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DOI: 10.1177/0047287513496474

2014 53: 154 originally published online 18 July 2013Journal of Travel ResearchAdriana Campelo, Robert Aitken, Maree Thyne and Juergen Gnoth

Sense of Place: The Importance for Destination Branding

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Research Article

Introduction

A destination is both a geographical place and a metaphysi-

cal space determined by a network of meanings and values

that are attached to it. Given the economic, social, and envi-

ronmental impacts that tourism creates, destinations require

sensitive understanding and careful guidance in the develop-ment and management of the brands that represent them.

Brands help determine a destinations future in that they

make promises to the tourists who visit as well as to the

inhabitants who belong (Blain, Levy, and Ritchie 2005;

Gover and Go 2011). Yet, it is often their environment and

its natural features, their social and cultural capital, that

embody the values and attributes that represent the appeal of

the place for the destination brand. Destinations are embed-

ded in places. Consequently, destination branding should be

guided by the theory of place and sense of place so as to

benefit from and contribute to the places natural, cultural,

social, and economic wealth (Hankinson 2007; Gnoth 2007).

A growing number of studies have theorized that destina-

tion brand should portray a distinctive and attractive image

highlighting a places core competences, identity, and cul-

ture (Cai 2002; Blain, Levy, and Ritchie 2005; Kavaratzis

and Ashworth 2005). The strategies for branding destina-

tions systematically adopt corporate branding techniques and

models and adapt them to places (Trueman, Klemm, and

Giroud 2004; Hankinson 2007; Dinnie 2008). Frequently,

residents are left aside in the branding process leading

to brands that communicate only tacit connections to and

simplistic understanding of the sense of the place to be pro-

moted. There is a void in understanding sense of place as it is

experienced by local residents and its implications for an

effective destination brand. To address this gap, the present

study examines the habitus of a place and models locals

lived sense of place that forms the basis and context of expe-

riencing a destination brand. What constitutes a sense of

place is primarily determined by the meanings given to it by

those whose place it is. While this presents a challenge of

representation and inclusivity for branding, its greater

authenticity is more likely to lead to a stronger sense of brand

ownership. As an essential first step towards providing the

basis for a shared and effective brand, we researched inhabit-

ants own understanding of their sense of place.

This article contributes to prior studies by identifying the

constructs that influence and determine sense of place, and

its implications for branding destinations. The managerial

contribution is to provide a model to help marketers in devel-

oping destination brands that represent the intentional, tar-geted use of a selected set of place attributes derived from

474JTRXXX10.1177/0047287513496474Journal of Travel ResearchCampelo etal.

1Cardiff University, Cardiff Business School, United Kingdom2Otago Business School, University of Otago, New Zealand

Corresponding Author:

Adriana Campelo, Cardiff University, Cardiff Business School,

Aberconway Building, Colum Drive, Cardiff, CF103EU, United Kingdom.

Email: [email protected]

Sense of Place: The Importance forDestination Branding

Adriana Campelo

1

, Robert Aitken

2

, Maree Thyne

2

,and Juergen Gnoth2

Abstract

Given that brand meanings are socially constructed and culturally dependent, we advocate that a destination branding strategy

should begin by understanding what constitutes sense of place as experienced by local residents. The constructs of time,ancestry, landscape, and community were identified as determinants for the sense of place by inhabitants of the Chatham

Islands of New Zealand. These constructs comprise meanings that influence the habitus and define sense of place. This articlecontributes to our understanding of place by providing a sense of place model to support scholarship in destination and placebranding. Destination branding activity ought to be significantly influenced by an in-depth appreciation of the sense of place

for those whose place it is. Our emergent model emphasizes the importance of understanding sense of place and positioning

the people of the place at the centre of a branding strategy for the development of an effective destination brand.

Keywords

sense of place, destination brand, place brand, habitus

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Campelo et al. 155

sense of place as reflected by communal meanings and

shared habitus.

Theoretical Framework

Destination Branding

The strategic use of branding techniques for places is designed

to create distinctive approaches that enhance their social and

economic development (Kotler and Gertner 2002; Anholt

2005); to reframe their image and, at best, to foster a spirit of

cultural renaissance that can invigorate a sense of pride and

strengthened identity among their residents (Gilmore 2002).

For tourism purposes, destination branding identifies, delin-

eates, and differentiates a destination and communicates its

image as part of its appeal to tourists to experience those fea-

tures and characteristics that make it a distinctive and attrac-

tive destination (Hall 1999; Blain, Levy, and Ritchie 2005).

One of the most significant challenges when creating a dis-

tinctive destination brand is the need to understand the natureof a places identity and to recognize the core attributes that

define its character. These are very much related to its culture

and core values (Cai 2002; Marzano and Scott 2009). What

also needs to be considered is how the culture and core values

of the place will determine the nature of the service exchanges

and relationships that are an integral and inseparable part of

the tourism experience (Daniels 2007).

Destination branding involves a combination of services

created and provided in cooperation with local stakeholders

(Beritelli 2011; Haugland et al. 2011) which contribute sig-

nificantly to the quality of the experience (Perdue and

Pitegoff 1990). The terms destination branding and place

branding have been used interchangeably by many authors(Gnoth 2007; Hankinson 2007). Indeed, the application of

both terms occurs, even when the discussion refers to a des-

tination specifically, because it is not possible to separate the

destination from the place. The destination is part of the

place strategically positioned to be visited and consumed

(Hultman and Hall 2012). That said, we argue that the

sequence is nevertheless determined by the fact that destina-

tions are embedded in places; it is the place with all of its

networks, relationships and shared experiences that deter-

mines the nature of the destination.

Unlike branding in traditional product and service mar-

keting where the brand is created as an artifice to represent

tangible or intangible associations, places already have their

brand essence albeit in a generic or raw and as yet un-managed

state (Papadopoulos and Heslop 2002). For destination

branding, this essence of the sense of place requires purpose-

ful selection and sensitive transformation to represent

authentically the functional, experiential, and symbolic

nature of its character (Aaker 2004; Hakala, Laetti, and

Sandberg 2011). Identifying and understanding the constitu-

ents of this character of a sense of place and recognizing the

motivations of tourists provides destination managers with a

framework for the development of a brand strategy that is

representative of its people and cognizant of their place.

Fundamental for a destination branding strategy is to rec-

ognize the cultural characteristics of the place, understand

the people who live in that place, and to appreciate how a

shared sense of place is constituted and experienced. Sense

of place is based on and creates the uniqueness of place expe-rience (Ryan 2002). From a strategic perspective, sense of

place provides the basis of how places are defined and how

destination brands are articulated. Beyond merely represent-

ing the atmosphere of a place, sense of place deals with local

habitudes and communal practices that color the tourism

experience (Casey 1996, 2001a; Hillier and Rooksby 2002).

Sense of place morphs and turns purposive when it becomes

a medium, particularly in commercial exchange activity,

which can include tourism.

Making Sense of Sense of Place

Human engagement within a place connects materiality tomeaning (Harvey 1996), in an open and ongoing process

(Sack 1988), that brings together social, cultural, and natural

dimensions of place. The experience of engagement and

interaction requires presence (being in) and action (being

with), always influenced by physical, historical, social, and

cultural aspects that, together, contribute to creating a shared

sense of place. Sense of place is constructed from particular

interactions and mutual articulations of social experiences

embedded within subjective and emotional attachments

(Sack 1988; Agnew 1993; Massey 2006). Tuan (1975)

asserts that a sense of place is acquired by an experience or a

set of experiences in a place, constructed through the use of

all our senses and developed over time. To Relph (1976),sense of place is based on relationships between people in a

setting created through a variety of experiences. Both con-

cepts embrace embodiment and time passing to create a

sense of place experience.

Related concepts such as place attachment and place iden-

tity are reported in the literature as part of the phenomenon of

sense of place (Williams et al. 1992; Manzo 2003). To oth-

ers, sense of place is broader than place attachment (Hummon

1992; Butz and Eyles 1997; Hay 1998). Jackson (1994), for

example, uses the Latin term genius loci, translated as the

genius of a place to explain how, in classical times, the

genius loci was believed to be the spirit of a locality where a

whole community derived much of its unique quality

(p. 24). Our understanding of sense of place takes into

account thegenius loci, the atmosphere of place, as a shared

sense of the spirit of the place and relates it to its representa-

tion and expression as habitus. This shared spirit includes

place attachment, human-place bonding (Low and Altman

1992), and social context in relation to community ties and

ancestral connections (Hay 1998).

Stokowski (2002) emphasizes the socially constructed

nature of sense of place as it is mediated by and reproduced

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156 Journal of Travel Research 53(2)

and sustained through conversation with others. Narratives

perpetuate meanings and reinforce habitus (Kyle and Chick

2007) by confirming and validating symbolic meanings,

refreshing memories, renewing rituals, and reinforcing

myths and traditions (Hay 1998; Stokowski 2002). The

affective aspect of habitus as part of sense of place is explored

by Pile (2002), who suggests that we should be open to feel-ings and emotions to understand social sense of place.

Bourdieu (2002, p. 29) suggests that habitus is the best

example of the unity of human behavior as it reveals and

expresses manners and ways of doing things in terms of the

practicalities of life, in terms of affective engagements, and

in terms of expression and communication. Embedded within

social exchanges, habitus is a set of acquired characteristics

which are the product of social conditions that makes social

values explicit (Bourdieu 2002, p. 29).

Casey (2001a, p. 686) explains that habitus ties self to

place, working as the mediatrix of place and self as a

figure of between: above all, between nature and culture, but

also between consciousness and body, self and other.Bourdieu defines habitus as a system of dispositions, that

is, of permanent manners of being, seeing, acting and think-

ing, or a system of long-lasting (rather than permanent)

schemes or schemata or structures of perception, conception

and action (2002, p. 27). Beyond a system that produces

practices, habitus also produces representations that are

communally owned, collectively elaborated, and continu-

ally developed.

The above suggests sense of place as a combination of

social constructions interacting with physical settings. While

geographic location and physical landscape are tangible, the

meanings they engender, though often less tangible, are

equally significant in terms of personal and collective expe-riences, social interactions, and affective engagements.

Indeed, separating these elements fails to recognize that

together they create the habitus of the place, sometimes

intangible in terms of emotional bonds, but very tangible

when expressed by the ways things are done. As Bender

(2002, p. 106) suggests, different people, differently placed,

engage with the world in different ways. It makes the idea

of sense of place changeable, fluid, and unique for each place

(Stokowski 2002). Any guidance or principled approach to

place and destination branding would therefore always have

to be mindful that, if common core constructs existas we

suggest in this articlethe analysis of these constructs must

recognize unique sets of permutations that reveal particular

expressions of a place. These expressions, we believe, are

understood, experienced, and represented as habitus.

The destination branding literature suggests that places are

strategically marketed and deliberately positioned through

carefully orchestrated branding practices as attractive desti-

nations (Kavaratzis and Ashworth 2005; Gnoth 2007).

Presented as tourism products, this provides the opportunity

to experience the peculiarities and distinctiveness of places

that are different from those at home. Yet, there is only

limited insight into how to integrate places habitus and sense

of place into destination brands. This research aims to iden-

tify the core constructs that determine the sense of place; to

understand how these constructs influence the habitus of the

place; and to recognize their implications for place and desti-

nation branding. Given the objectives and purpose of destina-

tion branding, we believe that a brand that truly represents theplace requires concomitant representation within socially

agreed constructions that then deliver insights into the places

habitus to the brands target audience.

Research Design and Setting

We adopted a hermeneutic phenomenological methodology

that positions the researchers as being in and with the context

to create knowledge with the research participants through

shared experiences (Pernecky and Jamal 2010). We created a

hermeneutic circle through studying the historical, cultural,

and social background of the research setting, by co-constituting

the research process and data collection with participants andby establishing iterative criteria to validate our findings with

them (Holbrook and OShaughnessy 1988; Laverty 2003).

The research method was multisited ethnography (Marcus

1995; Ekstrom 2006; Davies 2008).

The research context is the Chatham Islands in New

Zealand, also known as the Chathams. The archipelago of

ten islands and an area of 966 km, located 800 km east of

Christchurch, has a population of 609 people (Chatham

Islands Annual Report 2011/2012), with an economy that

depends on pastoral farming, fishing, and an incipient tour-

ism industry. Two reasons are fundamental for selecting this

setting. First, the Chathams isolation from the New Zealand

mainland due to their geographic location, the culturalschism, the lack of transportation often affected by the cli-

matic conditions, and the small population provide the fea-

tures of an extreme case. According to Flyvbjerg (2006), an

atypical or extreme case reveals thicker and deeper informa-

tion because they can activate basic mechanisms in the situ-

ation studied and because they have the potential to engage

with more actors. We interviewed 9.4% of the total popula-

tion of the Islands. For our research problem, a context with

a controlled, more visible, and explicit series of external

influences seemed ideal. This helps by magnifying and mak-

ing explicit factors that account for particular outcomes

(Pondy 1979). Second, the two indigenous groups Mori and

Moriori, the Tourism Development Centre, and the Chatham

Island Trust (the Economic Development Agency) were

interested in developing a brand to add value to their econ-

omy. At the same time, the community was concerned with

preserving their cultural identity and lifestyle.

Data Collection

We relied on several data sources such as phenomenological

interviews, group interviews, and participant observation



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Campelo et al. 157

over a period of three years. Data collection spanned four

stages as illustrated in Table 1. The fieldwork comprisedthree trips of 7, 23, and 16 days, respectively. Overall, 42

interviews were conducted with residents and 12 with tour-

ists (Appendix A).

Data collection stage 1. We first developed our understanding

of the place by gathering archival data from external sources.

Desk research included books, historical documents, news-

papers, and reports from the Department of Conservation of

New Zealand. To supplement the limited amount of pub-

lished information, researchers identified five informants in

Dunedin who had lived in or had close working connections

with the Chathams. They provided us with descriptions of

habitus, lifestyle, local stories, and helped to draw a socio-cultural picture of the place. This practice of researching the

field outside the field continued throughout the data analysis,

with two research participants assisting in a recursive and

iterative analysis.

Data collection stage 2 (fieldtrip 1). In this stage, we focused

on perceiving and gathering information about the lifestyle

and habitus. Formulating a sense or an impression of the

place, in accordance with the phenomenological ethnogra-

phy developed by Merleau-Ponty ([1945] 2002), emphasized

the role of perception as an action of being-in-the-world. We

collected data, both real-time perceptions and retrospective

information, via participant observation during activities that

included visiting public venues to talk to residents and join-

ing a group of tourists for guided activities. Combining emic

and etic perceptions about the place, we enriched our own

sense of being-at-the-place.

The initial perceptions about the Chathams were recorded

in a research diary. The richest information in ethnographic

research is collected via informal and casual talks between

researchers and participants and by a reflexive ongoing pro-

cess experienced by researchers during fieldwork (Elliott

and Jankel-Elliott 2003). The research diary provided an

opportunity to provoke a personal ongoing conversationabout the experience and an important tool to enable reflex-

ivity throughout the many phases of the research (Nadin and

Cassell 2006). Entries in the diary were made frequently and

were motivated by observations, thoughts, and experiences

that might inform subsequent discussion.

Data collection stage 3 (fieldtrip 2). During the weeks on the

Chathams, we conducted 42 interviews, five of which were

group interviews, given that between three and four (see

Appendix A) people engaged in the conversation. The group

interviews were prompted by our hostess during our visits to

their houses. All the interviews assumed a phenomenological

approach as participants could choose the time and the venuethat seemed most convenient for them. Mostly, the inter-

views took place in their homes or places that they wanted to

go, and were frequently combined with some other kind of

activity or shared experience. For example, going for a walk

around the lagoon to hunt for fossilized shark teeth; going on

a food gathering trip to collect paua; having a picnic on a

historical site; going on a scenic drive and even visiting an

interviewees great grandfathers grave. In this context, the

interviews were phenomenological because they developed

their own momentum and the experiences were led by par-

ticipants who decided not only their duration but what they

wanted to share with us (Thompson, Locander, and Pollio

1989, p. 139).

Albeit following a phenomenological approach, we had a

Protocol of Research (Appendix B) where questions are

organized under six topics: Overall perceptions, Natural,

Cultural, Social, Economic, and Image. Even though our

philosophical stance was seeking to give voices to partici-

pants, this approach also required carving out unacknowl-

edged pieces of narrative (Fine 2002, p. 218). Instead of

assuming a question and answer dialogue, we (participants

and researchers) established a conversation, illustrated with

Table 1.Research Stages.

Research Stage Location Data Collection Technique

Data collection Dunedin Desk research

Stage 1 5 interviews

Data collection The Chatham Islands Participant observation

Stage 2: Fieldtrip 1 Period: 7 days Researchers diary

Data collection The Chatham Islands 42 interviews with residents

Stage 3: Fieldtrip 2 Period: 23 days 5 group interviews

12 interviews with tourists

Participant observation

Analysis 1

Data collection The Chatham Islands Workshop with participants

Stage 4: Fieldtrip 3 Period: 16 days Participant observation

Participants diaries

Analysis 2



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stories and personal perceptions, feelings, and thoughts.

Questions were framed as interventions, such as Tell us

about your lifestyle; What do you think is special in this

landscape?

We also employed participant observation to collect data

in this stage. Observation involves being in a situation to

gain impressions of what takes place, where the researcher is

actually the primary instrument (Jones and Somekh 2005). In

our encounters with residents, we observed habits and prac-

tices and with tourists to observe their reactions to local cus-

toms and engagement with surrounded environment. Theinterviews with tourists followed the same framework as the

Protocol of Research but focused primarily on their perspec-

tives. These took place in social venues and the data were

recorded using field notes. Although this study focuses on an

in-depth appreciation of sense of place as experienced by

residents, the insights gained from tourists perception

helped to complement and corroborate etic accounts. These

observations helped us to move backward and forward in our

reflexive attempts to better understand the experiences in the

field.

Analysis 1. We adopted thematic analysis as a construction-

ist method, which examines the ways in which events, reali-ties, meanings, experiences and so on are the effects of a

range of discourses operating within society (Braun and

Clarke 2006, p. 81). Considering that we intended to under-

stand meanings embedded in the way of doing things, and

the attributes that determine the sense of place, we opted for

a latent or interpretative level of analysis. Interpretive and

latent levels of analysis look to identify the underlying

ideas, assumptions, and conceptualizations that are theorized

as shaping or informing the semantic content of the data to

reveal meaningful themes (Braun and Clarke 2006, p. 84).

The process was recursive and iterative and led to the

establishment of 39 emergent codes (Figure 1). The codes

were collated within seven nodes (landscape, habitus, cul-

ture, unique, identity, social, images) based on connecting

points. The nodes collapsed according to similarity and over-

lap into four dimensions: Landscape, Human, Temporal, and

Representation. Analyzing these dimensions, the themes

started to emerge. Themes stand for a chain or a pattern of

responses and meanings across the data set. Following Braun

and Clarke (2006), our emergent themes become abstract

constructs because they represent a set of shared meanings.

As a statement that holds a variety of meanings, a construct

makes it possible for people to refer to this structure of inter-

twined meanings (Zaltman 2003).

Data collection stage 4 (fieldtrip 3). Aiming to validate our

analysis, we first organized a workshop with residents to

present our findings. Among the 12 people who attended the

workshop, 9 had been interviewed in stage 3 of this research.

The findings were accepted, confirmed, and validated with

no exemptions. Second, we distributed and discussed a

research report with participants who were not at the work-

shop but were previously interviewed. Third, four peoplewere asked to write a diary about their sense of place. Partici-

pants kept the diaries for 10 days, and only two participants

returned it. They were analyzed following the same frame-

work explained in the above paragraph and they further

informed our data as sources of corroboration rather than

offering novel insights. Last, during these two weeks we

were immersed again in the field, observing and having

informal conversations that confirmed our previous

perceptions.

Analysis 2. The aims of the second round of analysis were to

confirm and/or disconfirm previous findings, and to enrich

our understanding of the four themes. We compared the datacollected at stage 3 against our set of findings from the first

round of analysis. The analysis adopted a more deductive

approach confirming previous findings and clarifying the

data to generate deeper insights. We examined the partici-

pants diaries searching for evidences of the themes already

identified. This analysis also reflects the knowledge gained

in the field through participant observation as a hallmark of

interpretive depth in ethnographic research (Kozinets et al.

2010).

Findings

The constructs that emerged from the analysis represent a

pattern of responses and meanings across the data set. They

are not only intrinsically related to social reproductions but

also inherently to broader structures of meanings (Braun

and Clarke 2006). The constructs of Time, Landscape,

Ancestry, and Community are determined by the interac-

tions between the physical and social environments and

characterize the participants attitudes and their habitus. The

habitus influences and is influenced by these interactions

that shape culture and its manifestations, systems of beliefs

Figure 1.Analysis continuum.



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Campelo et al. 159

and practices, community organization, and the value and uti-

lization of resources. The constructs are discussed below, but

while they are presented separately for ease of explanation, it

should be noted that they overlap and are interlinked.

Time

Marking our experience of being in a place, time is influ-

enced by social and natural factors. Heidegger ([1924] 1992)

examined time related to past, present, and future in terms of

the how-of-being-in-the-world. Accordingly, the how is

stated as a result of social interactions conceptualized and

experienced differently by different societies (Lvi-Strauss

1963; Harvey 1990). The experience of peculiar and local-

ized concepts of time, together with natural influences (e.g.,

weather), determine the rhythm and pace of each place. The

concept of time on the Islands drives the rhythm of life,

impacting the behavior, attitudes, and expectations of the

people. Time has two dimensions for the Islanders: the

weather and the presence of the past in their lives. Because ofweather conditions, the Islands are often isolated for days

and, in fact, it is the determinant for time frames:

Life circulates around the weather, around the ship, which is

obviously weather dependent. . . . The lifestyle is all about

working around the weather. It doesnt depend on the clock. It

depends on the weather.(Donna)

The importance of the past influencing how-of-being-in-

the-world creates the second dimension of time. The pres-

ence of ancestry and history inform the present how in

their lives, promoting a direct link to the past:

You can feel the past so strongly here. In other places its like

its kind of obliterated or, the connections are broken. But here

you can go outside, just for a walk down the beach and you can

see evidence just there. Its in front of your eyes. I can feel the

past people living here. . . . Also, just in terms of how people live

here today and everything, it all goes back to the history of

whats happened.(Amanda)

While the influence of the weather remains a conscious

factor in life, making people more adaptable and flexible in

their day-to-day behavior, the presence of the past is perceived

in their habitus through the ways of doing things passed from

generation to generation. The connections with the past informthe how-of-being-in the world in terms of practices and social

responsibilities. Interviewees pointed to funerals as a particu-

lar experience and series of interactions that represent their

habitus. For example, certain families have specific duties and

responsibilities at funerals that have passed from one genera-

tion to the next. Everyone knows which family is responsible

for providing each type of support and contribution, their

duties, and what is expected of them:

When you have a funeral on the Chatham Islands, you see a lot

of ritual that has grown up, that has come down the generations.

For a start, the family will be supported by another family, they

might be related or not, but they will be supported by another

group who will undertake all the preparation. . . . There are

some roles in the community for some families and they are

doing these for generations.(Boris)

The experience represented by funerals illustrates how

the roles, responsibilities, and rituals established in the pastare continued today. It also demonstrates how the concept of

time based on the Heideggerian being becomes embedded in

the habitus. The past, is not a what, but a how (of doing

things) that informs the present, and, by extension, the future

how (Heidegger [1924] 1992). The influence of the con-

struct of time on the habitus of the Islanders includes both

the Heideggerian notion of how-being-in-the-world and the

concept of time as event-driven (Bender 2002). The account

of time on the Chatham Islands is a construct of time-reck-

oning governed by natural as well as cultural constraints.

The collective understanding of this construct reinforces the

local culture and the shared sense of place.

Ancestry

Ancestry is critical for the Islanders and creates a powerful

connection with history, land, rights, ownership, and belong-

ing. The lines of descendants and paths of genealogy are

clear and vital for the people of the Chathams, the majority

of whom are related to Moriori, Maori, or European settlers.

While these ethnicities have interwoven overtime, the stories

and memories of how and when this patchwork began are

well preserved and continuously perpetuated among the

community. Knowledge about their genealogy is considered

of high importance in the community to determine the senseof self and family identity, and to establish the right to and

the ownership of the land:

I know my ancestors are there or looking upon me, . . . there is

sense that is associated with being home with your whanau

(family). For those who have been, for those who are yet to

come. Thats how I feel about being a Chatham Islander, the

inter connection, that history.(Diva)

Efforts to maintain active links with the past and with

their ancestors are demonstrated in their habitus and the

meanings that influence peoples engagement with each

other and with the surrounding environment:

I belong to the Chatham Islands, because of ties of the

generations that um have lived here previous to me, going back

to that, 13th-14th century. I inherited some land, and it is my

life.(Anthony)

Ancestry defines history, constrains values, and imbues

culture with social capital. On the Chatham Islands, it pro-

vides what Bourdieu (1986) called a credential for

belonging to a particular community. Ancestry informs

peoples behavior in the reproduction of social relations, in



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political and organizational affairs. It affects the sense of

self and family identity, and the sense of belonging to the

place.

The combination of how-being-in-the-world is informed

by the past and enshrined in the present. It demonstrates that

ancestry is not only related to ownership, but embraces

inherited roles and responsibilities that continue connectingthe community. Even in relation to ownership, the ties that

bind are spiritual and obligatory:

I can only suggest that it could be the forebears that lived here

have never sold a place out or given it away to somebody else;

it has always been passed down. I inherited 300 acres from my

mother; what am I going to do with it? Am I going to sell it and

clear out? . . . It is just something that you cant do that with the

land here and the people thats given it to, has given their stuff

to you.(Gary)

The attachment to the land reinforces the links with their

ancestors, and provides the land and the landscape with cul-

tural significance. The presence of and inspiration from theirancestors in their habitus is perceived through the recogni-

tion, acceptance, and perpetuation of communal roles and

responsibilities. This inspiration not only creates new per-

spectives for the future but reaffirms the connection to the

past. The habitus carries the history of the place and, inextri-

cably, links the past to the present.

We do things according our tikanga (our way of doing things).

Tikanga encompasses the spiritual aspects of life, myths,

legends, and its a cultural thing. It is really our way of doing, of

practicing what we believe. We practice our tikanga all the time

without realizing it.(Brigit)

Landscape

The importance of the physical environment was highlighted

as a unique element of the Chathams. Landscape becomes a

meaningful social construction connecting and mediating

relations between people, land, and nature. These relations

are demonstrated through the strong connection with nature,

the cultural importance of the land, and its role as a commu-

nal larder.

Interviewees revealed a strong connection with nature as

an important bond in their lives and a durable tie to theircommunity. This bond becomes stronger in extreme places

where people need to rely more on natural resources, andwhere the harshness of the climate or roughness of the terrain

form the modus operandi of the people: I wouldnt say thatthe environment shapes the people; it would be more that the

people become one with the environment (Diva). And, even

more explicitly:

I have strong feelings to the place. I feel like Im part of it, and

it is part of me. . . . In the 10 years that I was married and living

away from here, I had nine miscarriages, and I put that down to

being unsettled, not happy because I wasnt here. Then I

returned home and everything has gone full circle again. I now

have two beautiful grown up children. So the place becomes

part of you and you become part of the place.(Tess)

The cultural importance of the land includes natural,

familial, and social history transforming the landscape into a

repository that links past to present, personal history to

ancestral, and to place history. It is through the landscape

that people experience the history of the place and their place

in the history. Some narratives demonstrate how the con-

structs of landscape and ancestry interweave and overlap:

I think what I love, and many Chatham Islanders will probably

say the same thing: I like to walk on ground where my great,

great, great grandfather walked.(Ben).

Community

The experience of shared cultural and social relations cre-

ates a communal sense of belonging, and the mutual under-

standing of these relations provides the characteristics of a

community. Collectively, humans develop a capacity toproduce and consume meanings of a place (Cresswell

2004) and it is these meanings that underpin peoples atti-

tudes towards and interactions between each other that

transform groups of individuals into a community. The

narratives that describe the community emphasize the idea

of a big family, close knit (George), which is indepen-

dent, self-sufficient, and self-reliant to the extent that they

strongly share the sentiment that although they are consti-

tutionally part of New Zealand they do not feel that emo-

tionally or practically they belong to it. The isolation,

combined with the harshness of the climate and their

unique cultural diversity, has developed a sense of inde-

pendence, resilience, and difference that defines how they

perceive themselves:

We are self-sufficient. Tolerant. You have to be tolerant. Because

there is just no point in getting annoyed that there are no lettuces

or fruits in the shop, you just have to go out and find something

else. Find some watercress or go and do a trade with someone.

You have just got to get around it.(Diana )

While the isolation creates a need to be independent and

self-sufficient, it also reinforces the ties within the commu-

nity with a clear understanding of the necessity to support

and accept, within clearly understood limitations, each others

differences:

People have to be strong here. You cant afford to take things for

granted. The community is small. We understand everyone is

different, and take everyone has different views. We have to rely

in everybody to make your life enjoyable and comfortable. We

might have different opinions in everything, on everything

probably. But we are compromised to work together. It is what

makes us survive.(Sue)

The construct of community reflects the communal

engagement with and understanding of the meanings



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Campelo et al. 161

portrayed by the constructs of time, ancestry, and landscape.

It is important to note that beyond the set of meanings held

by each construct that influences the construct of commu-

nity, it is the howof each set of meanings that matters most.

The how of social reproductions produces peculiarities of

habitus for each community and reveals the taste, flavor, and

sense of each place.

Discussion

Local Sense of Place and Destination Branding

The social, cultural, and natural attributes of the place

coalesce to influence its habitus (Bourdieu 1989; Casey

2001a, 2001b) and its uniqueness. On the Chatham Islands,

the habitus, as a system of disposition that entails a communal

sense of place, was revealed by understanding how being-in-

the-world was experienced and represented in the constructs

that determined their sense of place. Sense of place is in a

permanent state of cocreation through the social construc-tions and social reproductions of life in a physical setting.

These social reproductions are influenced by cultural and his-

torical ties, and by everyday experiences. The four constructs

of time, ancestry, landscape, and community that define sense

of place are recognized in all other places, but what matters is

how their permutations define sense of place based on con-

textual and culturally bounded significance. The meanings

for each construct depend on how they are socially created

and shared based on the particular interactions experienced

by a group of people living at a particular site. The set of

meanings of each construct is based on a communal under-

standing of how-being-in-the-world (Heidegger [1924]

1992). The how leads to particular ways of doing things inthat place, which is linked to the reasons they are done in that

particular way, and moreover, whythey have cultural signifi-

cance. To understand whatthe constructs are, howthey work,

and whythey are experienced and performed in that way is to

understand the habitus of the place (Bourdieu 1986).

The following model, presented in Figure 2, provides an

illustration of how the attributes from the physical environ-

ment interact with attributes from the social environment to

create constructs that determine the sense of place.

The habitus is created by the interactions identified in the

model and these are expressed by the ways of doing things in

terms of the practicalities of life (Hillier and Rooksby 2002).

Their significance and the meanings they represent create the

sense of place. The sense of place model, presented in

Figure 2, provides a basis to begin an investigation into the

set of meanings held by each of these constructs in other

places. It is important to make clear that it is not the presence

of the four constructs that shape the sense of place, but the

significance and meanings of each construct that determines

the sense of place. The application of this model to other

places should help to appreciate local social reproductions

and to understand better their cultural significance.

Understanding the constructs that determine sense of

place has important implications for the development of des-

tination and place branding. Recognizing the presence and

permutations of these constructs and howthey determine the

sense of place provides an understanding of the layers of

meanings upon which the uniqueness of each place is gener-

ated. Such understanding matters for developing an effective

and consistent destination brand that is both culturally cogni-

zant and socially informed. While the purpose of destination

branding is to strategically position places to be visited and

consumed, the development of this strategy requires a deeper

understanding of the peculiarities and distinctiveness of the

place to better represent its complexity. Sense of place ispeculiar and unique to each place. Consequently, it matters

in terms of defining brand meanings and representations, and

also in terms of establishing managerial practices that encap-

sulate a places habitudes. Therefore, the importance of

sense of place for destination branding is twofold.

First, the constructs that determine sense of place reveal

the habitus of the place in terms of the symbols, meanings,

and attributes that shape its identity and the behaviour that

represents its experience. Destination branding is a mode of

communication involving representations of this identity as

informed by a places culture, economy, history, and people

(Papadopoulos and Heslop 2002; Kotler and Gertner 2002;

Gilmore 2002). Given that brand meanings are socially con-

structed (Askegaard 2006) and culturally dependent

(Schroeder 2009), understanding the constructs that deter-

mine the sense of place helps to not only understand what

should be portrayed but also how it should be portrayed.

Brand meanings influence the fulfilment of expectations for

tourism experiences and impact the sustainability of brand

appeal.

Second, sense of place is related to habitus. According to

Bourdieu (1989, p. 19), habitus entails a sense of ones

Figure 2. Sense of place model.



10/14


place but also a sense of the place of others providing a

way of understanding different behaviors in similar places.

The constructs identified in this research reveal habitus in

terms of meaningful practices and particular ways of doing

things. As such, these practices should inform decisions in

terms of networking, brand management, and governance to

develop cooperation with local stakeholders who contributeto the destination brand experience.

The omission of sense of place from destination brand

would deprive the brand of significant social and cultural

meaning resulting in a brand image inconsistent with place

identity. Leaving residents aside in the branding process

would lead to a lack of recognition, acceptance, and commit-

ment by the local community affecting the quality of the

tourism experience. Ultimately, a farsighted strategic plan

for a destination and place brand should build on the day-to-

day practices of a place.

Importance for Destination Branding Strategy

The constructs of time, ancestry, landscape, and community

stand for a set of communal meanings that are imbued with a

particular way of doing things determined by historical,

physical, and natural factors. The constructs interact with

each other directly and indirectly, creating and re-creating

meaning. The meanings reside in the way personal and social

interactions are practiced, reinforced, and recreated in every-

day life, thus reinforcing the habitus of the community and

the ethos of the place. The sense of place model contributes

to destination branding strategies as a guide to investigate the

set of meanings within each of these four constructs in other

places and as a basis for the identification of new ones.

Destination and brand marketers should investigate thelayers of meaning of each construct to understand how, indi-

vidually and collectively, they contribute to the creation and

perception of sense of place. The model provides practical

guidance for marketers in assisting them with a tool that

helps to identify which elements might be considered in

developing a brand, and, more importantly, in understanding

howand whythese elements have cultural significance.

Time, for instance, differs qualitatively among different

societies (Harvey 1990). What is important is to understand

how cultural constraints determine each permutation of a

places sense of time (and vice-versa), and to recognize how

it impacts the social reproductions of place. Time as a con-

struct is locally created and understood in relation to local

cultural constraints (Bender 2002). This connection deter-

mines the frames of time and, consequently, establishes the

rhythm of a place. The implications for destination branding

would be related to how time impacts the lifestyle of the

place (traditional, modern, slow-pace, busy) and its signifi-

cance in the processes of social reproduction, communal and

collective practices, and behavior.

Ancestry is an important construct in terms of how gene-

alogy, tradition, and historical facts influence and inform the

contemporary practices of everyday life. For destination

branding, it relates to the notion of brands as sociocultural

entities (Cayla and Arnould 2008), culturally relative and

contextually and historically embedded. Destination market-

ers should investigate ancestry not only to understand con-

temporary practices but to comprehend symbols and the

images that exist in the repertoire of places culture. The con-struct of landscape influences sense of place by providing a

pictorial reference for place. It holds a set of meanings very

particular to and reflective of a group of people who engage

with that landscape in terms of emotional bonds that perme-

ate social and cultural meanings and activities. Mediating

between people and place, landscape reflects the way we

deal with our external, tangible, and visible world (Massey

1993) and forms part of our ongoing social exchange.

The interactions with landscape lead to practices that link

culture to particular locations and create meanings that are

both responses to the present and reflections of the past. It

matters for destination marketers to understand the possible

interactions between people and landscape, and consequentlyhow it can be related to tourism experiences beyond its role

in providing iconic or representative images.

The above constructs overlap influencing one another and

are represented in the habitus of a community. By exploring

these constructs, marketers would recognize the meanings

and characteristics of social interactions and social reproduc-

tions of a community.

Our recommendation for destination marketers is to apply

the model presented in this article to understand what consti-

tutes sense of place as an antecedent to developing a destina-

tion brand strategy. Also, the model should help to reveal

narratives, descriptions, images, and symbols that can be

used to design the brand communication. We believe thisunderstanding is a stepping stone for a consistent destination

brand because it positions the community at the heart of the

branding strategy. Conversely, a lack of connection between

destination brand and local sense of place threatens brand

sustainability and its authenticity.

Conclusion

This article discusses how destination branding should

begin by understanding sense of place as experienced by

local residents, and the importance of positioning their

voices at the heart of the branding strategy. The research

was focused, therefore, on those who are represented by the

brand and for whom its success is critical. This research was

conducted in a small community with a particular cultural

background and distinct historical and genealogical charac-

teristics. While the constructs identified in this research may

well have more general applicability, they need to be con-

firmed in different communities in terms of size and cultural

context.

The theoretical contribution of this article is to identify

the constructs that influence and determine the sense of



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Campelo et al. 163

place, and how they interact to create the sense of place. The

constructs of time, ancestry, landscape, and community

stand for a set of communal meanings that are imbued with a

particular habitude determined by historical, physical and

natural factors. The constructs interact with each other

directly and indirectly, creating and re-creating meaning.

The meanings reside in the way personal and social interac-tions are practiced, reinforced and recreated in everyday life,

thus reinforcing the habitus of the community and the ethos

of the place.

The managerial contribution is to provide a sense of place

model as a strategic guide to investigate the set of meanings

within each of these four constructs and their importance in

other places. The application of this model should help mar-

keters to understand attributes of social and cultural signifi-

cance in tourism destinations. While it may be expected that

those directly involved in the tourism sector might routinely

interact with their customers positively, the same may not be

said for those who are outside it. For local residents, it may

be that a brand which represents their habitus will encourage

a more constructive attitude towards their engagement with

tourists and enhance the quality of the tourists experience.

We believe that positioning the sense of place, as it is con-

stituted and experienced by residents, at the centre of the

brand strategy create an inclusive, collaborative, and effec-tive branding process. Therefore, it seems appropriate to give

the final words to our participants:

We are Chatham Islanders and we are quite proud to be that.

We think we are different. Not badly different. We are the

seventh generation in these Islands. . . . We have our own

culture. Our products are different, and they are more valuable

because they are from here. . . . We have something special and

I definitely want to see this in a brand . . . something that belongs

to here.(Douglas)

Appendix A

Participants Profile: Residents/Islanders

Interview Name Age Occupation Status

1 Richard 57 Farmer Resident

2 Boris 65 Judge of peace Resident

3 Sue 32 Conservation ward Resident

4 Ben 65 Fishing industry manager Islander

5 Bonnie 32 Housewife Islander

6 Gilbert 50 Manager Resident

7 Diva 48 Council officer Islander

8 Beth 30 Artist Islander

9 Brigit 40 Farmer Islander

10 Sandy 42 Community worker Islander

11 Gregory 45 Fishing industry manager Islander

12 Tess 62 Artist Islander

13 Danielle 41 Councillor Islander

14 Tina 37 Administrative officer Islander

15 Dora 62 Cafe owner Islander

16 Ron 54 Shop owner Islander

17 Kate 53 Teacher Islander

18 Rowena 42 Council officer Islander

19 Neil 25 Farmer Islander

20 Donna 45 Farmer Islander

21 Dart 58 Fishing industry worker Resident

22 Anthony 51 Deputy mayor Islander23 Peter 69 Mayor Islander

24 Oscar 56 Council manager Resident

25 Amanda 47 Tourist guide Resident

26 Martha 38 Retailer Islander

27 Gary 68 Farmer Islander

28 George 66 Carpenter Islander

(continued)

Participants Profile: Residents/Islanders

Interview Name Age Occupation Status

29 Victor 37 Hotel owner Islander

30 Lisa 62 Hotel owner Islander

31 Valentin 65 Hotel owner Islander

32 Kameron 58 Conservation manager Resident

33 Julie 60 Cook Islander

34 Nadia 42 Housewife Islander

35 Petra 38 Hairdresser Islander

36 Ellen 49 Farmer Islander

37 Rita 43 Farm stay owner Islander

38 Paul 50 Farm stay owner Resident

Group interview

1 Douglas 37 Fish man Islander

Bernard 40 Builder/tourist guide Islander

Diana 63 Housewife Resident

Felix 68 Farmer Islander

2 Bernie 70 Farmer Islander

Tim 72 Farmer Islander

Chris 32 Housewife Islander

John Fishman Islander

3 Stella 42 Farmer Islander

Lewis 45 Farmer Islander

Dave 21 Student Islander 4 Pauline 46 Backpacker owner Islander

Maria 49 Teacher Islander

Joanna 70 Farmer/housewife Islander

5 Jonas 47 Fish man Islander

Sophie 38 Conservation officer Islander

Lena 36 Conservation officer Resident



12/14


Participants Profile: Tourists

Interview Name Age Occupation

1 Melina 60 Biologist

2 John 53 Teacher

3 Romeo 65 Historian

4 Juliet 60 State agent 5 Patrick 62 Manager

6 Ronald 58 IT consultant

7 Clare 57 Teacher

8 Brent 58 Accountant

9 Francis 39 Surveyor

10 Allan 50 Property developer

11 Ross 52 Car dealer representative

12 Laura 50 State agent

Appendix B

Research protocol

Purpose: Identify and understand the attributes that contributeto determine a sense of place.

Overall Natural

Tell me about the ChathamIslands

Can you name your 3 favouriteplaces here? Why are theyspecial?

What is the lifestyle here? What do you think is special inthis landscape?

What is the CIs community? What is different and/or specialin CIs flora?

What are the benefits ofliving here?

Which elements are morerepresentative for CI?

Why do you like living here? What do you think about the

relationship between humanand nature here?

What do you dislike here?

Why do you chose live here/or stay here?

What do you think is specialor unique here?

Cultural Social

Can you tell me anyparticular story related tothe culture of the Islands?

What do you think about peoplehere? Are they friendly? Careabout others? Creative? Easy-going?

What do you think is thespecial heritage of the CI?

How do you think the familiesinteract with each other?

Do you know any particularmyths or beliefs?

Can you say an attribute orquality about the families hereand the community?

What you can say about theancient heritage? Can yourecognize the differentkinds of heritage?

Which values are associatedwith CI families, people, andcommunity?

What do you think themixture of races contributeto the identity of CI peopletoday?

(continued)

Research protocol

Economic Image

Can you tell the difficultiesof selling your products(overseas/ mainland)?

What is your image of CI? Andabout their people?

Can you tell me about your

work process?

How do you think CI and their

people are perceived on themainland?

What do you think about thelevel of professionalism ofyour employees?

What image of CI do you wantto have projected?

How do you improve thequality of your products?

What would be your ideal imageof CI in the eyes of NZs?

How is the collaborationbetween business peoplehere? Tell me about thequality of this interaction.

Can you choose from theelements here (birds, sea life,landscape, weather . . .), whichone most represents theisland? Why? Which attributesyou recognize as import in thiselement?

In your field/industry, is therestrong competition? How isthis competition expressed?

If you can choose a color for theisland, which one do you thinkwould match most with CI?Why?

What image do you believeyou are projecting on themainland?

What kind of image do youwant to project?

What is missing from theimage projected today forthe desirable one?

Acknowledgment

The authors thank Professors Constantine Andriopoulos, Sren

Askegaard, and Jonathan Schroeder for their insightful comments

and the editor and reviewers for their helpful feedback.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with

respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this

article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, author-

ship, and/or publication of this article.

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Author Biographies

Adriana Campelo is a lecturer at Cardiff Business School at

Cardiff University, UK. Her main research interests are branding,

place marketing and marketing communications.

Robert Aitken, is an Associate Professor at University of Otago,

Dunedin, New Zealand. His research interests include place mar-

keting, branding and advertising.

Maree Thyne is an Associate Professor at University of Otago,

Dunedin, New Zealand. Her research interests include tourism mar-

keting and consumer behavior.

Juergen Gnoth is a Professor at University of Otago, Dunedin,

New Zealand. His research interests include tourism services mar-

keting and place marketing.
http://jtr.sagepub.com/

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