1.Machiavelli Justice & Power, session ivThursday, September 20, 12

2. Topics in This Session i.Introduction ii.Renaissance Italy iii.Machiavelli iv.The Prince v.CriticismThursday, September 20, 12 3. IntroductionThursday, September 20, 12 4. IntroductionThursday, September 20, 12 5. Turning from the world depicted in Aristotles Politics tothat in The Prince, one is tempted to be overcome by thecontrasts. It might seem that in eighteen and a halfcenturies an unbridgeable gulf had grown. Commonwisdom depicts Plato and Aristotle as high minded, moral,and idealistic. If Machiavelli is known at all, it is as animmoral, cynical, schemer. The differences between thetwo* Greek philosophers and the renaissance Italianpolitician seem all important. But, as a disciple ofSocrates, you have learned to be wary of rstappearances.Justice & Power, p. 10Thursday, September 20, 12 6. When the three are compared certain issues arise. First thereis the tension between theoretical* and practical knowledgewhich was introduced in the Preface. Second, there is thequestion of morality. Signicant changes in the relationship ofchurch and state occurred during the intervening years. Thesechanges recast the terms of the persistent question: what isthe relationship between faith* and reason? The rivalrybetween philosophy and theology, the secular and the sacredapproaches to knowledge, was keenly felt during theRenaissance. The key to understanding Machiavellis seemingrejection of the theoretical approach and moral preachinessof Plato and Aristotle lies in the religious and political eventsof the nearly two thousand years which separate them. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 7. When the three are compared certain issues arise. First thereis the tension between theoretical* and practical knowledgewhich was introduced in the Preface. Second, there is thequestion of morality. Signicant changes in the relationship ofchurch and state occurred during the intervening years. Thesechanges recast the terms of the persistent question: what isthe relationship between faith* and reason? The rivalrybetween philosophy and theology, the secular and the sacredapproaches to knowledge, was keenly felt during theRenaissance. The key to understanding Machiavellis seemingrejection of the theoretical approach and moral preachinessof Plato and Aristotle lies in the religious and political eventsof the nearly two thousand years which separate them. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 8. As Alexanders armies spread the Greek languagethroughout the Eastern Mediterranean, a Hellenistic culturebegan to make all separate nations (tribes) part of theCosmopolis.* One such small and ercely independent ethnicgroup was the Jews. Rome expanded eastward whenAlexanders successors fought among themselves. A Romangovernor, Pontius Pilate, executed a reputed blasphemer andtroublemaker, Jesus of Nazareth.* Roman justice must haveclaimed hundreds of thousands* of lives, but none sosignicant as this one. Jesus disciples had an experience onthe third day after his death* which led to the creation of oneof the worlds great religions. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 9. As Alexanders armies spread the Greek languagethroughout the Eastern Mediterranean, a Hellenistic culturebegan to make all separate nations (tribes) part of theCosmopolis.* One such small and ercely independent ethnicgroup was the Jews. Rome expanded eastward whenAlexanders successors fought among themselves. A Romangovernor, Pontius Pilate, executed a reputed blasphemer andtroublemaker, Jesus of Nazareth.* Roman justice must haveclaimed hundreds of thousands* of lives, but none sosignicant as this one. Jesus disciples had an experience onthe third day after his death* which led to the creation of oneof the worlds great religions. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 10. As Alexanders armies spread the Greek languagethroughout the Eastern Mediterranean, a Hellenistic culturebegan to make all separate nations (tribes) part of theCosmopolis.* One such small and ercely independent ethnicgroup was the Jews. Rome expanded eastward whenAlexanders successors fought among themselves. A Romangovernor, Pontius Pilate, executed a reputed blasphemer andtroublemaker, Jesus of Nazareth.* Roman justice must haveclaimed hundreds of thousands* of lives, but none sosignicant as this one. Jesus disciples had an experience onthe third day after his death* which led to the creation of oneof the worlds great religions. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 11. After almost three centuries of persecution and growth,this church captured the state power when one of itsconverts, Constantine*, became emperor in 313 AD.Then, a new approach to evangelism developed using theformer persecutor, the state, as an instrument forspreading the Gospel and even forcing it upon pagans*.The corrupting inuence of this power was clear tochurch leaders from the start, but no easy solution to thedilemma was found.Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 12. After almost three centuries of persecution and growth,this church captured the state power when one of itsconverts, Constantine*, became emperor in 313 AD.Then, a new approach to evangelism developed using theformer persecutor, the state, as an instrument forspreading the Gospel and even forcing it upon pagans*.The corrupting inuence of this power was clear tochurch leaders from the start, but no easy solution to thedilemma was found.Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 13. T milestones of Western thought are Augustines* City ofwoGod*, written at the beginning of the fth century, and PopeGelasius Is doctrine of the two swords, developed at its end.Both deal with the conict of church and state and the tensionbetween the Kingdom of God and this crooked and perverseage. The two cities were, according to Augustine, thesocieties of those who wanted to live after the esh andthose who desired to live after the spirit. The church was tobe the earthly place where the people of God were to begathered. The purpose of the state was to assist the church. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 14. T milestones of Western thought are Augustines* City ofwoGod*, written at the beginning of the fth century, and PopeGelasius Is doctrine of the two swords, developed at its end.Both deal with the conict of church and state and the tensionbetween the Kingdom of God and this crooked and perverseage. The two cities were, according to Augustine, thesocieties of those who wanted to live after the esh andthose who desired to live after the spirit. The church was tobe the earthly place where the people of God were to begathered. The purpose of the state was to assist the church. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 15. Two milestones of Western thought are Augustines City of God, written atthe beginning of the fth century, and Pope Gelasius Is doctrine of the twoswords, developed at its end. Both deal with the conict of church and stateand the tension between the Kingdom of God and this crooked andperverse age. The two cities were, according to Augustine, the societiesof those who wanted to live after the esh and those who desired to liveafter the spirit. The church was to be the earthly place where the peopleof God were to be gathered. The purpose of the state was to assist thechurch. Gelasius I* argued that there were two distinct areas ofhuman affairs, the temporal (this worldly) and the spiritual(other worldly). The emperor was given the temporal rule,regnum, while the pope held the spiritual authority,sacerdotium. In his proper eld, each was supreme --- underGod. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 16. Two milestones of Western thought are Augustines City of God, written atthe beginning of the fth century, and Pope Gelasius Is doctrine of the twoswords, developed at its end. Both deal with the conict of church and stateand the tension between the Kingdom of God and this crooked andperverse age. The two cities were, according to Augustine, the societiesof those who wanted to live after the esh and those who desired to liveafter the spirit. The church was to be the earthly place where the peopleof God were to be gathered. The purpose of the state was to assist thechurch. Gelasius I* argued that there were two distinct areas ofhuman affairs, the temporal (this worldly) and the spiritual(other worldly). The emperor was given the temporal rule,regnum, while the pope held the spiritual authority,sacerdotium. In his proper eld, each was supreme --- underGod. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 17. DUO SUNT494 ADregnum et sacerdotium the two swordsThursday, September 20, 12 18. During this [5th] century, the western half of the empirefell to the barbarians. The thousand years between the timeof Attila the Hun* and Machiavelli are called the Middle Ages.The rst phase, the Dark Ages*, saw a decline in trade, citylife, learning and culture. It was precisely the revival of theseconditions which we call the Renaissance (literally rebirth) ofEurope, the watershed which separated medieval and modernhistory. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 19. During this [5th] century, the western half of the empirefell to the barbarians. The thousand years between the timeof Attila the Hun* and Machiavelli are called the Middle Ages.The rst phase, the Dark Ages*, saw a decline in trade, citylife, learning and culture. It was precisely the revival of theseconditions which we call the Renaissance (literally rebirth) ofEurope, the watershed which separated medieval and modernhistory. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 20. During this [5th] century, the western half of the empirefell to the barbarians. The thousand years between the timeof Attila the Hun* and Machiavelli are called the Middle Ages.The rst phase, the Dark Ages*, saw a decline in trade, citylife, learning and culture. It was precisely the revival of theseconditions which we call the Renaissance (literally rebirth) ofEurope, the watershed which separated medieval and modernhistory. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 21. During this [5th] century, the western half of the empirefell to the barbarians. The thousand years between the timeof Attila the Hun* and Machiavelli are called the Middle Ages.The rst phase, the Dark Ages*, saw a decline in trade, citylife, learning and culture. It was precisely the revival of theseconditions which we call the Renaissance (literally rebirth) ofEurope, the watershed which separated medieval and modernhistory. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 22. During this [5th] century, the western half of the empirefell to the barbarians. The thousand years between the timeof Attila the Hun* and Machiavelli are called the Middle Ages.The rst phase, the Dark Ages*, saw a decline in trade, citylife, learning and culture. It was precisely the revival of theseconditions which we call the Renaissance (literally rebirth) ofEurope, the watershed which separated medieval and modernhistory. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 23. It should be apparent to the thoughtful student that it is impossible to speak of Medieval Christendom in general terms without distorting through oversimplication. This thousand year period was remarkably diverse. There were many variations from place to place even during the same time. Still, the concepts of feudalism*, the manorial system*, and the Age of Faith are not so generalized* as to be useless.op. cit., p. 12.Thursday, September 20, 12 24. It should be apparent to the thoughtful student that it is impossible to speak of Medieval Christendom in general terms without distorting through oversimplication. This thousand year period was remarkably diverse. There were many variations from place to place even during the same time. Still, the concepts of feudalism*, the manorial system*, and the Age of Faith are not so generalized* as to be useless.op. cit., p. 12.Thursday, September 20, 12 25. It should be apparent to the thoughtful student that it is impossible to speak of Medieval Christendom in general terms without distorting through oversimplication. This thousand year period was remarkably diverse. There were many variations from place to place even during the same time. Still, the concepts of feudalism*, the manorial system*, and the Age of Faith are not so generalized* as to be useless.op. cit., p. 12.Thursday, September 20, 12 26. It should be apparent to the thoughtful student that it is impossible to speak of Medieval Christendom in general terms without distorting through oversimplication. This thousand year period was remarkably diverse. There were many variations from place to place even during the same time. Still, the concepts of feudalism*, the manorial system*, and the Age of Faith are not so generalized* as to be useless.op. cit., p. 12.Thursday, September 20, 12 27. After Charlemagne was crowned emperor in the West on Christmas Day, 800 A.D.*, the condition began to develop which produced the central drama of the High Middle Ages -- the power struggles between popes and emperors. Both lords spiritual (bishops and other high ranking churchmen) and lords temporal (the nobility) sought to increase their authority and wealth at all levels of European society. Conicts inevitably arose. Princes of the Church functioned in much the same way as the secular nobility: as landlords, judges over their subjects disputes, even as military leaders*. Often, the clergy were not distinguished by their piety or their learning. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 28. After Charlemagne was crowned emperor in the West on Christmas Day, 800 A.D.*, the condition began to develop which produced the central drama of the High Middle Ages -- the power struggles between popes and emperors. Both lords spiritual (bishops and other high ranking churchmen) and lords temporal (the nobility) sought to increase their authority and wealth at all levels of European society. Conicts inevitably arose. Princes of the Church functioned in much the same way as the secular nobility: as landlords, judges over their subjects disputes, even as military leaders*. Often, the clergy were not distinguished by their piety or their learning. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 29. After Charlemagne was crowned emperor in the West on Christmas Day, 800 A.D.*, the condition began to develop which produced the central drama of the High Middle Ages -- the power struggles between popes and emperors. Both lords spiritual (bishops and other high ranking churchmen) and lords temporal (the nobility) sought to increase their authority and wealth at all levels of European society. Conicts inevitably arose. Princes of the Church functioned in much the same way as the secular nobility: as landlords, judges over their subjects disputes, even as military leaders*. Often, the clergy were not distinguished by their piety or their learning. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 30. The medieval popes hoped to use the crusading movement, which they had begun in 1095, to increase their authority as the leaders of Christendom. The original successes in the Holy Land, followed by a long, costly series of less effective crusades, did bring about important economic and social changes. Several Italian cities which never really dried up during the Dark Ages grew rich as the transporters of crusaders. Trade and the money economy became more important. Banking began. A merchant class*, newly inuential, challenged noble families who depended on land and the feudal dues of their peasants for wealth. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 31. The medieval popes hoped to use the crusading movement, which they had begun in 1095, to increase their authority as the leaders of Christendom. The original successes in the Holy Land, followed by a long, costly series of less effective crusades, did bring about important economic and social changes. Several Italian cities which never really dried up during the Dark Ages grew rich as the transporters of crusaders. Trade and the money economy became more important. Banking began. A merchant class*, newly inuential, challenged noble families who depended on land and the feudal dues of their peasants for wealth. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 32. As the pursuit of wealth and power by the Church led many to question its moral authority, reform movements developed. Some reformers, like the followers* of Peter Waldo were labeled heretics. Others, like the followers of Saints Francis* and Dominic in the early thirteenth century, were absorbed into religious orders and given approval by Rome, although with a certain wariness. The medieval universities as guardians of natural philosophy, canon law, and theology were the battleground for the so-called conict between Faith and Reason.Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 33. As the pursuit of wealth and power by the Church led many to question its moral authority, reform movements developed. Some reformers, like the followers* of Peter Waldo were labeled heretics. Others, like the followers of Saints Francis* and Dominic in the early thirteenth century, were absorbed into religious orders and given approval by Rome, although with a certain wariness. The medieval universities as guardians of natural philosophy, canon law, and theology were the battleground for the so-called conict between Faith and Reason.Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 34. As the pursuit of wealth and power by the Church led many to question its moral authority, reform movements developed. Some reformers, like the followers* of Peter Waldo were labeled heretics. Others, like the followers of Saints Francis* and Dominic in the early thirteenth century, were absorbed into religious orders and given approval by Rome, although with a certain wariness. The medieval universities as guardians of natural philosophy, canon law, and theology were the battleground for the so-called conict between Faith and Reason.Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 35. As the pursuit of wealth and power by the Church led many to question its moral authority, reform movements developed. Some reformers, like the followers* of Peter Waldo were labeled heretics. Others, like the followers of Saints Francis* and Dominic in the early thirteenth century, were absorbed into religious orders and given approval by Rome, although with a certain wariness. The medieval universities as guardians of natural philosophy, canon law, and theology were the battleground for the so-called conict between Faith and Reason.Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 36. As the pursuit of wealth and power by the Church led many to question its moral authority, reform movements developed. Some reformers, like the followers* of Peter Waldo were labeled heretics. Others, like the followers of Saints Francis* and Dominic in the early thirteenth century, were absorbed into religious orders and given approval by Rome, although with a certain wariness. The medieval universities as guardians of natural philosophy, canon law, and theology were the battleground for the so-called conict between Faith and Reason.Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 37. As the pursuit of wealth and power by the Church led many to question its moral authority, reform movements developed. Some reformers, like the followers* of Peter Waldo were labeled heretics. Others, like the followers of Saints Francis* and Dominic in the early thirteenth century, were absorbed into religious orders and given approval by Rome, although with a certain wariness. The medieval universities as guardians of natural philosophy, canon law, and theology were the battleground for the so-called conict between Faith and Reason.The great gure of medieval scholasticism was the Dominican Saint Thomas Aquinas*, 1225-1274. His Summa Theologica offered a synthesis between Christian doctrine and pagan Aristotelianism which continues to inuence teaching at Catholic universities today.Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 38. As the pursuit of wealth and power by the Church led many to question its moral authority, reform movements developed. Some reformers, like the followers* of Peter Waldo were labeled heretics. Others, like the followers of Saints Francis* and Dominic in the early thirteenth century, were absorbed into religious orders and given approval by Rome, although with a certain wariness. The medieval universities as guardians of natural philosophy, canon law, and theology were the battleground for the so-called conict between Faith and Reason.The great gure of medieval scholasticism was the Dominican Saint Thomas Aquinas*, 1225-1274. His Summa Theologica offered a synthesis between Christian doctrine and pagan Aristotelianism which continues to inuence teaching at Catholic universities today.Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 39. The rst revival of classical texts ironically had to come from Islamic andJewish sources because Christian book burning had effectivelyeliminated the pagan works from monastic libraries. The crusadingmovement increased contact with Byzantium and led to a revival ofGreek and the reclaiming of many texts long unknown in the West. Thisgave birth to Classical Humanism, which Robert Palmer has called noless than a new conception of man himself...a sense of manstremendous powers. In Machiavellis Italy during the Quattrocento(fteenth century), Greek texts, Greek authors, and the Greek view oflife enjoyed great esteem among the educated elite. Machiavellis citystate, Florence, considered herself the new Athens. Artists turned toclassical subject matter. Politicians used the rhetoric of Roman oratorsand appealed tothe tradition of Roman civic virtue. In short,Renaissance Italy made herself new, that is, different from the MiddleAges by a deliberate return to the spirit of classical antiquity. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 40. Jacopo Pontormo, postumous portrait of Cosimo de Medici the Elder(13891464)Thursday, September 20, 12 41. So much for the two thousand year gulf between our threephilosophers. Machiavellis polis Florence would have beenquite understandable to Aristotle. He would have been able toconverse with some of the scholars who lived in Lorenzo diMedicis revived Academy*. Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 42. The Platonic Academy was a 15th century discussion group inFlorence. It was founded after Gemistus Pletho reintroducedPlatos thoughts to Western Europe during the 1438 - 1439Council of Florence. It was sponsored by Cosimo de Medici*,led by Marsilio Ficino and supported by Medici until death ofLorenzo Medici*. It was never a formal group but the membersconsidered themselves a modern form of Platos Academy.Important members were Poliziano, Cristoforo Landino, Picodella Mirandola*, and Gentile de Becchi. The academy wouldproceed to translate into Latin all of Platos works, the EnneadsHeadquarters of the group, Villa di Careggiof Plotinus, and various other Neoplatonic worksWikipediaThursday, September 20, 12 43. The Platonic Academy was a 15th century discussion group inFlorence. It was founded after Gemistus Pletho reintroducedPlatos thoughts to Western Europe during the 1438 - 1439Council of Florence. It was sponsored by Cosimo de Medici*,led by Marsilio Ficino and supported by Medici until death ofLorenzo Medici*. It was never a formal group but the membersconsidered themselves a modern form of Platos Academy.Important members were Poliziano, Cristoforo Landino, Picodella Mirandola*, and Gentile de Becchi. The academy wouldproceed to translate into Latin all of Platos works, the Enneadsof Plotinus, and various other Neoplatonic worksWikipediaThursday, September 20, 12 44. The Platonic Academy was a 15th century discussion group inFlorence. It was founded after Gemistus Pletho reintroducedPlatos thoughts to Western Europe during the 1438 - 1439Council of Florence. It was sponsored by Cosimo de Medici*,led by Marsilio Ficino and supported by Medici until death ofLorenzo Medici*. It was never a formal group but the membersconsidered themselves a modern form of Platos Academy.Important members were Poliziano, Cristoforo Landino, Picodella Mirandola*, and Gentile de Becchi. The academy wouldproceed to translate into Latin all of Platos works, the Enneadsof Plotinus, and various other Neoplatonic worksWikipediaThursday, September 20, 12 45. The Platonic Academy was a 15th century discussion group inFlorence. It was founded after Gemistus Pletho reintroducedPlatos thoughts to Western Europe during the 1438 - 1439Council of Florence. It was sponsored by Cosimo de Medici*,led by Marsilio Ficino and supported by Medici until death ofLorenzo Medici*. It was never a formal group but the membersconsidered themselves a modern form of Platos Academy.Important members were Poliziano, Cristoforo Landino, Picodella Mirandola*, and Gentile de Becchi. The academy wouldproceed to translate into Latin all of Platos works, the Enneadsof Plotinus, and various other Neoplatonic worksWikipediaThursday, September 20, 12 46. The Platonic Academy was a 15th century discussion group inFlorence. It was founded after Gemistus Pletho reintroducedPlatos thoughts to Western Europe during the 1438 - 1439Council of Florence. It was sponsored by Cosimo de Medici*,led by Marsilio Ficino and supported by Medici until death ofLorenzo Medici*. It was never a formal group but the membersconsidered themselves a modern form of Platos Academy.Important members were Poliziano, Cristoforo Landino, Picodella Mirandola*, and Gentile de Becchi. The academy wouldproceed to translate into Latin all of Platos works, the Enneadsof Plotinus, and various other Neoplatonic worksWikipediaThursday, September 20, 12 47. So much for the two thousand year gulf between our threephilosophers. Machiavellis polis Florence would have beenquite understandable to Aristotle. He would have been able toconverse with some of the scholars who lived in Lorenzo diMedicis revived Academy*. But the questions of practicalversus theoretical knowledge and cynical versus moralprescriptions must await the criticism following ourexamination of the life and work of Machiavelli. As you study,try to understand his philosophy of history. How did heapproach the past? Why? What were its lessons for him? Why?What was his attitude toward religion? Why?Ibid.Thursday, September 20, 12 48. Renaissance ItalyThursday, September 20, 12 49. The Siege of Florence by Giorgio Vasari 1558. Renaissance ItalyThursday, September 20, 12 50. II. Renaissance Italy A. End of the Middle Ages1. feudalism2. popes and emperorsa. Gregory VII vs. Henry IVb. Innocent III vs. Frederick III1. Guelphs vs. Ghibbelines3. Great Schism, 1378-1417a. Avignon and Babylonian Captivity, 1308b. Council of Constance, 1414-17c. Conciliarism4. Crusadesa. Commercial Revolutionb. social change B. Humanism1. guomo universale2. Classical vs. Christian Humanists3. Florentine Republic4. Lorenzo the Magnificent, 1449-925. Sixtus IV - Pazzi Conspiracy, 1478Thursday, September 20, 12 51. feudalism lord vassal (a lesser nobleman, NOT a serf) ef (feodum, Lat.) land held by the vassal, conferred by the lord homage fealtydifdatio10th century representation of Roland swearing fealty sovereignty (the monopoly of justice & power)sovereign liege lord (king)Thursday, September 20, 12 52. Popes & EmperorsGregory viiCanossa, 1077 Henry iv Guelphs vs. Ghibbelines(Welf vs Waibling) 12th -13th centuriesInnocent iiiInvestiture Friederich iiInnocent iiiThursday, September 20, 12 53. Popes & Kings Unam Sanctam, 1302 Philip iv Boniface viii Philippe le bel I.A.3. Great [Western] Schism, 1378-1417 a. Avignon and Babylonian Captivity, 1308Innocent iiiThursday, September 20, 12 54. Council of Constance, 1414-14171408-Council of Pisa deposed both &elected a thirdnow there were three claimants!1414-an ecumenical council met atConstance to resolve the schismThursday, September 20, 12 55. Council of Constance, 1414-14171408-Council of Pisa deposed both &elected a thirdnow there were three claimants!1414-an ecumenical council met atConstance to resolve the schism1415-the proto-Protestants, John Wycliffand Jan Hus were condemnedThursday, September 20, 12 56. Council of Constance, 1414-14171408-Council of Pisa deposed both &elected a thirdnow there were three claimants!1414-an ecumenical council met atConstance to resolve the schism1415-the proto-Protestants, John Wycliffand Jan Hus were condemned1417-Martin V was elected pope and theanti-popes were deposedhigh water mark of conciliarism Habemus Papam!Thursday, September 20, 12 57. Crusades1095-Urban ii, Deo lo vult!, also tostrengthen the role of the papacyThursday, September 20, 12 58. Crusades1095-Urban ii, Deo lo vult!, also tostrengthen the role of the papacyWestern Christendom began a war toreestablish control of OutremerThursday, September 20, 12 59. Crusades1095-Urban ii, Deo lo vult!, also tostrengthen the role of the papacyWestern Christendom began a war toreestablish control of Outremerthis major endeavor stimulated the growthof banking, trade, cities and a new classthis Commercial Revolution produced asocial system outside the feudal division ofClergy, nobility, and peasantryThursday, September 20, 12 60. HumanismThursday, September 20, 12 61. Humanism Man [is the] measure [of all things] motto of Protagoras Vitruvian man--Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1487Thursday, September 20, 12 62. II. B. Humanism 1. guomo universaleThursday, September 20, 12 63. II. B. Humanism 2. Classical vs Christian Humanists Giovanni Pico della Mirandola 1463 1494, unknown artistThursday, September 20, 12 64. II. B. Humanism 2. Classical vs Christian HumanistsDesiderius Erasmus. By Hans Holbein the younger, 1523.Thursday, September 20, 12 65. Duchy of Tuscany Becomes the Florentine RepublicThursday, September 20, 12 66. Thursday, September 20, 12 67. Florence FirenziArnoRiverThursday, September 20, 12 68. Florence FirenziArnoRiverPisaThursday, September 20, 12 69. The Big FiveFlorence FirenziArnoRiverPisaThursday, September 20, 12 70. The Big Five Republic of GenoaFlorence FirenziArnoRiverPisaThursday, September 20, 12 71. The Big Five Republic of GenoaFlorence Venetian Republic FirenziArnoRiverPisaThursday, September 20, 12 72. The Big Five Republic of GenoaFlorence Venetian Republic FirenziArnoRiver Duchy of MilanPisaThursday, September 20, 12 73. The Big Five Republic of GenoaFlorence Venetian Republic FirenziArnoRiver Duchy of MilanPisa The Papal StatesThursday, September 20, 12 74. The Big Five Republic of GenoaFlorence Venetian Republic FirenziArnoRiverDuchy of MilanPisaThe Papal States Kingdom of the TwoSiciliesThursday, September 20, 12 75. II.B.4. Lorenzo the Magnicent, 1449-1492de facto ruler of the Florentine Republic during the Italian Renaissance; diplomat,politician and patron of the artshe gave large sums from his familys banking business to artists who createdmaster works of arthis life coincided with the high point of the early Italian Renaissance; his deathmarked the end of the Golden Age of FlorenceThursday, September 20, 12 76. The Artists He Patronized LeonardoThursday, September 20, 12 77. The Artists He Patronized LeonardoThursday, September 20, 12 78. The Artists He Patronized LeonardoThursday, September 20, 12 79. The Artists He Patronized LeonardoThursday, September 20, 12 80. The Artists He Patronized Leonardo Michaelangelo BuonarrotiThursday, September 20, 12 81. The Artists He Patronized Leonardo Michaelangelo BuonarrotiThursday, September 20, 12 82. The Artists He Patronized Leonardo Michaelangelo BuonarrotiThursday, September 20, 12 83. The Artists He Patronized Leonardo Michaelangelo BuonarrotiThursday, September 20, 12 84. The Artists He Patronized Leonardo Michaelangelo Buonarroti Sandro BotticelliThursday, September 20, 12 85. The Artists He Patronized Leonardo Michaelangelo Buonarroti Sandro BotticelliThursday, September 20, 12 86. The Artists He Patronized Leonardo Michaelangelo Buonarroti Sandro Botticelli Domenico GhirlandaioThursday, September 20, 12 87. The Artists He Patronized Leonardo Michaelangelo Buonarroti Sandro Botticelli Domenico GhirlandaioThursday, September 20, 12 88. The Artists He PatronizedAndrea del Verrochio Leonardo Michaelangelo Buonarroti Sandro Botticelli Domenico GhirlandaioThursday, September 20, 12 89. The Artists He PatronizedAndrea del Verrochio Leonardo Michaelangelo Buonarroti Sandro Botticelli Domenico GhirlandaioThursday, September 20, 12 90. The Artists He PatronizedAndrea del Verrochio Leonardo Michaelangelo Buonarroti Sandro Botticelli Domenico GhirlandaioThursday, September 20, 12 91. The Artists He PatronizedAndrea del Verrochio Leonardo Michaelangelo Buonarroti Sandro Botticelli Domenico GhirlandaioThursday, September 20, 12 92. The Artists He PatronizedAndrea del Verrochio Leonardo Michaelangelo Buonarroti Sandro Botticelli Domenico GhirlandaioThursday, September 20, 12 93. The Artists He PatronizedAndrea del Verrochio Leonardo Michaelangelo Buonarroti Sandro Botticelli Domenico GhirlandaioThursday, September 20, 12 94. The Artists He Patronized Antonio del PollaioloAndrea del Verrochio Leonardo Michaelangelo Buonarroti Sandro Botticelli Domenico GhirlandaioThursday, September 20, 12 95. The Artists He Patronized Antonio del PollaioloAndrea del Verrochio Leonardo Michaelangelo Buonarroti Sandro Botticelli Domenico GhirlandaioThursday, September 20, 12 96. The Artists He Patronized Antonio del PollaioloAndrea del Verrochio Leonardo Michaelangelo Buonarroti Sandro Botticelli Domenico GhirlandaioThursday, September 20, 12 97. The Artists He Patronized Antonio del PollaioloAndrea del Verrochio Leonardo Michaelangelo Buonarroti Sandro Botticelli Domenico GhirlandaioThursday, September 20, 12 98. The Pazzi ConspiracyThursday, September 20, 12 99. T della Rovere nobles: Cardinal Guiliano, later Pope Julius II; and Francesco, then Pope Sixtus IV woThursday, September 20, 12 100. the Pazzi banking family of Florence deeply resented theirpowerful rivals, the Medicianother rival family, the Salviati, began the conspiracy toassassinate Lorenzo and his brother Giuliano at high mass atthe DuomoPope Sixtus, a della Rovere, whose family also resented theMedici, approved a coup against them, as long as no one iskilledthe assassins killed Giuliano but failed to get Lorenzo, whosevengeance was legendaryThursday, September 20, 12 101. Thursday, September 20, 12 102. MachiavelliThursday, September 20, 12 103. Machiavelli Statue of Machiavelli at the Ufzi Gallery in Florence, ItalyThursday, September 20, 12 104. III. Machiavelli A. Early Years1. family2. training3. Girolamo Savonarola, d. 1498 -- the prophet unarmed (chap. 6) B. War ad Peace1. French intervention (chap. 3)2. Pisa, 1495-99 (chap. 12) a. Paolo Vitelli- the condottieri b. mercenaries3. mission to Louis XII, 1462-98-1515 a. New Monarchies b. nationalism and vernacularsC. Renaissance Papacy 1. Alexander VI, 1492-1502 (chap. 3 et seq.) a. Cesare and Lucrezia Borgia b. massacre of Senigallia, 1502 (chap. 7) 2. Julius II, 1503-08 (chap. 2 et seq.) 3. Leo X, 1513-21 (Giovanni di Medici, 1475-1521)D. Exile 1. coup of 1512 a. Florentine Republic becomes Duchy of Tuscany b. Medici restoration2. country life (Dedication)Thursday, September 20, 12 105. 1469-born to an attorney father, his family had produced 13 Gonfalonieri, educated as a humanist taught grammar, rhetoric, and Latin (ironically, never learned Greek) became a prolic and skilled writer in the new vernacular trained in the law, he would follow his fathers profession and was subject to the political ins and outs of this turbulent time Medici in = Machiavelli out; FlorentineNiccol di Bernardo dei Machiavelli Republic = Machiavelli in 1469 1527Thursday, September 20, 12 106. 1452-born to a physician father and noble mother, educated as a humanist 1475-became a Dominican friar, reformer 1490-Pico & Lorenzo bring him to Florence where he preaches radical reform, bonre of the vanities 1494-French King Charles viii invades Italy. Savonarola convinces him to spare Florence, establishes a Christian republic Pope Alexander vi condemns, then excommunicates, and brands him aGirolamo Savonarolaheretic 14521498Thursday, September 20, 12 107. CHAPTER VIOF NEW DOMINIONS WHICH HAVE BEEN ACQUIRED BY ONES OWNARMS AND ABILITY ...Those who by the exercise of abilities...become princes, obtain their dominions with difculty but retain them easily, and the difculty...arises in part from the new rules...that they have to introduce in order to establish their position more securely. It must be considered that there is nothing more difcult to carry out, nor more doubtful of success, nor more dangerous to handle, than to initiate a new order of things.Thus it comes about that all armed prophets have conquered and unarmed ones have failed.it is necessary to order things so that when [the people] no longer believe, they can be made to believe by force.Thursday, September 20, 12 108. CHAPTER VI (CONT.) .it is necessary to order things so that when [the people] no longer believe, they can be made to believe by force. Moses, Cyrus, Theseus, and Romulus would not have been able to keep their constitutions observed for so long had they been disarmed, as happened in our own time with Fra Girolamo Savonarola, who failed entirely in his new rules when the multitude began to disbelieve in him, and he had no means of holding fast those who had believed nor of compelling the unbelievers to believe.Thursday, September 20, 12 109. 1498--hanged, body burned, ashes scattered in the Arno River CHAPTER VI (CONT.) .it is necessary to order things so that when [the people] no longer believe, they can be made to believe by force. Moses, Cyrus, Theseus, and Romulus would not have been able to keep their constitutions observed for so long had they been disarmed, as happened in our own time with Fra Girolamo Savonarola, who failed entirely in his new rules when the multitude began to disbelieve in him, and he had no means of holding fast those who had believed nor of compelling the unbelievers to believe.Thursday, September 20, 12 110. III.B.War & Peace 1. French intervention (chap.3)1489-Pope Innocent viii, being at odds withFerdinand i of Naples, offered Naples toCharles, King of FranceCharles VIII 1470-83-98Thursday, September 20, 12 111. III.B.War & Peace 1. French intervention (chap.3)1489-Pope Innocent viii, being at odds withFerdinand i of Naples, offered Naples toCharles, King of France1494-Charles entered Italy with 25,000 men(including 8,000 Swiss mercenaries) and the Charles VIII 1470-83-98rst artillery train of EuropeThursday, September 20, 12 112. III.B.War & Peace 1. French intervention (chap.3)1489-Pope Innocent viii, being at odds withFerdinand i of Naples, offered Naples toCharles, King of France1494-Charles entered Italy with 25,000 men(including 8,000 Swiss mercenaries) and the Charles VIII 1470-83-98rst artillery train of Europe1495-his easy conquests provoked an Italianalliance which drove him back to FranceThursday, September 20, 12 113. III.B.War & Peace 1. French intervention (chap.3)1489-Pope Innocent viii, being at odds withFerdinand i of Naples, offered Naples toCharles, King of France1494-Charles entered Italy with 25,000 men(including 8,000 Swiss mercenaries) and the Charles VIII 1470-83-98rst artillery train of Europe1495-his easy conquests provoked an Italianalliance which drove him back to France1499-his successor invaded once again, withthe help of the Venetians, to capture Milan Louis XII 1462-98-15Thursday, September 20, 12 114. In the Italian War of 14991504, [French king Louis XII] successfullysecured Milan itself in the year 1499 from his enemy, Ludovico Sforza, andit remained a French stronghold for twelve years.* His greatest successcame in his war with Venice, with the victory at the Battle of Agnadello in1509. Things became much more difcult for him from 1510 onwards,especially after Julius II, the great warrior Pope, took control of theVatican and formed the "Holy League" to oppose the ambitions of theFrench in Italy. The French were eventually driven from Milan by the Swissin the year 1513. WikipediaThursday, September 20, 12 115. Louis XII entering Genoa in 1507. Miniature by Jean BourdichonThursday, September 20, 12 116. CHAPTER III CONCERNING MIXED PRINCIPALITIES But let us turn to France and inquire whether she has done any of the things mentioned. I will speak of Louis (and not of Charles) as the one whose conduct is the better to be observed, he having held possession of Italy for the longest period; and you will see that he has done the opposite to those things which ought to be done to retain a state composed of divers elements.King Louis was brought into Italy by the ambition of the Venetians, who desired to obtain half the state of Lombardy by his intervention. I will not blame the course taken by the king, because, wishing to get a foothold in Italy, and having no friends there--seeing rather that every door was shut to him owing to the conduct of Charles--he was forced to accept those friendships which he could get, and he would have succeeded very quickly in his design if in other matters he had not made some mistakes. The king, however, having acquired Lombardy, regained at once the authority which Charles had lost: Genoa yielded; the Florentines became his friends; the Marquess of Mantua, the Duke of Ferrara, ... the Lucchese, the Pisans, the Sienese--everybody made advances to him to become his friend. Then could the Venetians realize the rashness of the course taken by them, which, in order that they might secure two towns in Lombardy, had made the king master of two-thirds of Italy.Thursday, September 20, 12 117. III.B.2.a--Paolo Vitelli-the condottieri (warlords) 1494-when Charles invaded Italy, Pisa claimed its independence from Florence and proclaimed a Second Pisan Republic 1498-Machiavelli came as liaison to the siege of Pisa conducted by the mercenary condottiere Vitelli 1499-after much blood and treasure had been expended victory seemed at hand Vitelli went on strike for more moneyDepiction of Farinata deglai Uberti by Andrea del Castagno, showing a 15th century condottieros typical attire.Thursday, September 20, 12 118. CHAPTER XIIHOW MANY KINDS OF SOLDIERYTHERE ARE & CONCERNING MERCENARIES ...Mercenaries and auxiliaries are useless and dangerous; and if one holds his state based on these arms, he will stand neither rm nor safe; for they are disunited, ambitious, and without discipline, unfaithful, valiant before friends, cowardly before enemies; they have neither the fear of God nor delity to men, and destruction is deferred only so long as the attack is; for in peace one is robbed by them, and in war by the enemy. The fact is, they have no other attraction or reason for keeping the eld than a trie of stipend, which is not sufcient to make them willing to die for you. They are ready enough to be your soldiers whilst you do not make war, but if war comes they take themselves off or run from the foe; which I should have little trouble to prove, for the ruin of Italy has been caused by nothing else than by resting all her hopes for many years on mercenaries, and although they formerly made some display and appeared valiant amongst themselves, yet when the foreigners came they showed what they were. Thus it was that Charles, King of France, was allowed to seize Italy with chalk in hand;(*) and he [Savonarola]who told us that our sins were the cause of it told the truth, but they were not the sins he imagined, but those which I have related.Thursday, September 20, 12 119. CHAPTER XII HOW MANY KINDS OF SOLDIERY THERE ARE & CONCERNINGMERCENARIES ...Mercenaries and auxiliaries are useless and dangerous; and if one holds his state based on these arms, he will stand neither rm nor safe; for they are disunited, ambitious, and without discipline, unfaithful, valiant before friends, cowardly before enemies; they have neither the fear of God nor delity to men, and destruction is deferred only so long as the attack is; for in peace one is robbed by them, and in war by the enemy. The fact is, they have no other attraction or reason for keeping the eld than a trie of stipend, which is not sufcient to make them willing to die for you. They are ready enough to be your soldiers whilst you do not make war, but if war comes they take themselves off or run from the foe; which I should have little trouble to prove, for the ruin of Italy has been caused by nothing else than by resting all her hopes for many years on mercenaries, and although they formerly made some display and appeared valiant amongst themselves, yet when the foreigners came they showed what they were. Thus it was that Charles, King of France, was allowed to seize Italy with chalk in hand;(*) and he [Savonarola]who told us that our sins were * thecause of it is that he didnt need they wereto conquer, only aimagined, but to markwhich the implication told the truth, but the sword not the sins he piece of chalk those the doors where his troops would be billeted in the cities which surrendered without a ght I have related.Thursday, September 20, 12 120. CHAPTER XIIHOW MANY KINDS OF SOLDIERYTHERE ARE & CONCERNING MERCENARIES ...Mercenaries and auxiliaries are useless and dangerous; and if one holds his state based on these arms, he will stand neither rm nor safe; for they are disunited, ambitious, and without discipline, unfaithful, valiant before friends, cowardly before enemies; they have neither the fear of God nor delity to men, and destruction is deferred only so long as the attack is; for in peace one is robbed by them, and in war by the enemy. The fact is, they have no other attraction or reason for keeping the eld than a trie of stipend, which is not sufcient to make them willing to die for you. They are ready enough to be your soldiers whilst you do not make war, but if war comes they take themselves off or run from the foe; which I should have little trouble to prove, for the ruin of Italy has been caused by nothing else than by resting all her hopes for many years on mercenaries, and although they formerly made some display and appeared valiant amongst themselves, yet when the foreigners came they showed what they were. Thus it was that Charles, King of France, was allowed to seize Italy with chalk in hand;(*) and he [Savonarola]who told us that our sins were the cause of it told the truth, but they were not the sins he imagined, but those which I have related.Thursday, September 20, 12 121. III.B.3--Mission to Louis XIIMachiavellis diplomatic career1498-(age 29)shortly after Savonarolasexecution, he was elected head of thesecond chancery of the now secularrepublicthis chancery was responsible for militaryand diplomatic affairshe went on missions to France, toFerdinand in Spain, to Germany, thePapacy and to lesser Italian statesthis rst-hand experience forms one of Detail of a portrait by Santi di Titothe two pillars of his experience for writingThursday, September 20, 12 122. NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI TOLORENZO THE MAGNIFICENT*SON OF PIERO DI MEDICI ...to offer to Your Highness some humble testimony of my devotion, I have been unable to nd among my possessions anything which I hold so dear or esteem so highly as that knowledge of the deeds of great men which I have acquired through a long experience of modern events and a constant study of the past. ________ * using this title Magnico is attery on Machiavellis part. This Lorenzo is the nephew of the famous il MagnicoThursday, September 20, 12 123. THE NEW MONARCHIES Next the seignoria sent Machiavelli on a diplomatic mission to King Louis of France. France, England and Spain were examples of the phenomenon known as the new monarchies. As the medieval social order was breaking down due to the Commercial Revolution, these monarchs created nation states. This complex phenomenon involved an alliance between the emerging urban bourgeoisie and the crown. The monarchs developed a monopoly of justice and power at the expense of their feuding nobility. It was paid for by taxes on commerce (which bought those artillery trains which Charles had used in 1494). Nobles could no longer safely rebel in their castles. The bourgeoisie paid in order to have better business conditions: relative peace, uniform taxes and regulations over the larger areas of the new nation states. Printing encouraged the trend from Latin to the vernaculars. Regions began to consider themselves part of a greater polity. French rather than Burgundian. Machiavelli was painfully aware of Italys wasteful divisions and repeated civil wars. He began to dream of a new Italian monarchy with Florence as its capital. The seed was planted during this mission.--jbpThursday, September 20, 12 124. born in Catalonia to an ecclesiastical family. His uncle was bishop of Valencia 1455-adopted his maternal family name, Borgia, when his mothers brother became Pope Calixtus iii 1457-became vice chancellor at the Vatican 1492-having served under ve popes was elected to the papacy. Allegedly, one vote cost four mule loads of silver Pope Alexander VI 1493-conrmed Spains new possessionsborn Rodrigo Lanzol; 1431 1492--1503Thursday, September 20, 12 125. born in Catalonia to an ecclesiastical family. His uncle was bishop of Valencia 1455-adopted his maternal family name, Borgia, when his mothers brother became Pope Calixtus iii 1457-became vice chancellor at the Vatican 1492-having served under ve popes was elected to the papacy. Allegedly, one vote cost four mule loads of silver Pope Alexander VI 1493-conrmed Spains new possessionsborn Rodrigo Lanzol; 1431 1492--1503Thursday, September 20, 12 126. born in Catalonia to an ecclesiastical family. His uncle was bishop of Valencia 1455-adopted his maternal family name, Borgia, when his mothers brother became Pope Calixtus iii 1457-became vice chancellor at the Vatican 1492-having served under ve popes was elected to the papacy. Allegedly, one vote cost four mule loads of silver Pope Alexander VI 1493-conrmed Spains new possessionsborn Rodrigo Lanzol; 1431 1492--1503Thursday, September 20, 12 127. born in Catalonia to an ecclesiastical family. His uncle was bishop of Valencia 1455-adopted his maternal family name, Borgia, when his mothers brother became Pope Calixtus iii 1457-became vice chancellor at the Vatican 1492-having served under ve popes was elected to the papacy. Allegedly, one vote cost four mule loads of silver Pope Alexander VI 1493-conrmed Spains new possessionsborn Rodrigo Lanzol; 1431 1492--1503 a major player in the military diplomacy of the eraThursday, September 20, 12 128. born in Catalonia to an ecclesiastical family. His uncle was bishop of Valencia 1455-adopted his maternal family name, Borgia, when his mothers brother became Pope Calixtus iii 1457-became vice chancellor at the Vatican 1492-having served under ve popes was elected to the papacy. Allegedly, one vote cost four mule loads of silver Pope Alexander VI 1493-conrmed Spains new possessionsborn Rodrigo Lanzol; 1431 1492--1503second-to-last a major player in the military diplomacy of the non-Italian popeera until John Paul iiThursday, September 20, 12 129. CHAPTER XVIIIIN WHAT WAY PRINCES MUST KEEP FAITH I will only mention one modern instance, Alexander VI did nothing else but deceive men, he thought of nothing else, and found occasion for it; no man was ever more able to give assurances, or afrmed things with stronger oaths, and no man observed them less; however, he always succeeded in his deceptions, as he well knew this aspect of things.Thursday, September 20, 12 130. Pope Alexanders Family1470-Vannozza dei Cattanei, age 28, one of manymistresses of then cardinal Borja, age 39. Herrelationship lasted the longest. Mother of:Thursday, September 20, 12 131. Pope Alexanders Family1470-Vannozza dei Cattanei, age 28, one of manymistresses of then cardinal Borja, age 39. Herrelationship lasted the longest. Mother of: 1475-Cesare, later made cardinal, renounced to become the familys condottiereThursday, September 20, 12 132. Pope Alexanders Family1470-Vannozza dei Cattanei, age 28, one of manymistresses of then cardinal Borja, age 39. Herrelationship lasted the longest. Mother of: 1475-Cesare, later made cardinal, renounced to become the familys condottiere 1475-Giovanni, became Duke of GandiaThursday, September 20, 12 133. Pope Alexanders Family1470-Vannozza dei Cattanei, age 28, one of manymistresses of then cardinal Borja, age 39. Herrelationship lasted the longest. Mother of: 1475-Cesare, later made cardinal, renounced to become the familys condottiere 1475-Giovanni, became Duke of Gandia 1480-Lucrezia, of the multiple husbandsThursday, September 20, 12 134. Pope Alexanders Family1470-Vannozza dei Cattanei, age 28, one of manymistresses of then cardinal Borja, age 39. Herrelationship lasted the longest. Mother of: 1475-Cesare, later made cardinal, renounced to become the familys condottiere 1475-Giovanni, became Duke of Gandia 1480-Lucrezia, of the multiple husbands 1481 (or 82)-Gioffre, married the king of Naples daughter Sancha of AragonThursday, September 20, 12 135. Pope Alexanders Family1470-Vannozza dei Cattanei, age 28, one of manymistresses of then cardinal Borja, age 39. Herrelationship lasted the longest. Mother of: 1475-Cesare, later made cardinal, renounced to become the familys condottiere 1475-Giovanni, became Duke of Gandia 1480-Lucrezia, of the multiple husbands 1481 (or 82)-Gioffre, married the king of Naples daughter Sancha of Aragon1493-her place in his (age 62)affections wastaken by the beautiful Gulia Farnese, age 19Thursday, September 20, 12 136. Cesare changes careers 1490-age 15, made bishop of Pamplona 1492-elevated to cardinal after his father bought the papacy. His younger brother Juan (Giovanni) was made commander of the papal army 1497-Juans body was found in the Tiber. Some ngered Cesare. They both had been doing their younger brothers wife 1498-Cesare became the rst person to resign as 1475-1507 cardinal. He took over as the familys consigliere, anonymous head of the papal army: Italian mercenaries & 300 painter cavalry plus 4,ooo Swiss mercenariesThursday, September 20, 12 137. Cesare changes careers 1490-age 15, made bishop of Pamplona 1492-elevated to cardinal after his father bought the papacy. His younger brother Juan (Giovanni) was made commander of the papal army 1497-Juans body was found in the Tiber. Some ngered Cesare. They both had been doing their younger brothers wife 1498-Cesare became the rst person to resign as 1475-1507 cardinal. He took over as the familys consigliere, anonymous head of the papal army: Italian mercenaries & 300 painter cavalry plus 4,ooo Swiss mercenaries he then began to conquer the RomagnaThursday, September 20, 12 138. Cesare expands the family business1500-the pope sent Cesare to Romagna to subdue theturbulent local despots, and with the help of the Frenchking, carve a principality for himself out of those territoriesowing nominal allegiance to RomeMalatesta of Rimini and Sforza of Pesaro ed, butManfredi, a handsome and virtuous youth of 18 held out1501-when he surrendered on the promise of his life,Cesare broke his word, sent him as prisoner to Romewhere he was afterwards foully outraged and put to death1502-Cesare similarly lulled the suspicion of two rebelliousnobles and had them strangled at Senigallia (III.C.1.b.)observe how Machiavelli describes his heroThursday, September 20, 12 139. CHAPTER VII OF NEW DOMINIONS ACQUIRED BY THE POWER OF OTHERS OR BY FORTUNE Cesare Borgia...acquired the state by the inuence of his father and lost it when that inuence failed, and that although every measure was adopted by him and everything done that a prudent and capable man could do to establish himself rmly in a state that the arms and the favors of others had given him.I know of no better precepts for a new prince to follow than may be found in his actions.In wishing to aggrandize the duke his son, Alexander VI had to meet very great difculties.It was, therefore, necessary to disturb the existing condition and bring about disorders in the states of Italy.The king [Louis of France] came thus into Italy with the aid of the Venetians and the consent of Alexander...the pope obtained troops from him for his enterprise in the Romagna. [Cesare] had recourse to stratagem. He dissembled his aims so well that the Orsini made their peace with him, being represented by Signor Paulo whose suspicions the duke disarmed with every courtesy, presenting him with robes, money and horses, so that in their simplicity they were induced to come to Sinigaglia and fell into his hands.Thursday, September 20, 12 140. CHAPTER VII OF NEW DOMINIONS ACQUIRED BY THE POWER OF OTHERS OR BY FORTUNE It is seen that his foundations were good, for the Romagna awaited him for more than a month. In Rome, although but half alive, he remained secure; and whilst the Baglioni, the Vitelli, and the Orsini might come to Rome, they could not effect anything against him. If he could not have made pope him whom he wished, at least the one whom he did not wish would not have been elected. But if he had been in sound health at the death of Alexander [his father], everything would have been different to him. On the day that Julius the Second was elected, he told me that he had thought of everything that might occur at the death of his father, and had provided a remedy for all, except that he had never anticipated that, when the death did happen, he himself would be on the point to die.Thursday, September 20, 12 141. III.C.1.a--Lucrezia Borgia 1little is known with certainty. Her reputed poisonings and incest with her brother Cesare were imputed by Borgia enemies she was married three times to advance the ambitions of her father 1493-to Giovanni Sforza, annulled after hed served his purpose 1498-to Neapolitan Alfonso of Aragon, half- brother of Sancha, her sister-in-law 1500-Alfonso was murdered, reputedly by 1480-1519 Cesare by Pinturicchio fresco in the Borgia rooms of 1501-married Alfonso I dEste, gave him eight the Vatican childrenThursday, September 20, 12 142. III.C.1.a--Lucrezia Borgia 1little is known with certainty. Her reputed poisonings and incest with her brother Cesare were imputed by Borgia enemies she was married three times to advance the ambitions of her father 1493-to Giovanni Sforza, annulled after hed served his purpose 1498-to Neapolitan Alfonso of Aragon, half- brother of Sancha, her sister-in-law 1500-Alfonso was murdered, reputedly by 1480-1519 Cesare by Pinturicchio fresco in the Borgia rooms of 1501-married Alfonso I dEste, gave him eight the Vatican children one of numerous paintings where sherepresents the Virgin MaryThursday, September 20, 12 143. III.C.2 Pope Julius IIThursday, September 20, 12 144. III.C.2 Pope Julius II 1471-elevated to bishop after his uncle became Pope Sixtus iv then made Cardinal of San Pietro in Vincula and given another seven bishoprics 1492-able papal legate to France, he gained great inuence in the college of cardinals and rivaled Roderigo Borgia, whom he accused of simony when he lost the election to him 1503-after Alexander II died he became pope at last the only pope to lead his troops in battle, he is even more famous as a patron of the arts--Michelangelo & Bramante (here a cardinal, age 34) nicknamed "The Fearsome Pope" (Il Papa Terribile) and "The 1505-his celebrated tomb was commissioned but onlyWarrior Pope" (Il Papa Guerriero), born Giuliano della Rovere, completed forty years later on a much reduced scale1443-1503-1513Thursday, September 20, 12 145. 1510-T Augustinian monks from Erfurt went to Rome to see PopewoJulius regarding a matter that required settlement.Disillusionments of various sorts set in at once. ...The abysmalignorance, frivolity, and levity of the Italian priests stupeed him.They could rattle through six or seven masses while he was sayingone. And when he was only at the Gospel, they had nished andwould say to him "Passa! Passa!" - "Get a move on!" ....Some of theItalian clergy however were ippantly unbelieving and wouldaddress the sacrament saying "Bread thou art and bread thou wiltremain." T a devout believer from the unsophisticated Northlandosuch disclosures were truly shocking....He need not have been a scandalmonger to know that thedistrict of ill fame was frequented by ecclesiastics. He heard therewere those who considered themselves virtuous because theyconned themselves to women. The unsavory memory of PopeAlexander VI was still a stench. Catholic historians recognizecandidly the scandal of the Renaissance popes, and the CatholicReformation was as greatly concerned as the Protestant aboutsuch abuses. Roland Bainton, Here I Stand, quoted at http://wiki.answers.com/Q/ What_did_Martin_Luther_witness_in_Rome_that_upset_himThursday, September 20, 12 146. Thursday, September 20, 12 147. Thursday, September 20, 12 148. Thursday, September 20, 12 149. Thursday, September 20, 12 150. Thursday, September 20, 12 151. Thursday, September 20, 12 152. Thursday, September 20, 12 153. III.C.3 Pope Leo X 1513-the last non-priest (only a deacon) to be elected pope. The second son of Lorenzo the Magnicent he gained the triple tiara the year following his familys overthrow of the Florentine Republic 1516-as he continued Julius hugely expensive reconstruction, he turned to the sale of indulgences. Dominican Johann Tetzel was sent to Germany 31 October 1517-Martin Luther posted his famousPope Leo X Ninety-Five Theses bornGiovanni di Lorenzo de Medici1475-1513-1521 1521-Leo excommunicated LutherThursday, September 20, 12 154. III.D ExileAugust 1512-with the help of Pope Alexander ii and Spanish troops,the Medici defeated the Florentine Republic at PratoMachiavellis patron resigned as head of state1513- Machiavelli was accused of conspiracy by the Medici forces,imprisoned; despite torture by the rope (hung by his arms), herefused to confess.he was exiled from the city and spent the rest of his life at hiscountry estate writing Il Principe, History of Florence, poetry, playsWikipediaThursday, September 20, 12 155. III.D ExileAugust 1512-with the help of Pope Alexander ii and Spanish troops,the Medici defeated the Florentine Republic at PratoMachiavellis patron resigned as head of state1513- Machiavelli was accused of conspiracy by the Medici forces,imprisoned; despite torture by the rope (hung by his arms), herefused to confess.he was exiled from the city and spent the rest of his life at hiscountry estate writing Il Principe, History of Florence, poetry, playsWikipediaThursday, September 20, 12 156. NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI TO LORENZO THE MAGNIFICENT*SON OF PIERO DI MEDICI...to offer to Your Highness some humble testimony of mydevotion.May I trust, therefore, that Your Highness will accept this little gift[the book] in the spirit in which it is offered; and if your Highnesswill deign to peruse it, you will recognize my ardent desire that youmay attain to that grandeur which fortune and your own meritspresage for you.And should Your Highness gaze down from the summit of yourlofty position towards this humble spot, you will recognize the greatand unmerited sufferings inicted on me by a cruel fate.Thursday, September 20, 12 157. In a letter to Francesco Vettori, he described his exile: When evening comes, I go back home, and go to my study. On the threshold, I take off my work clothes, covered in mud and lth, and I put on the clothes an ambassador would wear. Decently dressed, I enter the ancient courts of rulers who have long since died. There, I am warmly welcomed, and I feed on the only food I nd nourishing and was born to savor. I am not ashamed to talk to them and ask them to explain their actions and they, out of kindness, answer me. Four hours go by without my feeling any anxiety. I forget every worry. I am no longer afraid of poverty or frightened of death. I live entirely through them.WikipediaThursday, September 20, 12 158. Thursday, September 20, 12 159. The PrinceThursday, September 20, 12 160. The Prince M. D. L .= 1550Thursday, September 20, 12 161. Bibliographic InformationThe Prince (Italian: Il Principe) is a political treatise by the Italiandiplomat, historian and political theorist Niccol Machiavelli. Fromcorrespondence a version appears to have been distributed in1513, using a Latin title, De Principatibus (About Principalities). Butthe printed version was not published until 1532, ve years afterMachiavellis death. This was done with the permission of theMedici pope Clement VII, but "long before then, in fact since the rstappearance of the Prince in manuscript, controversy had swirledabout his writings". WikipediaThursday, September 20, 12 162. A. General Approach 1. the end of the state?a. of the prince?b. raison detat 2. ends and meansa. virtu 3. moral, immoral, or amoral? B. Machiavellis Advice C. Machiavellis Nationalism D. Corpus 1. The Discourses (on the First Ten Books of Titus Livius), [1521] 2. History of Florence, [1521] 3. other worksThursday, September 20, 12 163. The end [purpose,goal] of the statetrick question! nowhere does he deal with this critical issue!he just assumes that states exist and goes to the nextAristotelian level--the endof the Princethe essence of a prince is one who gains a state and maintains himself inpower--the subject of The Prince. The book begins with the rst theme,gaining, and concludes with the second, maintainingthese tricks of the trade, the how-to-do-it parts are themost often quotedthey dene the morality of raison detat. An act which would beimmoral if done by a private individual, e.g., murder, becomesmoral, e.g., war, when done by the stateThursday, September 20, 12 164. ends and meansdoes the end justify the means?another trick question!for Machiavelli, and those of us who reect deeply on thematter, the two are inseparablethe end is nothing more that the sum of the meansfor him, a state which endures, a prince who stays in power, areboth good things. Therefore the means, as learned fromhistory must be good, i.e., justhere, we may be allowed to disagreeThursday, September 20, 12 165. ends and meansdoes the end justify the means?another trick question!for Machiavelli, and those of us who reect deeply on thematter, the two are inseparablethe end is nothing more that the sum of the meansfor him, a state which endures, a prince who stays in power, areboth good things. Therefore the means, as learned fromhistory must be good, i.e., justhere, we may be allowed to disagreeThursday, September 20, 12 166. CHAPTER XVIIIIN WHAT WAY PRINCES MUST KEEP FAITH ...Everybody sees what you appear to be, few feel what you are, and those few will not dare oppose themselves to the many, who have the majesty of the state to defend them; and in the actions of men, and especially of princes, from which there is no appeal, the end justifies the means. Let a prince therefore aim at conquering and maintaining the state [his end], and the means will always be judged honourable and praised by every one, for the vulgar [commoner] is always taken by appearances and the issue [outcome] of the event; and the world consists only of the vulgar, and the few who are not vulgar are isolated when the many have a rallying point in the prince.Thursday, September 20, 12 167. virtuin Machiavellis use this is better translated specialability, not virtueremember how Aristotle proved that the good citizen maynot be the same as a good man?a good president may not be a good man. (supply yourown examples!)heres Machivellis take on honestyThursday, September 20, 12 168. CHAPTER XVIIIIN WHAT WAY PRINCES MUST KEEP FAITHThus it is well to seem merciful, faithful, humane, sincere, religious, and also to be so [emphasis added]; but you must have the mind so disposed that when it is needful to be otherwise you may be able to change to the opposite qualities.Thursday, September 20, 12 169. moral, immoral, or amoral?judging by the conventional morality of his times, hecertainly wasnt moral. thats why he never published ThePrincetodays conventional wisdom is to regard him as immoralI propose amoral. He advocated the position that therewere two sets of rules: one for individuals and another forprincesThursday, September 20, 12 170. III. B. Machiavellis AdviceThursday, September 20, 12 171. CHAPTER XIV THE DUTIES OF A PRINCE WITH REGARD TO THE MILITIA A prince should therefore have no other aim or thought, nor take up any other thing for his study, but war and its organization and discipline, for that is the only art that is necessary to one who commands, and it is of such virtue that it maintains those who are born princes, but often enables men of private fortunes to attain that rank. And one sees, on the other hand, that when princes think more of luxury than of arms, they lose their state. The chief cause of the loss of states, is the contempt of this art, and the way to acquire them is to be well versed in the same.Thursday, September 20, 12 172. CHAPTER XVIIOF CRUELTY AND CLEMENCY,AND WHETHER IT IS BETTER TO BE LOVED OR FEARED ...From this arises the question whether it is better to be loved more than feared, or feared more than loved. The reply is, that one ought to be both feared and loved, but as it is difcult for the two to go together, it is much safer to be feared than loved, if one of the two has to be wanting. For it may be said of men in general that they are ungrateful, voluble, dissemblers, anxious to avoid danger, and covetous of gain; as long as you benet them, they are entirely yours; they offer you their blood, their goods, their life, and their children, as I have before said, when the necessity is remote; but when it approaches, they revolt. And the prince who has relied solely on their words, without making other preparations, is ruined;...Thursday, September 20, 12 173. CHAPTER XVII ...WHETHER IT IS BETTER TO BE LOVED OR FEARED(CONCLUDED) I conclude, therefore, with regard to being feared and loved, that men love at their own free will, but fear at the will of the prince, ad that a wise prince must rely on what is in his power and not what is in the power of others, and he must only contrive to avoid incurring hatred.Thursday, September 20, 12 174. CHAPTER XVIIIIN WHAT WAY PRINCES MUST KEEP FAITHYou must know, then, that there are two methods of ghting, the one by law, the other by force: the rst method is that of men, the second of beasts; but as the rst method is ofter insufcient, one must have recourse to the second.A prince being thus obliged to know well how to act as a beast must imitate the fox and the lion, for the lion cannot protect himself from traps, and the fox cannot defend himself from wolves. One must therefore be a fox to recognize traps, and a lion to frighten wolves.Thursday, September 20, 12 175. The Lion & the FoxYou must know, then, that there are two methods of ghting, the one by law, the other by force: the rst method is that of men, the second of beasts; but as the rst method is ofter insufcient, one must have recourse to the second.A prince being thus obliged to know well how to act as a beast must imitate the fox and the lion, for the lion cannot protect himself from traps, and the fox cannot defend himself from wolves. One must therefore be a fox to recognize traps, and a lion to frighten wolves.Thursday, September 20, 12 176. III. C. Machiavellis NationalismThursday, September 20, 12 177. CHAPTER XXVIEXHORTATION TO LIBERATEITALY FROM THEBARBARIANS Having carefully considered the subject of the above discourses, and wondering within myself whether the present times were propitious to a new prince, and whether there were elements that would give an opportunity to a wise and virtuous one to introduce a new order of things which would do honour to him and good to the people of this country, it appears to me that so many things concur to favour a new prince that I never knew a time more t than the present. Although lately some spark may have been shown by one, which made us think he was ordained by God for our redemption[Cesare Borgia!!!], nevertheless it was afterwards seen, in the height of his career, that fortune rejected him;so that Italy, left as without life, waits for him who shall yet heal her wounds and put an end to the ravaging and plundering...Thursday, September 20, 12 178. CHAPTER XXVIEXHORTATION TO LIBERATEITALY FROM THEBARBARIANS Nor is there to be seen at present one in whom she can place more hope than in your illustrious house,(*) with its valour and fortune, favoured by God and by the Church of which it is now the chief, and which could be made the head of this redemption. This will not be difcult if you will recall to yourself the actions and lives of the men I have named. And although they were great and wonderful men, yet they were men, and each one of them had no more opportunity than the present offers, for their enterprises were neither more just nor easier than this, nor was God more their friend than He is yours. _________ (*) Lorenzo di Medici himself, to whom this book is dedicated.Thursday, September 20, 12 179. D. Corpus 1. The Discourses (on the First Ten Books of Titus Livius), [1521] 2. History of Florence, [1521] 3. other worksThursday, September 20, 12 180. Thursday, September 20, 12 181. Thursday, September 20, 12 182. Thursday, September 20, 12 183. Thursday, September 20, 12 184. Thursday, September 20, 12 185. Thursday, September 20, 12 186. CriticismThursday, September 20, 12 187. Henry VIII (1491 1547) Charles V (1500 1558)Napoleon I (1769 1821)Mussolini (1883 1945) John Joseph Gotti, Jr (1940 2002)Thursday, September 20, 12 188. V. Criticism 1. Machiavellis philosophy of history 2. Fortuna (chap. 25) 3. nature of man 4. Realpolitik how real is realism?Thursday, September 20, 12 189. V. 1. Machiavellis Philosophy of HistoryThursday, September 20, 12 190. CHAPTER XXV HOW MUCH FORTUNE CAN DO IN HUMANAFFAIRS AND HOW IT MAY BE OPPOSED ...not to extinguish our free will, I hold it to be true that Fortune is the arbiter of one-half of our actions, but that she still leaves us to direct the other half, or perhaps a little less... I say that a prince may be seen happy to-day and ruined to- morrow without having shown any change of disposition or character. This, I believe, arises rstly from causes that have already been discussed at length, namely, that the prince who relies entirely on fortune is lost when it changes. I believe also that he will be successful who directs his actions according to the spirit of the times, and that he whose actions do not accord with the times will not be successful..Thursday, September 20, 12 191. V. 2. FortunaThursday, September 20, 12 192. CHAPTER XXVHOW MUCH FORTUNE CAN DO IN HUMAN AFFAIRS AND HOW IT MAY BE OPPOSEDI conclude, therefore that, fortune being changeful and mankind steadfast in their ways, so long as the two are in agreement men are successful, but unsuccessful when they fall out. For my part I consider that it is better to be adventurous than cautious, because fortune is a woman, and if you wish to keep her under it is necessary to beat and ill-use her; and it is seen that she allows herself to be mastered by the adventurous rather than by those who go to work more coldly. She is, therefore, always, woman-like, a lover of young men, because they are less cautious, more violent, and with more audacity command her.Thursday, September 20, 12 193. V. 3. nature of man A man who wishes to make o profession of goodness in everything must necessarily come to grief among so many who are not good. --CHAP XV ...it may be said of men in general that they are ungrateful, voluble, disseblers, anxious to avoid danger and covetous of gain. But when it is necessary for him to proceed against the life of someone, he must do it on proper justication and for manifest cause, but above all things he must keep his hands off the property of others, because men more quickly forget the death of their father than the loss of their patrimony.--CHAP XVII If men were all good, this precept would not be a good one; but as they are bad, and would not observe their faith with you, so you are not bound to keep faith with them.--CHAP XVIII the vulgar [commoner] is always taken by appearances and the issue [outcome] of the event; and the world consists only of the vulgar--CHAP XVIIIThursday, September 20, 12 194. V. 4. Realpolitik how real is realism?most people assume that what is real is self-evident. Nothingcould be farther from the truthit is a subjective judgement to say one thing is real and anothernota perfect example is Machiavellis choosing Cesare Borgia ashis role model for what Italy needed to save her from thebarbarianswhen someone says, This is the way it really is! she may beright. Then again, she may not.Machiavellis credentials are impressive, but that doesnt givehim authority to make the nal denition of political realityThursday, September 20, 12 195. V. 5. last wordMachiavellis unpublished little gift to a man who he hopedwould employ him became a bombshell after it became public.The new printing press made such unconventional works nearlyimpossible to suppress. The Prince has remained a work whoseinuence is felt to this day. Though it was widely condemned,many monarchs acknowledged that it had informed theirpractice. His experience and his study of history made himuniquely qualied to offer practical advice. His tough-mindedness continues to challenge idealistic philosophers.Thursday, September 20, 12 196. Our next philosopher is removed from Machiavelli by both time and geography. Between the Florentine and Thomas Hobbes lies the Reformation, the Wars of Religion and the Scientic Revolution. Well travel from Renaissance Italy to Stuart England. But, thats another story...Thursday, September 20, 12