the loss of jobs at an alarming

rate, which was compounded by losses in the stock and housing market. However, a need

to staff and recruit qualified science teachers still exists. Todays global economic

recession has been changing the workforce because the demand for skilled workers

continues to rise but at a slower rate. Dependence on technology calls for a need for

48

skilled workers. Moreover, employers have been demanding that workers become more

specialized in technological fields (Cavanagh, 2008; National Research Council, 1996).

In addition, companies have been looking for workers who are problem solvers and have

critical thinking skills for the constantly changing conditions that arise in the new global

workforce. With the shrinking job market, U.S. students no longer compete amongst

themselves for jobs; they also compete globally with other qualified workers in other

countries. As a result, the direction in which education is changing is towards teaching

not only basic skills, but also critical thinking skills and problem solving. How are these

skills achieved in school? This is accomplished through the teaching of science.

NSES Vision

Science offers the best environment for developing these skills. Science by its

very nature presents itself as an avenue towards teaching students about critical thinking,

reasoning, and problem-solving skills. The National Science Education Standards were

created in order to prepare students to be thinking, decision-making adults (National

Research Council, 1996). The NSES recognizes that everyone needs to use scientific

information to make choices that arise every day (National Research Council, 1996, p.

1). In addition, in order to create a more competent and skilled workforce the NSES were

created in the belief that through the creation of standards that outline what students

need to know, understand, and be able to do to be scientifically literate. . . U.S. students

will be able to compete in the workforce (National Research Council, 1996, p. 2). This is

49

best achieved with not only a hands-on approach to science, but also a minds-on

approach as well (p. 2).

No Child Left Behind and Science Education

The future of education lies in the fact that it must be inclusive to all students

(Hardy, 2007). That includes providing all students with the necessities of achieving

success that will transform them into productive citizens (U.S. Department of Education,

2001). In order to remain competitive with the global economy, the future of education

must be able to keep up with the demands of a more skilled and competent workforce

(U.S. Department of Education, 2006). Many of the top political leaders in the United

States have had great influences in the way education has progressed. Currently, no one

more than former President George W. Bush and his No Child Left Behind legislation

has had a greater impact in education. The impact on this legislation has been felt in

every aspect of education from Adequate Yearly Progress, parent and student choice, and

teacher and school accountability among others (U.S. Department of Education, 2001).

For many decades there have been calls for the reform of all education from all

corners. Some of these programs include standards-based education, more student-

centered lessons, increase in scientific literacy, etc (U.S. Department of Education, 2006).

The No Child Left Behind legislation brought attention to the importance of overall

education in the preparation of a future highly-skilled workforce.

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Kennedy (2005) wrote, Few things are more indispensable to us as a people than

good schools (para. 1). The creation of No Child Left Behind was due to the necessity

that President Bush saw in the fact that despite funding of billions of dollars each year,

American schools were still not performing (U.S. Department of Education, 2004).

Moreover, Kennedy (2005) discussed the fact that in 1965, President Lyndon B.

Johnson signed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) into law as part of

the war on poverty (para. 3). Though there have been gains in the strides of improving

education, Kennedy (2005) stressed that in spite of the 1965 passing of the Elementary

and Secondary Education Act many schools in all levels were currently failing (para. 2).

Fast forward to the new millennium and the similar

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