Journal of sustainable product design

8/12/2019 Journal of sustainable product design

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TheJournalofSustainableProductDesign

ISSUE7 :OCTOBER1998

ISSN13676679

Re-THINK

Re-FINE Re-DESIGN

Re-PAIR


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Re-THINK

Re-FINE Re-DESIGN

Re-PAIR

Light-plant

afunctionalreminderof

resourceuse

Innovation,

page52

Truncatedtwo-way actuators

Analysis,page26

Sketchof seven

part plywoodjig

Gallery,page37

Arclamp

Analysis page41

Kindof Bluechair,

constructiondetail

Analysis page41


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5 Editorial

MartinCharter,Joint Editor,TheJournalof SustainableProduct Design

Analysis

7 Eco-innovationsanovelphenomenon?

GlennJohanssonandThomas Magnusson,PhDstudents,InternationalGraduate

Schoolof Management andIndustrialEngineering,LinkpingUniversity,Sweden

19 Eco-effectiveproductdesign:thecontributionofenvironmental

managementindesigningsustainableproducts

DrMichae lFrei,EnvironmentalOff icer,ABBPowerGenerationLtd,Switzerland

30 Activedisassembly

JosephChiodo,ResearchScientist,CleanerElectronics Research,BrunelUniversity,

UK;ProfessorEricBillett ,ChairinDesign,BrunelUniversity,UK;andDrDavid

Harrison,LecturerintheDepartment of Design,BrunelUniversity,UK

Galler

y41 Sustainablefurniture

Interview

54 PeterJames,Director,SustainableBusinessCentre,UK

MartinCharter,Joint Coordinator,TheCentreforSustainableDesign,UK

Analysis

42 Experimentsinsustainableproductdesign

Stuart Walker,AssociateProfessor,Faculty of EnvironmentalDesign,

TheUniversity of Calgary,Canada

Innovation

57 Theeco-kitchenprojectusingeco-designtoinnovate

Chris Sherwin,DrTracy BhamraandProfessorStephenEvans,

CranfieldUniversity,UK

O2 news

60 Sustainabledesignwebsite:linkingpeople,ideasandtools

MartinCharter,Joint Coordinator,TheCentreforSustainableDesign,UK

61 Reviews

63 Diaryofevents

1998 TheCentreforSustainableDesign.

Allwrittenmaterial,unless otherwise

stated,is thecopyright of TheCentre

forSustainableDesign,Surrey,UK.

Views expressedinarticles andletters

arethoseof thecontributors,andnot

necessarily thoseof thepublisher.

ISSN13676679

TheJournalofSustainableProductDesign

ISSUE7 :OCTOBER1998


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Processtoproduct

Anumber of countries arestarting to explore environ-mental policies based on prod-ucts rather than processes thiswas highlighted in a recentreport commissioned by DGXIon Integrated Product Policy(IPP). The report defined IPP as:

Public policy which explicitlyaims to modify and improve theenvironmental performance ofproduct systems. (SPRU, Ernstand Young, 1998)

However, as yet the EU does nothave a clear position on whatIPP means for European businessand how/if or when it will beimplemented. DifferentEuropean countries will havedifferent levels of preparednessfor the shift of the policy focusfrom process, eg.waste minimisa-tion and cleaner production toproduct, eg. eco-design.

Greenwalls

To enable eco-design and SPDDwill require solutions to soft aswell as hard problems, eg.organisational and technological.Hitting the Green Wall' is aconcept formulated by RobShelton of Arthur D. Little. Itsuggests that organisations can

progress environmental projects

to a certain point, eg. eco-design, but unless the benefits ofthe initiative are translated intobusiness benefits to key internal

and external stakeholders eg.product managers, marketingmanagers, customers and suppli-ers, then projects will go nofurther. For example, anexcellent eco-design will fail ifthe designer cannot sell it to theproduct manager.

Good communications areessential. Environmental

management is the driving forcebehind eco-(re)design (existingproducts) and eco-innovation(new products) with informationpercolating down to designers(engineers) through checklists,guidelines and software (Charterand Clark, 1996). At present,there generally appears to belittle buy-in to the processfrom other internal stakeholders.However, if there is not buy-infrom other key businessfunctions eg. marketing, theneco-design is unlikely to beintegrated into mainstreamproduct development.

Innovationandcreativity

A number of the issues high-lighted in the IPP report relateto the sustainable consumption

debate currently beingprogressed by the Commissionon Sustainable Development(CSD) and the United Nations

Environment Programme(UNEP):

market creation

product innovation.

To create markets for more eco-efficient products will requirethe development of greenermarkets through the increasingspecification of environmentalcriteria in domestic, business

to business, retailer and govern-ment procurement policies.However, there is an Action-Awareness gap particularlyamongst domestic customers;why? premium pricing? qualityconcerns? poor distribution? areall issues. In addition, under-researched products/markets arealso key factors in the lack ofmarket penetration. In domestic

markets, retailers have consider-able power. In business tobusiness markets the need forinvolvement of role playersthroughout the supply chain isoften ignored however engage-ment of all internal and externalstakeholders in the process willbe essential for successful eco-efficient product or servicedevelopment. There is a clear

need for market education.

EDITORIAL

5OCTOBER 1998 THE J OURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

Welcome to the seventh issue of

The Journal of Sustainable Product DesignMartinChartern

Joint Editor,TheJourna lof SustainableProduct Design


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Nortel (Prentis, 1998) areapproaching this issue by organ-ising environmental presenta-

tions within customerworkshops. This provides a dualpurpose involving both market-ing and customers in the greendebate. An example, of wherethis approach might be useful iswith purchasing managers. Astudy (see JSPD 6, p19) recentlyindicated that IT buyers saw theinclusion of recycled materials inproducts as lowering the prod-

ucts value. There is an educationjob to be done of informingcustomers that recycled can be asgood as virgin material. If theseissues are addressed in the ideageneration/concept developmentphase of product developmentthrough involvement of keystakeholders then it is morelikely that greener products orservices will be successful from

a business perspective.

Newtools

Even allowing for the economicproblems in South East Asia,there appears to be growinginterest in LCA as a strategicmeans to determine the environ-mental impact of products.However, a range of European

companies seem to be movingtowards the need for simplertools to enable quicker decision-making. It is unlikely that design-ers want to be seen as specialistsin environmental issues, but theyneed the right information. InEurope there seems to be agrowing interest in the eco-

design process and managementsystem implications. WhereasSouth Eastern Asian companies

seem to be looking at LCA andquick-fix software solutions, amix of longer-term and immedi-ate-term thinking. Europeancompanies may find experientallythat the bias to action, maygenerate more appropriatesystems and tools to enableprogressive eco-(re)design andeco-innovation. A key commonfocus for the development of

eco-design internationally mightbe an international standard,similar to ISO 14001.

Andfinally

This issue of the journal drawstogether articles that illustratethe potential of eco-innovationfrom both a macro and microperspective. The article by

Johansson and Magnusson ofLinkping University (Sweden)examines the relationshipbetween innovation theory andeco-innovation using examplesof shifts occurring in the car andlawn-mower sectors (p7). Freifrom ABB (Switzerland) high-lights that there is a needfor clear goals for eco-effectiveproduct design and to be success-

ful it should be integrated intoproduct development (p16).

The article on active disassem-bly (p30) by Chiodo, Billett andHarrison of Brunel University(UK) illustrates the potential forre-thinking disassembly usingsmart materials. Walker's article(p42) gives an illustration of a

localised consumption andproduction view of SPDD witha range of practical industrial

design cases. Sherwin, Bharmaand Evans of Cranfield University(UK) give an interesting insightinto the application of eco-innovation principles to kitchendesign using an example of aproject undertaken withElectrolux (p57). The interviewwith Peter James of theSustainable Business Centre (UK)draws together some of the

current thinking over thecomplexities surrounding therole of products and serviceswithin the sustainable consump-tion and production debate(p54). Finally, the O2 pages (p60)highlight a number of newdevelopments in France andthe Netherlands.

EDITORIAL

6 THE JOURNA L OF SUSTAINABLE PRODU CT DES IGN OCTOBER 1998

ReferencesSPRUat theUniversityof

Sussex

andErnst &YoungLtd,

IntegratedProduct Policy,

commissionedbyEuropean

Commission:DGXI,March1998

Charter,M.andClark,T.,

DesignforEnvironmentsurvey,

TheCentreforSustainab le

Design,UK,December1996.

Prentis,E.,Customersthe

forgottenstakeholder ,Towards

Sustainab leProduct Des ign,3rd

Internationa lConference,2627

October1998,London,UK,

organisedbyTheCentrefor

Sustainab leDes ign,UK.


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ANALYSIS

Ithasgenerallybeenacceptedthat

inordertoreachsustainability,

significantchangeswillhaveto

takeplace.Eco-innovationsie.new

productsandprocessesproviding

customervalue,whileusingless

resourcesandresultinginreduced

environmentalimpacts,arethere-

foreofgreatimportance.Onthe

basisofselectedpartsofthe

existinginnovationtheory,this

articleexplorestheeco-innovation

phenomenon.Thetheoryisused

toanalysetwoexamplesofeco-

innovation;thestrugglebetween

steelandaluminiumtotheapplica-

tionoflightweightcarbodies,and

thedevelopmentoflawnmowers

withimprovedenvironmental

performance.Theanalysisshows

thatinnovationtheoryisusefulfor

creatingabetterunderstandingof

theconceptanddevelopmentof

eco-innovations.Itistherefore

concludedthattheinnovation

theoryshouldbepartoftheframe

ofreferencewhenanalysingand

managingeco-innovations.

Introduction

In 1987, the World Commissionon Environment andDevelopment (1987) introducedthe concept of sustainable devel-opment. The transformation

towards sustainability requires

participation of many differentactors including governmentsand communities, consumers andindividuals, corporations andenterprises; creativity and inno-vation is needed at every levelof society (Jackson, 1996). Theimportance of technologicalinnovation in this transforma-tion process has been underlinedby many authors (see eg. Stahel,1996; Fussler and James, 1996;Jackson, 1996). Eco-innovations,ie. new products and processeswhich provide customer andbusiness value but significantlydecrease environmental impacts(James, 1997), have attractedincreased attention both inindustry and academia. Thepurpose of this article is toexplore existing innovationtheory in relation to the eco-innovation phenomenon. Thequestions are whether existinginnovation theory is applicableand if it is useful for creating abetter understanding of theconcept and development ofeco-innovations.

Theeco-innovationconcept

Technological innovations cancontribute to reduced environ-mental impact. For example, the

new high voltage generator

GlennJohanssonholds anMScin

MechanicalEngineeringfromChalmers

University of Technology,Gothenburg.

Healsoholds aLicentiateof Engineering

degree;t itleof thelicentiatethesis:

DesignforDisassembly A

Framework.Glenns current research

focuses onhowtointegrateandmanage

eco-designinindustrialproduct develop-

ment.BeforebecomingaPhDstudent at

theInternationalGraduateSchoolof

Management andIndustrialEngineering,

LinkpingUniversity,hespent ayearat

theSwedishInstituteof Production

EngineeringResearch.Hehas alsotwo

years of industrialexperiencedesigning

equipment andconstructionparts

forpaperandboardmachines.

Thomas Magnussonholds anMScin

IndustrialManagement andEconomics

withspecialisationinInnovation

Management.Hehas twoyears of

experiencewithinthefieldof eco-

design,completingappliedresearch

at theSwedishInstituteof Production

EngineeringResearch.Afterthat he

joinedtheInternationalGraduateSchool

of Management andIndustrial

Engineeringat LinkpingUniversity.As a

PhDstudent t iedtothedivisionof

IndustrialManagement,heis currently

focusinghis researchoneco-designand

eco-innovationas astrategy forincre-

mentalandradicalchange.

Eco-innovations

a novel phenomenon?GlennJohanssonandThomasMagnussonn

PhDstudents,Internationa lGraduateSchoolof Management

andIndustrialEngineering,LinkpingUniversity,Sweden


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ANALYSIS

called the Powerformerdeveloped by Asea Brown Boverisignificantly reduces environ-

mental impact compared toexisting alternatives. Theefficiency is improved comparedto existing generators and thelife cycle assessments (LCAs)conducted on it have shownclear advantages. Another exam-ple is the durable printer drumsin laser printers developed byKyocera Electronics. The durableprinter drum eliminates material

and energy consumption used inthe production of replacementdrums (Fussler and James, 1996).A third example is theSentricon Colony EliminationControl System for termitecontrol. This system uses oneten thousandth of the amountof active chemicals present instandard termite barriers (Fusslerand James, 1996).

However, innovation does notalways reduce the energy andmaterial intensity or pollution.Innovation can offer profit at theexpense of increased environ-mental burdens. Therefore, it isimportant to assess the environ-mental consequences, positive aswell as negative, of every inno-vation. The Eco-compass devel-oped at Dow is a simple tool forassessing environmentalimprovements which can be usedto encourage the developmentof eco-innovations (Fussler andJames, 1996). The Eco-compasshas six dimensions, all represent-ing relevant environmentalissues: health and environmentalrisk, resource conservation,energy intensity, materialsintensity, revalorisation

(remanufacturing, reuse and

recycling), and service extension.These six dimensions can beused to assess innovations

according to their environmentalmerit. For example, the develop-ment of lead-free tin soldersreduces health and environmen-tal risks by eliminating the toxiclead, the development of lightand energy efficient compactcars reduces the energy intensity,and the application of design forrecycling guidelines improvesthe revalorisation dimension.

Innovations should be assessedin all dimensions to ensure thatthe environmental merit in onedimension is not counter-balanced by increased environ-mental impacts in anotherdimension. The Eco-compass isuseful to make this assessmentvisual and is easy to understand.It is also useful to identifypossibilities for improvements

and to stimulate environmentalcreativity. The Eco-designstrategy wheel (Brezet et al,1997) and the concept ofMaterial Intensity per Unit ofService (Schmidt-Bleek, 1996)are other examples of toolswhich can be used in a similarway as the Eco-compass.

Innovationtheory

To be able to analyse thequestion as to whether existinginnovation theory is applicableand useful for creating a betterunderstanding of the eco-inno-vations it is necessary to presenta framework for the analysis.This section gives a brief intro-duction to selected parts ofinnovation theory, which will

serve as a basis for the analysis inthe next section. The focus is on

the parts of the theory whichprovide managerial implicationsfor individual companies by

studying innovation and tech-nology as phenomena in anindustrial context.

The introduction begins with theS-curve model (Foster, 1986)which describes the develop-ment of, and competitionamongst, technologies. Themodel provides a picture of howtechnical performance isimproved over time and howdiscontinuities arise as a resultof the entrance of new tech-nologies. Following the S-curvemodel, the model of Abernathyand Utterback (1978) suggestshow the patterns of innovationchange as an industry sectormatures and how companies maychange themselves to fosterinnovation. The Transiliencemap (Abernathy and Clark, 1985)provides a more dynamic modelwhich can be used to analyse thecompetitive implications ofinnovations. Finally, the conceptof technological bandwagons(Wade, 1995) helps to illustratehow the market success of atechnology or a design arises.

Altogether the models presentedin this section highlight two

essential determinants of innova-tion, namely the technology andmarket aspects. As innovation,by definition, deals with both thenovelty of the technology andthe commercial use of it (see forexample Dussauge et al, 1996),these aspects are central to inno-vation theory. The selected partsof the innovation theory can beused for developing an under-

standing of these aspects and thisis vital for the ability to manage


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ANALYSIS

innovation.

S-cu

r

vesand

pa

tte

r

ns

ofinnovation

According to Foster (1986) tech-nology develops over time in apattern which can be illustratedas an S-curve. The initial phaseof the development of a tech-nology is characterised byknowledge acquisition andlimited effectiveness of the newtechnology. As knowledge is

built up, the technologicalperformance is improved. Thedevelopment is driven bynumerous incremental innova-tions, which continuouslyimprove the performance of thetechnology until its technicallimit is approached. However,technical progress is not onlycharacterised by incrementalimprovements, but also by

discontinuous advance (Tushmanand Rosenkopf, 1992). Thesetechnological discontinuitiesconstitute rare and radicalinnovations which involvefundamentally different ways ofdoing business. A technologicaldiscontinuity can be seen as ajump between two S-curvesrepresenting alternative andcompeting technologies. The

distinction between incrementalinnovation (which refine andimprove existing products andprocesses) and radical innova-tion (which introduce totallynew concepts) is a centralnotion in innovation theory(Dussauge et al, 1996).

Complementary to the S-curvemodel, Abernathy and Utterback(1978) use a model to explainhow the pattern of innovation

evolves over time as an industrysector matures. Companies tendto develop and adapt to fit the

different phases in the innova-tion pattern. In the first phase,the fluid pattern, the innova-tions are mostly radical, whilethe innovations become moreand more incremental as thecompany develops from a smallentrepreneurial unit to a large-scale producer. The developmentof a dominant product designtypically relates to a shift from

radical to incremental productinnovation. In the fluid patternproduct innovation dominates,but process innovation becomesincreasingly influential as theindustry sector matures. Thecompanies are typically technol-ogy-based and flexible, workingin great uncertainty with smallincentives for large investments.Later on, in the second phase

denoted as the transitionalpattern, where the uncertaintiesabout markets and targets arereduced, companies make largerinvestments in R&D and theycan be described as science-based. In the third and lastphase, the specific pattern,the companies become fullyspecialised and focused on costreductions. As an industry sector

becomes more and morespecialised, the companiesbecome tied to the technologyon which their production isbased. Therefore, major productchanges that originate fromwithin a specialised companytend to be rejected. Insteadmajor product changes tend tooriginate from companiesoutside the established industry

sector.

Technical

progressisnot only

characterised

byincremental

improvements,

butalso

by

discontinuous

advance.These

technological

discontinuities

constitute

rareandradical

innovations

whichinvolve

fundamentally

different ways

of doing

business.


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ANALYSIS

Impactontechnology

andcompetition

The notion about incrementalversus radical innovation is takenone step further by Abernathyand Clark (1985) introducing theTransilience map. Transiliencemeans the capacity of an innova-tion to influence the companiesexisting resources, skills andknowledge. These authorschallenge Shumpeters (1942)view of innovation as the

process of creative destructionand argue that although tech-nological innovation imposeschange, this change need not bedisruptive for a company. Theyclaim that innovations mayeither disrupt or entrench exist-ing competencies. Whereasradical innovations disrupt andmake existing competenceobsolete, incremental innova-

tions conserve and entrench theexisting competence. In theTransilience map these twoopposites are applied on twodifferent dimensions: the tech-nology/production and themarkets/customer linkage. Fourquadrants representing differentkinds of innovation are distin-guished, Architectural,Revolutionary, Regular and

Niche Creation, each havingdifferent competitive impact andeach requiring different organi-sational and managerial skills.

Regarding the developmentof a technology, Wade (1995)discusses the concept of tech-nological bandwagons. Thisconcept suggests that the supporta technology achieves in thetechnological community is

decisive for its success and itsdiffusion. As a new technology

is introduced the addition ofnew community membersproduces a bandwagon effect and

thus the position of the newtechnology is strengthened.

Thedevelopmentof

eco-innovations

Is the framework provided bythe existing innovation theoryrelevant for eco-innovations?As a basis for this discussion theexample of the struggle between

steel and aluminium in the appli-cation to light weight car bodiesis used. Additionally, examplesof eco-innovation derived froman analysis of the developmentof lawn mowers with improvedenvironmental performance arediscussed (Bragd, 1997).

Steel technology versusaluminium technology

The emissions from carscontribute to, among otherthings, the greenhouse effectand should therefore beminimised. Consequently, reduc-ing a cars petrol consumptionduring use has become of greatimportance, and a key issue inthis effort is to reduce the carsweight. Because of aluminiumslow density, the use of

aluminium in car body designsmay provide an opportunity toreduce the emissions produced.Some car producers have showninterest in using aluminium carbodies and thus the aluminiumproducers see potential to reachnew markets. The quality of thematerial needs to be furtherdeveloped, but the potentialseems to be substantial.

Aluminium in the car bodyapplication can be seen as a

new and promising technologywhich fulfils the requirementsof a radical eco-innovation.

In response to the demand forlight weight car bodies, steelproducers are developingmaterials which are lighterthan existing steel, while stillhaving all the other propertiesrequested. In the UltraLight SteelAuto Body (ULSAB) project, 35companies within the steelindustry have co-operated todevelop high strength steelwhich reduces the weight of thecar (Recycling, 1998). The devel-opment and use of high strengthsteel may be seen as an incre-mental eco-innovation builtupon established technologies.

Today it is not possible toanalyse if steel has the potentialto reduce environmental impactand be competitive to alumin-

ium. However, the strugglebetween steel and aluminiumcar bodies illustrates someinteresting aspects of the devel-opment of eco-innovations.

The aluminium technology isin its infancy in the applicationto car bodies but it maychallenge steel technology inrelation to its environmentalperformance. The reaction

of the steel producers is toprotect their position bymaking improvements to theirtechnology which illustrates acommon response fromcompanies that rely onestablished technologies (asdescribed by Utterback, 1996).

If car producers decide toshift to aluminium technologyit may be seen as jump to a

new S-curve. This jump wouldillustrate a radical innovation


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ANALYSIS

in the car body design with thenew S-curve representing thedevelopment of the aluminium

technology. Although some attempts have

been made to use aluminiuminstead of steel, the band-wagon effect as described byWade (1995) cannot yet beidentified. Nevertheless, theconcept of technologicalbandwagons seems relevant.If the aluminium technology isaccepted, a community of car

producers using aluminium maybe established and the band-wagon effect may arise.

The development of highstrength steel entrenches exist-ing competencies in car bodydesign and manufacturing, buta shift to aluminium technol-ogy may destroy existingcompetencies. Although somecar producers have showninterest in aluminium carbodies, the breakthrough foraluminium may take quite awhile (if it ever happens)because it may not onlydestroy the competence amongsteel producers, but among thecar producers as well.

The discussion in point 1 and 2is illustrated in Figure 1.

Green lawn mowers

In an analysis of the develop-ment of green lawn mowers atHusqvarna AB the importance ofmarket differentiation andmarketing strategy for greenproducts was identified (Bragd,1997). If Bragds results arecombined with the Transiliencemap (Abernathy and Clark,

1985), the capacity of differentkinds of eco-innovations to

influence the companysresources, skills and knowledgecan be understood. As discussedabove, the Transilience mapillustrates four different kinds ofinnovations, each having specificcompetitive impact, eachinfluencing the technology/production and markets/customer linkages differently,and each requiring specificorganisational and managerialskills.

Through many years of experi-ence in the engineering industry,

Husqvarna AB developed compe-tence in mechanical engineering.The companys lawn mowers hadtraditionally been based on thecombustion engine technology,which is regarded as a dominantdesign in the gardening industry.Husqvarna AB developed severalapplications of the catalysttechnology for small engines.The application of the catalytic

converter improved the combus-tion technology by reducing the

odour and the amount of harm-ful substances emitted into theair. In addition the generalenvironmental profile of theproducts has been improved.Because the environmentalperformance of the combustionengine has been improved theapplicability of the companysexisting knowledge has beenreinforced. However, thecatalytic converter has notaffected the way the lawnmowers are used and thus thecustomers have not needed tore-learn how to use the lawnmowers. The improved environ-mental performance combinedwith no changes in customer usehas resulted in strengthened tieswith established customers andimproved service in the estab-lished application. Because thecatalytic converter has strength-ened the existing technologicalcompetencies and customerlinkages it can be classified as aregular innovation in theTransilience map.

environmentalperformance

time

steel techno

logy

ste

eltech

nologyhighst

rength a

lumi

niumte

chnology

Figure1:Thealuminiumtechnology cha llengingthestee ltechnology inthe

applicationof light weight carbody designs (afterUtterback,1996).


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ANALYSIS

Husqvarna AB has also developeda new battery-powered lawnmower with positive environ-

mental features such as noexhaust fumes and low noiselevels. The battery-poweredmower represented a completelynew technology for the companyand demanded new technologi-cal skills. This was recognised bythe management and therequired competence wasacquired externally. However,the dimension of the

Transilience map focusing onthe influence on markets andcustomer linkages was notrecognised. Existing distributionnetworks and traditional market-ing strategies were used and theproducts potential to attractenvironmentally consciouscustomer groups was notidentified. The analysis by Bragd(1997) shows that the new prod-

uct required new knowledge ofthe customers and thus re-education of the customers wasneeded. Furthermore, the distri-bution network had to learn newpractices and the demands ofthe service and the after marketsupport changed substantially.Applying the Transilience mapon this example, it is clear thatthe battery-powered lawn

mower was treated as a revolu-tionary innovation whichdisrupted existing technologicalcompetencies, but maintainedthe existing market and customerlinkages. However, the producthad the characteristics of anarchitectural innovation, withthe ability to disrupt the existingcustomer linkages and attractnew markets.

In addition to the battery-powered lawn mower,Husqvarna AB developed a solar

lawn mower, which is a robotthat mows at random withouthuman intervention (Bragd,1997). The product originatedfrom a prototype presented byan inventor at a trade fair in 1991.The technology of using day-light as fuel totally eliminatesthe emissions produced duringuse and can therefore be charac-terised as a radical step towards

environmentally sound products.To Husqvarna AB the solartechnology was an entirely newtechnology outside of existingcompetencies and this requirednew expertise. As a result of theinnovativeness of the project,several external consultants anddistributors wanted to participatein the generation of the tech-nology. Offering a completely

different way of mowing grassthe solar mower requiredcustomers to change theirperceptions of how to cut grass.The analysis performed by Bragd(1997) shows that the marketinghad to be based on symbolicaspects, which had to be visibleto the customer ie. modern andfuturistic. Another lesson learnedfrom the introduction of the

solar mower was that themarketing department tried tocover too many markets at thesame time. Market researchshould have been conductedbefore the launch, to identifymarket segments to focus on,and the product should havebeen tested on a referencemarket. Another finding by Bragd(1997) is the importance of

finding suitable forms of

distribution that fit the require-ments of the products charac-teristics. From a marketing

perspective the solar mowershould not have been treatedas a mainstream product, but asa special product in communica-tion and selling tactics. Relatingthe solar mower to theTransilience map it is clear thatthe product was seen as arevolutionary innovation, ie.the solar technology was newto the company, but the product

was not treated differently inrelation to market linkage.However, like the battery-powered lawn mower the solarmower had the characteristics ofan architectural innovation andshould clearly have been treateddifferently from a marketingperspective.

In Figure 2, the examples of thelawn mower with catalytic

converter, the battery-poweredlawn mower, and the solarmower are illustrated in theTransilience map. The solarmower and the battery-poweredlawn mowers represent the samekind of innovation (architecturalinnovation) but the solar mowerhas more radical impacts on thetechnology dimension as well asthe market/customer dimension.

Discussionandconclusions

It seems that eco-innovationsfollow the same pattern asillustrated in Abernathy andUtterbacks model (1978) whichstates that major product changesrarely originate within matureindustry sectors. The solarmower is an example of this

phenomenon, because the


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ANALYSIS

product originated from aninventor outside the maturegardening industry. The solarmower also illustrates the resis-tance among companies basedon established technologies toadopt new technologies, becausewhen the product's inventor

presented the prototype at atrade fair, the whole industrylaughed and argued that therewas no market for such a thing(Bragd, 1997).

However, Abernathy and Clark(1985) argue that companies andindustry sectors can de-mature asa result of changes such as newtechnological options, changesin customer demands, and

government policy. Althoughrejected when first presented, the

solar mower illustrates that aradical eco-innovation can beexploited by a company within amature industry sector.Husqvarna saw the new solartechnology as an opportunity tocreate an image of the companyas being innovative (Bragd, 1997).

The solar mower, being slightlyless radical than the battery-powered lawn mower, illustratesthat a company in an establishedindustry sector can benefit fromnew technological options todevelop radical eco-innovations.The aluminium car body isanother example, where thealuminium industry, due toenvironmental demands from

the car producers, has seen theopportunity to move to moreradical modes of innovation.

nichecreation

regular revolutionary

architectural

lawnmowerswithcatalyticconverter

conserve/entrenchexistingcompe tence

disrupt existing/createnew linkages

thebattery-poweredlawnmowerasit wasconsidered

thesolarmowerasit wasconsidered

thebattery-poweredlawnmowerasit shouldhavebeenconsidered

thesolarmowerasit should

technology/production

conserve/entrenchexistinglinkages

marke

ts/cus

tomer

l

i

nkage

disrupt obseleteexistingcompetence

havebeenconsidered

Figure2:Thelawnmowerwithcatalyticconverter,thebattery-poweredlawn

mower,andthesolarmowerplacedintheTransiliencemap(afterAbernathy

andClark,1985).

Theba ttery-

poweredlawnmower

il lustra testhat

acompanyin

anestablished

industry

sec

tor

canbenefit

fromnew

technical

options

todevelop

radicaleco-

innovations.


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ANALYSIS

New technological options, envi-ronmental customer demandsand government policies result

in changed conditions for thecompanies. Those who learn toanticipate, interpret and corre-spond to these changes will beable to create competitive advan-tage. A company can eitheradopt a re-active position andjust achieve minimum demands,or choose a pro-active positionin order to exceed or pushdemands. An empirical study by

Bianchi et al (1997) revealed thatcompanies adopting a re-activeposition usually develop incre-mental eco-innovations in orderto comply with specific externaldemands, whereas pro-activecompanies accomplish incre-mental as well as radical eco-innovations. Adopting a pro-active position seems to be a keyfactor for companies in estab-

lished industry sectors if they areto accomplish radical eco-inno-vations. In order to achievecompetitive advantage managersin pro-active companies commit-ted to environmental issuesshould support the developmentof eco-innovations, for example,by implementing environmentalpolicies, promoting environmen-tal sound ethics, and shaping

reward systems which supportenvironmental creativity.

The successful pursuit of differ-ent kinds of innovation requiredifferent kinds of organisationaland managerial skills. Classifyingthe eco-innovations according tothe Transilience map mayprovide insight into differentaspects of eco-innovation andhelp to better understand the

capacity of eco-innovations to

influence the companys existingresources, skills and knowledge.The battery-driven lawn mower

and the solar mower exemplifiesthat classifying eco-innovationsaccording to the Transiliencemap may be useful when plan-ning for the launch of the prod-ucts. These products were viewedby the management as revolu-tionary innovations, but shouldhave been seen as architecturalinnovations emphasising theneed for new market linkages.

The market dimension of neweco-innovations is very impor-tant as discussed by Bragd (1997).Bragds analysis of the two lawnmower examples shows thatunderstanding the marketdimension and the buyingbehaviour of the existing andpotential customers is veryimportant when introducingenvironmentally sound products.

This is congruent with Abernathyand Clarks (1985) statement thatarchitectural innovationdemands unique insight aboutuser needs combined with theability to see the application ofthe technology in a new way.Thus, it is clear that the aware-ness of the kinds of innovationthe company is managing iscritical, as this awareness is a

prerequisite for being able toadjust the organisation and themanagement practises accord-ingly.

This article also has shown thatradical eco-innovation maydisrupt existing competenceand make it obsolete. The needfor products with significantlyimproved environmentalperformance may provide major

opportunities for pro-active

companies (as discussed by Hart,1997), but it may also result inmajor threats for established

industry sectors. The strugglebetween the steel and thealuminium technologiesillustrates this, as the need forlighter car bodies and theintroduction of new light-weightmaterials threatens to disrupt thecompetence of the establishedsteel industry.

The concepts of organisationalcommunities and technologicalbandwagons (Wade, 1995)deepen the understanding of thediffusion patterns for new tech-nologies. The lesson to belearned is that organisationalsupport is just as important astechnological superiority. So,even though environmentallysound products and services maybe desperately needed, superiorenvironmental performance is

not enough. Organisationalsupport is necessary to gainmarket acceptance. Awarenessof this should mean that pro-active companies can createbandwagons of environmentallysound technologies.

This article has shown that theexisting innovation theoryprovides a useful framework for

creating a better understandingof the concept and the develop-ment of eco-innovations. Forexample, the theory providesinsight into the competitionbetween technologies, factorsaffecting market diffusion andmarket success and the impactsof different innovations on acompanys skills, and knowledge.Hence, it can be concluded that

innovation theory can andshould be part of the frame of


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ANALYSIS

reference when analysing andmanaging eco-innovations. Themodels and tools provided by

the innovation literature canserve as support for thecompanies when managingeco-innovations.

This paper has only scratchedthe surface of the eco-innova-

tion concept. Consequently, it isnot possible to state that theframework represented by exist-

ing innovation theory helps tofully understand all aspects ofeco-innovation. On the contrary,the discussion in this articlereveals many interestingquestions that need to be further

elaborated. One such question ishow to relate the environmentaldimension of innovations, ie.

the environmental performance,to traditional performancemeasures such as price,functionality, and technicalperformance.

Abernathy,W.J,ClarkK.B.

Innovation:Mappingthewindsof

CreativeDestruc tion,inResearch

Policy,Number14,(1985),pp3-22

Abernathy,W.J,Utterback,J.M.

Patternsof IndustrialInnovation,in

TechnologyReview ,(June/July

1978),pp.41-47

Bianchi,R.,Noc i,G.,Pozzi,C.,

Priano,A.Ana lysingbas icpa tterns

of environmentalinnovationwithin

va luecha ins

,Proceedings

o

f the

4th

Internationa lProduct Development

Management Conference,

(Stockholm,1997)

Bragd,A.Learningfromtheintro-

duc tionof greenproducts:twocase

studiesfromthegardeningindustry

inTheJournalof Sustainab le

Product Des ign,Issue3,(July1997),

pp7-17

Brezet,Het alECODESIGNa

promisingapproachtosustainable

productionandconsumption,

(UnitedNa tionsPublica tion,UNEP,

1997)

Dussauge,P.,Hart,S.,Ramanantsoa ,

B.Stra tegicTechnology

Management,(Chichester,John

Wiley&Sons,1996)

Foster,N.TimingTechnologica l

Transitions,inHorwitch,M.(ed.)

TechnologyintheModern

Corporation:AStra tegic

Perspective ,(PergamonPress,Inc .,

1986)

Fussler,C.,James,P.Drivingeco-

innovation-Abreakthroughdisc i-

plineforinnovationandsustainab il-

ity(London,PitmanPublishing,1996)

Hart,S.L.Strategiesforasustain-

ableworld

,in

Harvard

Business

Review ,(January-February1997),pp

66-76

Jackson,T.Ma terialconcerns-

Pollution,profit andqua lityof life,

(London/NewYork,Routledge,1996)

James,P.TheSustainab ili tyCirc le:

anew toolforproduct development

anddes ign,inTheJournalof

Sustainab leProduct Design,Issue2,

(July1997),pp52-57

Recycling,Nummer3,(He lsingborg,

IndufaFrlagAB ,1998)

Schmidt-B leek,F.Dematerialisation

-FromConcept toPractise,inAFR-

report 136,(Stockholm,1996)

Schumpe ter,J.A.Cap italism,

Soc ialismandDemocracy,

(Cambridge ,HarvardUniversity

Press,1942)

Stahe l,W.R.Conditionsof demand

andsupplywithdematerialisationas

akeystrategy,inAFR-report 136,

(Stockholm,1996)

Tushman,M.L.,Rosenkopf,L.

Organisationa lDeterminantsof

TechnologyChange:Towardsa

Soc iologyof TechnologyEvolution,

inResearchinOrganisationa l

Behaviour,Vol.14,(JAIPress,1992),

pp.311-347

Utterbac

k,J.

M.

Mas

tering

the

Dynamicsof Innova tion,(Boston,

Massachuse tts,HarvardBusiness

SchoolPress,1996)

Wade,J.Dynamicsof

Organisationa lCommunitiesand

Technologica lBandwagons:an

Empirica lInvestiga tionof Community

EvolutionintheMicroprocessor

Market,inStra tegicManagement

Journal,Vol.16,(1995),pp.111-133

WorldCommissiononEnvironment

andDeve lopment,OurCommon

Future ,(OxfordUniversityPress,UK,

1987)

References


16/68


ANALYSIS

DrMichae lFreiworked

as aresearchfellowinthe

Eco-Performancegroupat the

InstituteforIndustrialEngineering

andManagement (BWI)of the

Swiss FederalInstituteof

Technology (ETH)inZurich,

Switzerland.His mainresearch

fieldwas environmental

management andsustainable

product design(SPD),resulting

inaPhDoneco-effective

product design.

SinceJuly 1998 hehas been

theEnvironmentalManagerat

ABBPowerGenerationLtd.

(Switzerland).

Eco-effective product

design: the contribution ofenvironmental managementin designing sustainableproducts

DrMichaelFrein

EnvironmentalManager,ABBPowerGenerationLtd,Sw itzer land

Inresearch,asinpractice,thereis

oftenaweaklinkbetweenenviron-

mentalmanagementandproduct

design.Tosolvethisproblem,

environmentalaspectsshouldbe

integratedintotheearliestdesign

phases.Eco-effectiveproductdesign

aimstosystematicallyestablishand

implementgoalsinproductdesign

withtheaimofimprovingenviron-

mentalperformance.Thesegoals

shouldbebasedonsignificant

environmentalaspectsofthe

productsandtakeintoaccount

environmentalrequirements.The

paperincludesacasestudyasan

exampleofeco-effectiveproduct

design.

Introduction

Companies increasingly haveto consider the environmentalaspects of their activities in orderto improve their environmentalperformance. For a companywhich designs products, designactivity plays an important part inthis task. Design defines the prod-ucts environmental impact overits total life cycle and any

improvement in the productdesign process will mean that

environmental performance can beimproved. Many companies arestarting to recognise this, but thereare few examples of the systematicintegration of environmentalaspects in product design.

The goal of eco-effective productdesign is to close the gap between

environmental management andproduct design (Frei 1998). Toenable this various goals shouldbe set eg. the avoidance ofhazardous materials, reduction ofemissions during manufacture orincreased eco-efficiency. Eco-effective product design focuseson the systematic developmentand usage of these goals insustainable product design (SPD)

(Figure 1).In environmental management andSPD the term eco-efficiency' isoften used. However, it is impor-tant to make a distinction betweeneffectiveness and efficiency.Effectiveness can be defined as ameasure of goal achievement andefficiency as the amount ofresources used to reach the goal.Therefore eco-effectiveness' can

be defined as the systematicderivation and usage of goals to


17/68


improve environmentalperformance (Frei 1998).

Themissingenvironmental

orientationofproductdesign

Increasingly, companies areimproving the environmentalperformance of processes,

however products are not beingimproved. A study was carriedout in the Autumn of 1997amongst 42 Swiss companies,producing electrical andmechanical products (Freiand Waser 1998). The resultsreinforce the problem oftranslating environmental

aspects into product design. Mostof the companies studied had asignificant level of environmen-

tal consciousness and therelevant technical knowledgeto design more sustainableproducts. However, only afew companies have definedenvironmental goals for productdesign and have a process inplace which integrates suchgoals.

The research indicated thatthere are significant differencesbetween those companies whichhave achieved ISO 14001, thoseapplying for the certificate andthose which have not achieved it(Figure 2). The latter has a lowenvironmental consciousnessand SPD is accordingly lessimportant. Companies whichintend to apply for a certificateshow about the same level ofenvironmental consciousnessand knowledge as certifiedcompanies. The weak point isthe development and usage ofenvironmental goals in productdesign, even amongst ISO 14001certified companies. Only about50% of the certified companiesdefine such goals, and less than20% show a product designprocess which systematicallyintegrates these goals. This result

is somewhat of a surprise,because ISO 14001 requires thatgoals be defined based on thesignificant environmental aspectsof the products (ISO 14001,chapter 4.3.3; cf. Frei et al. 1998).

Basicsofsustainable

productdesign

Sustainable product design(SPD): a systemic approach

SPD is part of a socio-technical

environmentalmanagement

environmentalaspectsof products

product des ign

eco-effectiveproductdesign

environment-orientedgoa ls

ear lydes ignphases

Figure1:Thegoalof eco-effectiveproduct designis tointegrateenvironmental

management andtheenvironmentalaspects of products inthedesignprocess

pre-condition:product design

environmentalconsciousness

significanceof sustainabledesignrecognised

technica lknowledgeava ilable

env.-orientedgoalsdefined

processwithintegratedenv.-orientedgoals

100

100

100

40

92

94

30

30

85

82

7776

20

15

53

18

0

0envi

ronmental

ori

e

ntati

on

of

product

desi

gn

numberof compan ies(%)0 20 40 60 80 100

not cer tifiedplannedtocer tifycer tified

Figure2:Missingenvironmentalorientationof product designinpractice

(FreiandWaser1998)

numberof companies(%)100%areequivalent with:

17 certifiedcompanies 13 companieswhoplantocertify 10 not certifiedcompanies


18/68


system (Figure 3). It is importantto remember that product designdefines the physical productsystem which causes environ-mental impacts and which maycontribute to environmentalproblems. These results are

perceived by internal and exter-nal stakeholders, which results inrequirements for product design.Only sustainable products whichhave a high customer acceptancecan replace less sustainableproducts.

Product design also defines theproduct system covering thewhole product life cycle. Forexample, material and energyinputs and outputs in theproduct system cause key envi-ronmental impacts. Theseimpacts contribute to environ-mental problems like globalwarming, which are perceivedand assessed by different stake-holders. The designer has tomake the right' green decisionsduring the design process andtherefore should be aware of the

significant environmentalaspects of any new product.

It is also important to be awareof the role that the environ-ment' plays within the company.For eco-effective product designto progress it is crucial that thecompany sees environmentalaspects of products as an impor-tant means for cost savings ormarketing.

Five principles of sustainableproduct design

For SPD to be successful, theabove mentioned systemicc0nsiderations have to be takeninto account. The main conclu-

sions can be summarised in fiveprinciples (Frei 1998):

Concentration on the productfunction: the task of productdesign is to develop functionseg. the car's function is toprovide a transport solution.Therefore, environmentalimpact always has to be relatedto the product's function (cf.functional unit in ISO 14040).

On the other hand, thefunction often already definesthe most significant environ-

mental impact of a product eg.the emissions of a car becauseof its petrol consumption.

Consideration of the wholeproduct system: the productsystem describes the productlife cycle (cf. ISO 14040).The basis of SPD is life cycleengineering limitation ononly one or a few phases, likerecycling is not acceptable.

Consider environmental impacts:SPD has to consider the poten-tial environmental impact ofany new product based onthe product function and thewhole product system. Thenecessary knowledge can begained by analysing existingproducts. General checklists areof no help in this situation.

Considering environmentalrequirements from stakeholders andthe company: sustainableproducts have to be credibleto stakeholders, eg. customers.Therefore, environmentalrequirements of internal andexternal stakeholders must beconsidered.

Integration into the design process:SPD can only be successful ifenvironmental aspects aresystematically integrated intothe regular design process (cf.Lenox and Ehrenfeld 1997). Forthis integration, environmentalgoals are crucial.

The previously mentionedresearch study highlighted thatthe problem lies in theapplication of these principleswithin organisations.

Figure3:SPDinanorganisationalcontext


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20/68

of products cause their mainenvironmental impact duringtheir usage (so-called active'products) because, eg. of theirenergy consumption.

The integration of environmentalaspects into the design process.poses a problem. In the early

phases where the mostimportant decisions are made only little knowledge is availableabout the potential environmen-tal impact of the product. Tosolve this problem, the environ-mental aspects of a referenceproduct should be evaluatedagainst various technical, envi-ronmental and economic criteria.The reference product must be

essentially similar to the newproduct with regard to itsfunction and attributes.

To evaluate the significantenvironmental aspect of aproduct the environmentallearning cycle' can be used (Freiand Zust 1997), which is basedon the principles of Life CycleAssessment (LCA) (cf. ISO14040). The environmentallearning cycle' represents a cycleof six steps (Figure 6).

Definition of the function: thecycle starts by defining func-tions of the reference product.The function has to be seenfrom the customer's point ofview. Therefore, a functionalunit, which is a measure of theperformance of the functional

output of the product system,must be defined (ISO 14040).

Modelling the product system:based on its function, theproduct system has to bemodelled. For related products,all product life phases must beconsidered.

Material and energy flows: everyproduct system generatesmaterial and energy flows and

the inputs and outputs of thesystem have to be evaluated.

Environmental impact: the materialand energy flows have animpact on the environment.These flows must be describedin terms of elementary flowsinto the environment (ISO14040).

Impact assessment: the environ-mental impact must be assessed

against its influence on envi-ronmental problems. The

ANALYSIS


above Figure5:Flushingsystem

(Source:Geberit Ltd.)

right Figure6:Theenvironmental

learningcycle'todeterminethe

significant environmentalaspectsof products (FreiandZust 1997)

The

environmental

stra tegygives

theframework

foreco-

effective

product design

bydefining

environmentally

-oriented

stakeholder

requirements.


21/68

definition of environmentalproblems is not only influencedby the environment but also

by society, customers and thecompany. In addition, environ-mental problems can changeover time and according tolocation a fact which has tobe taken into account in impactassessment.

Causal analysis: the connectionbetween environmentalimpact and the function orcomposition of a product mustbe investigated. The result ofthe causal analysis are thesignificant environmentalaspects of the product.

OCTOBER 1998 THE J OURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN

ANALYSIS

21

Figure7:Therelativeenvironmentalimpacts of threerepresentativeproducts of a

sanitary company overtheirproduct lifecycle(Frei1998,datafromGerber1997).

Example:flushingsystem

Theconcept of theeco-effec tive

product designisillustratedusing

thedesignof anew flushing

system(Figure5).Keyinternaland

externalrequirementsthat haveto

betakenintoaccount inc lude:

thereductionof thewa ter

usedforflushing

theusageof PolyvinylChloride

(PVC)duetopressuregroup

concerns

environmentalconsiderations

be ingacen tra lmarketing

fea tureforthenew flushing

system.

Evaluationofthesignificant

environmentalaspects

Theenvironmentallearningcirc le'

was appliedtoeva luatethe

significan t environmentalaspects

of aflushingsystem(Gerber1997,

Fre i1998).Thefunctionof the

product was definedasthe

flushingof atoilet over50 years.

Therefore,not onlythephysica l

product was considered,but also

thewa terconsumptionduringthe

usagephase.

Based

on

this

function,theproduct systemwas

modelledwitharound45

processesovermaterialdep loy-

ment,production,usageand

disposal.Toeva lua teandassess

theenvironmentalimpac t,the

BUWALmethodwithecopoints(BUWAL1990)andEco-Indica tor

'95 (Goedkoop1995)wasused.The

result of theassessment shows

that 95%of allenvironmental

impac t resultedfromwa ter

consumptionduringtheusageof

theflushingsystem(cf.Figure7).

Asecondenvironmentalaspect

althoughlessimportant isthe

generalsupplyof materialsand

the irdisposal.Anadditiona lfac tor

resultsfromtheuseof brasswhen

assessedwithEco-Indica tor95.

Tosummarise ,thereare three

significan t environmentalaspects

of theflushingsystem:

wa terconsumptioninthe

usephase

materialintensity(we ight)

useof brass.

Productplanning

Themaininternalandexternal

environmentalrequirement of the

flushingsystemistominimise

wa terconsumptionduringtheuse

phase.Tominimisethewa ter

consumption,atechniquewhichallowstheusertose lec t two

different flushingquantitieswas

addedtothelist of requirements.

Thisresultedinabout a40%

reductioninwa teruse.

Design

Des igncan bestructuredintotask

clarifica tion,conceptua ldesign,

embodiment des ignandde tail

des ign.Intaskclarifica tion,the

requiremen

twas

to

reduce

wa

ter

consumptionduringitsusephase.

Duringtheconceptua ldes ignthe

significan t environmentalaspect

wasaddressed,eg.thefunction

of flushing'.Theembodiment and

detaildes igndea lt with,among

othersthings,themechanismfor

thetwoflushingquantities;andthe

detaildes ignof theflushingmech-

anisminc ludedmaterialse lec tion.


22/68

ANALYSIS

THE JOURNA L OF SUSTAINABLE PRODU CT DES IGN OCTOBER 199822

In a case study, the environ-mental learning cycle' wasapplied to analyse the significantenvironmental aspects of thewhole product spectrum of asanitary company (Gerber 1997,Frei 1998; Figure 7). Twelvereference products were defined.The figure shows the relativeenvironmental impacts for threerepresentative reference prod-ucts over their life phases. Theresult shows the biggest environ-mental impact was during mater-ial deployment for the waterpipe, during the usage phase forthe flushing system (because ofthe water consumption) andover the whole production chainfor the installation system(mainly because of transporta-tion). Overall, the impacts fromthe production phase were smallcompared to the product's wholelife cycle. The case clearly showshow concentrating on theproduction would have been thewrong strategy for improving theenvironmental performance ofthis company.

In a second case study, the

environmental impacts of signal

and power cables were analysed(Seipelt 1998, Frei 1998). Theresults could be clustered inthree groups (Figure 8):

signal cables for datatransmission (with thesignificant environmentalimpact in material deployment)

power cables (with the biggest

impact through energy loss inthe usage of the cable)

moved cables, eg. built intocars, trains or aircraft (whichincrease the energy consump-tion of the vehicle becauseof their weight).

This example illustrates thatcertain measures, eg. dematerial-isation, can be appropriate in

some cases (signal cables) andinappropriate in others (powercables) eg. dematerialisationwould increase power losses. Itis especially important to distin-guish between active' products,ie. products which cause envi-ronmental impacts during theirusage (like power cables andmoved cables), and passive'products, which have no impactin the usage phase.

Productplanning:definition

oftheeco-effectiveness

During product planning, eco-effectiveness is defined by draw-ing up a list of requirements.This list defines how the internaland external environmentalrequirements and the significantenvironmental aspects of thereference products should betaken into account. In a firststep, the requirements arecollected, in the second, the

product life cycle is brieflymodelled and in the third, theresult is fixed in the list ofrequirements (Figure 9).

Collecting environmentalrequirements: internal andexternal stakeholders and theidea of the product itself defineenvironmental requirements.

Modelling the product life cycle: thegoal of the second step is a

systematic check of require-ments. To achieve this, theproduct life cycle is brieflymodelled and theconsequences of different vari-ations assessed againsttechnical, environmental andeconomic criteria. Using thisprocess, the environmentalimpacts of all requirements areconsidered not only the

environmental elements. Thebasis for the modelling of theproduct life cycle is theenvironmental learning cycle'.

Drawing up the list of requirements:the results of the previous stepare recorded in the list ofrequirements. The significantenvironmental aspects of theproduct therefore build anintegral part of the list of

requirements and should be

Figure8:Therelativeenvironmentalimpacts of cables overtheirproduct

lifecycle(Frei1998,datafromSeipelt 1998).


23/68


ANALYSIS

23

automatically taken intoaccount in the design process.

Design:translating

eco-effectiveness

To achieve eco-effectivenessvarious design strategies, such asprolonging product life, demate-rialisation or recycling can beused. It is, however, essentialthat these design strategies arenot an end in themselves butconceived to fulfil the above-

defined goals (cf. Alting andLegarth 1995). The aim of designshould be to translate eco-effectiveness efficiently.

Applying eco-effectiveproduct design

To apply eco-effective productdesign, a process of changewithin the company is necessary.The environment' has to be

recognised as strategicallyimportant. SPD is not primarilya technical task, but a newcapability which concerns theorganisation as a whole (cf.Lenox and Ehrenfeld 1997).

The organisations ability tolearn is essential for the applica-tion of eco-effective productdesign. Therefore, value systems,so called local theories theway people involved in theprocess think about environmen-tal topics plays a crucial role.Organisational learning is theresult of changes of localtheory' that result from theinterplay between the individualand organisation on one hand,and action and learning on theother (Baitsch et al. 1996; Muller-Stewens and Pautzke 1994);

designers learn about SPDthrough their actions

individual experiences arebrought into the organisationand are discussed; the local

theory' on SPD changes knowledge gained is used todesign new structures, toolsetc. in order to improve thedesign of sustainable products,

the institutional knowledge(corporate culture) of theorganisation influences, in itsturn, individual action andexperience.

Based on these reflections onorganisational learning (espe-cially on Baitsch et al. 1996) andsystems engineering' (Zust 1997)a procedure to apply eco-effective product design has beendeveloped (Frei 1998; Figure 10).

Complete an analysis of thedesign process, internal andexternal stakeholders,environmental requirements,

environmental problemsresulting in the significantenvironmental aspects of the

products.

The goal should be to integrateenvironmental aspects into the

product design process eg.defining environmentally-orientated goals for everyproduct in all relevant designphases. The goal definitionprocess has to include all stake-holders involved in the process.By confronting these peoplewith different views, thechange process related to thelocal theory' can be stimu-

lated. The new, common localtheory should build the basisfor the goal definition.

The organisation, tools and thedeployment of the employeesinvolved in an eco-effectiveproduct design should beplanned. The initial planningsteps can be repeated severaltimes.

In the final stages of eco-

effective product design,special attention has to be paid

Figure9:Product planningwiththesteps Collectingenvironmentally-oriented

requirements',Modellingandoptimisationof theproduct lifecycle'and

Drawingupthelist of requirements'(Frei1998)


24/68


to the training of employees.

The implementation of a eco-effective product design

process, should already includerecommendations about thefurther development of thedesign process.

Conclusion

There appears to be a gapbetween environmental manage-ment and product design. Theempirical study shows that this

is true even amongst environ-mental leaders. The goal of theconcept of eco-effective productdesign is to close this gap andshould be based on a systemicapproach to SPD and its fiveprinciples.

Eco-effective product designtakes environmental aspects intoaccount in the early phases ofdesign. Its focus is on thesystematic development andusage of goals in product design.The aim is to improve the

environmental performance ofproducts. These goals are basedon the environmental require-ments of all stakeholders and onthe significant environmentalaspects of the products.

The environmental impact ofthe product, as well as theperception of its impact by

stakeholders should always beconsidered. Increasingly,technological, environmental,economic and social aspectshave to be integrated in SPD.Therefore, it is important to

develop integrated organisationalsystems to manage thisprocess.

Figure10:Proceduretoapply theeco-effectiveproduct design(Frei1998).


25/68


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Energie-und

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der

Firma

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schaft lichesInstitut (BWI)derETH

Zrich,Zrich.

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EngineeringSystematischdenken,

handelnundumsetzen.Ver lag

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References


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ANALYSIS

27

Introduction

This paper reports initialresults in the application of

SMA and SMP smart materialdevices to the active disassemblyof assembled consumer elec-tronic products. The smart mate-rials considered in this study arealloys of Nickel-Titanium (NiTi),Copper-Zinc-Aluminium(CuZnAl) and SMP made frompolyurethane. In this novel formof disassembly, two distinctapproaches can be taken whenplanning the eventual disman-tling of a product. The devicescan either be incorporated intoexisting product designs (retro-fitted) or incorporated in theproduct during the design phase(design for active disassembly).Since this was an initialinvestigation, the feasibility ofretrofitting the devices toassembled products has beenexplored. The design of thedevices, cost effectiveness, rangeof permissible ambient tempera-tures and triggering temperaturesare each considered key parame-ters to be improved in futureresearch. In this work, generalheat sources (vector air andsteam jet) between 60100C(140212F) were employed toraise the devices above theirtriggering temperatures. Afterthe full run of experiments,observations were made detailingoutline design guidelines as astarting point to the currentwork. The entire process is bestlabelled as active disassemblyusing smart materials (ADSM).

Backgroundthe

sustainablesociety

In order to move towards asustainable society which iswithin the carrying capacity ofthe planet, a drastic revaluationof the throw away consumersociety is required (Henderson,1996). Crucial to this movetowards sustainability is thereduction of extraction andprocessing of resources, particu-larly raw materials and energy

derived from fossil fuels.Predictions of the necessaryfactors of improvement varyextensively from four to twenty(Chiodo, Ramsey, Simpson,1997). Achieving these largefactors will require a combina-tion of lifestyle changes,significant breakthroughs intechnology and different designprocesses for problem solving.

Designers have a key role toplay in Factor X reductionsin material and energy use.

A typical design process rangesfrom the early stages of conceptgeneration to the later stages ofrefinement. In the early stagesthere are opportunities forsignificant improvements,whereas the later stages canfocus on incremental improve-

ment. This later stage is typicallyaccomplished by engineers.

Theimportanceofrecycling

Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) hasdemonstrated that in manyproducts, the disposal phasecontributes significantly to theoverall environmental impact

Figure1:Candidateproduct f itted

withatriggered1-way actuator

Figure2:TriggeredNiTiactuator

displacement forproduct separation

Figure3:Aftersuccessfuldisassembly

experiments

Figure4:Beforeexperiment,actuators

insidesemi-transparent product


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ANALYSIS


of the product (Hawken, 1993).This is particularly the casewhere a product contains toxicmaterials (ECTEL, 1997), scarceor valuable materials, or materi-als with a high energy content.

Waste from Electrical andElectronic Equipment (WEEE)often combines all three of thesesituations; for example, toxiclead solder, cadmium batteries,precious metals and quality plas-tics. Furthermore, the quantityof this waste is rapidly increasingas the number of electronicproducts in our lives growsdramatically. In 1998 the EU was

expected to produce 6.5 to 7.5million tonnes per year of WEEE

(AEA Technology, 1997), whichrepresents approximately 1% ofthe total EU solid waste stream(ECTEL, 1997).

This problem is common in the

G7 countries and is leading tovarious take back laws such asobligatory return for large andsmall appliances in theNetherlands in 1999 and 2000respectively (Boks, Nilsson,Keijiro, Suzuki, Rose, Burton,1998). The draft EU take backdirective states that 7090% byweight (depending on the typeof waste) of End of Life electri-cal and electronic equipmentwill have to be recycled (EU,1998). In Japan, the Appliance

Figure5:Truncatedtwo-way actuators placedincalculatorbeforeexperiment

Figure6:Fulltwo-way actuators placedinsecondcalculatorbeforeexperiment

TheEUdraft

ta

kebac

k

directivestates

that 7090%

byweight of

endof life

electrical

and

electronic

equipment

wil lhaveto

berecycled.


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ANALYSIS

29

Recycling Law is to be ratifiedin 1998 with take back to beimplemented on TVs, refrigera-

tors, washing machines and air-conditioning systems in 2001 andcomputers in 510 years (Bokset al, 1998).

These changes will oblige manu-facturers to dispose of theirproducts at end of life (EOL),and therefore, create an incen-tive to manage this as efficientlyas possible.

Designfordisassembly

Serious research into disassemblybegan in the early 1990s.Currently, the only options arehand disassembly and roboticdisassembly or the combinationof the two. Both approacheshave had only limited success.There are profitable and versatiledismantling facilities using handdisassembly with simple mechan-ical aids such as hammers anddrills. However, the proportionof each product recycled is rarelyvery high and there are technicaland physical limitations on thesize, speed and safety of theprocess (Boks, Templeman,1997). Robotic solutions haveproven to be costly andinflexible, requiring productspecific programming, objectorientation and vision recogni-tion systems. Moreover, thespeed of disassembly is notsignificantly improved frommanual disassembly. However,robotic disassembly is still underserious investigation, particularlyin Japan.

Consequential advantages would

be realised if a rapid and simplegeneric process for product

disassembly was developed thatwas not product specific. Ideallysuch a process would be initiated

by a simple triggering incidentwhich would lead to an orderlysequence of disassembly events.Ultimately, this would result inthe separation of the productinto its separate componentsgrouped by material type. Thispaper considers smart materialsas the basis for the implementa-tion for this strategy.

Smartmaterials

The family of smart materialswhich lend themselves to activedisassembly include shapememory metals or alloys (SMA)and shape memory plastics orpolymers (SMP). Below a certaintransformation temperature(Tx) (Gilbertson, 1994) theybehave as relatively standard

engineering materials and can beused in all normal ways; abovethis critical temperaturehowever, they undergo a veryspecific shape change that can(if required) be reversible if thetemperature is lowered again. Itis this change of shape above acritical temperature which canform the basis of active disas-sembly.

The major difference betweenthe metals and plastics in thiscontext is that the metals cangenerate a significant force asthey change shape whereas theplastics do not. On the otherhand the metals are more expen-sive at present. Both materialsare described below.

By incorporating smart materials

early in the design process, thedesigner can ensure that at the

EOL (perhaps 15 years later)the product contains all thenecessary information and

mechanisms to disassembleitself following a single generictriggering event such as heat.It will not be necessary for thedismantler to have a record,nor plans of the design for theEOL disassembly.

ShapeMemoryAlloy

orMetal(SMA)

SMA is a small group of metalsmade up of two or more metallicelements with particularlyremarkable shape change andforce provision properties. Asthe temperature crosses orchanges across a critical value,known as a transformationtemperature (Tx) they undergoa large and predictable shapechange or so called Shape

Memory Effect (SME).

SMAs were invented by theAmerican military and are nowused in a variety of applicationssuch as spectacle wire frames,submarine and fighter jetcouplings, military circuit boardconnector sockets, space stationconnector components, cellphone antennas, teeth bracesand some medical applications.Because of an increasing enve-lope of uses, prices have and arecontinuing to drop and there-fore, exciting new opportunitiesexist for inexpensive actuatorsand fasteners in a range ofelectronic consumer products.

The important qualities of SMAfrom a design perspective is thatthey are corrosion resistant and

in many ways resemble stainlesssteel. They have the mechanical


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ANALYSIS


Figure7:SMAdescriptions andresults of preliminary disassembly experiments.

Thesetables describethecharacteristics of theSMAdevices andthecandidateproducts usedintheexperiments.Additionally,theresults of theseexperiments

aredescribedinterms of theforces providedfromtheSMAdevices as wellas

thesuccess of thesametrials.

Figure8:SMPcompressionsleeve

insertedinsideinjectionmouldedform

bolt acceptorinsidetheBT telephone

Figure9:Slightly undersizedbolt

insertedinsideSMPcompressionsleeve

withininjectionmouldassembly bolt

acceptorinsidetheBT telephone


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ANALYSIS

31

strength to form reliable fasten-ers yet upon exposure to a hightransformation temperature, they

will change form. The criticaltemperature can be placedaccording to the designerschoice somewhere between 190to +190C (-310 to +374 F). Theselimits are due to the currentstate of development of SMA.

Shapememorypolymer

orplastic(SMP)

SMP is a very small group ofplastics that can be formed bythe normal processes includinginjection moulding and withproperties similar to those foundin Polyurethane, Polypropyleneand ABS (Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene).

SMP was invented in Japan andhas become commercially avail-able in the last couple of years.Currently SMP is used in thedesign of automatic carburettorchokes and utensils handles.Medical and many otherapplications are becomingrecognised as SMP becomes morefully commercially exploited.

Shape Memory Effect (SME) inSMP is different from in SMA.Plastics above their transforma-

tion temperature or glasstransition temperature (Tg) loosetheir mechanical strength andreturn to their originally formedshape. Unlike the metals, theplastics do not providesignificant force accompanyingthis triggering procedure.

ShapeMemoryEffect(SME)

SME can be categorised threeways; one, two and multi-waySME. The effect happens in

many different ways and by vary-ing degrees. As described in theSMA and SMP sections above,

their SMEs are quite unique. SMPis generally a multi-way effectand SMA is generally a one andtwo-way effect. These uniquecharacteristics offer designersnew solutions to products previ-ously requiring dynamics such asmovement and force provisions.By using smart materials, partreduction is plausible as thesematerials provide movement,

shape change and force with onematerial. Previously, more partswould have been required forthe same function. It must benoted that SME is impossiblewithout the temperature expo-sure, therefore the product willnot experience SME if the smartmaterial specified has a Tx abovenormal operating temperatures.

One-way SME

Materials that recover to theoriginal form one or more timesafter exposure to heat. In one-way effects, the material wouldhave to be forcibly re-shaped inorder to recover again.

Two-way SME

Materials that can recover manytimes to the original form anddeform again to a secondary

form after exposure to a specifictemperature or stimulus repeat-edly. The amount of successfultimes the material can recoverand reform again dependsprimarily on the material, extentof deformation and the extent ofheat. The designer has manyoptions with two-way devicessince the devices can take theplace of switches or more

complex mechanisms requiringmore than one moving part. The

Figure10:Showingvarious stages of

theSMPdisassembly experiment with

astandardBT telephone


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external stimulus for the trans-formation is temperature change(heat).

Multi-way SME

Here the material acts the sameas in the two-way states exceptthe material may be formable tomore shapes depending on theextent of the external stimuli(heat and force). Sometimes inthis case the material may bealtered infinitely into different

shapes such as is the case forSMPs. One could view the vari-able nature of SME in SMP asmetamorphic (Spillman, Sirkis,Gardiner, 1996). This characteris-tic provides the most excitingpossibility for designers as SMPcould be considered a livematerial. A smart material withthe ability to take on differentforms on demand.

ExperimentswithShape

MemoryAlloy(SMA)

Actuators

A number of experiments wereconducted with SMA devices,applying them to the active disas-sembly of electronic products.The initial experiments investi-gated releasing socketedIntegrated Circuits (ICs) fromPrinted Circuit Boards (PCBs) anda PCB sub-assembly. A furtherseries of experiments attempted

the disassembly of producthousings. Both 1- and 2-way SMESMAs were used, alloys ofNickel-Titanium (NiTi) andCopper-Zinc-Aluminium(CuZnAl) respectively.

SMAresults

Figures 1, 2 and 3 indicate theNiTi 1-way SMA actuators whilst

Figures 4, 5 and 6 indicate theCuZnAl 2-way actuators. Theresults are summarised in Figure7 (Chiodo, Anson, Billett,Harrison, Perkins, 1997).

In initial experiments to ejectchips from PCBs, it provedimpossible to develop sufficientforces with the actuators to over-come the frictional forces. Thiswas primarily because of the

limited size of actuator whichcould be positioned below thechips. NiTi rod actuators workedsuccessfully to disassemble smallelectronic products including apersonal organiser and calcula-tors. These 0.5 gram actuatorsprovided very high forces (62 64N) over a displacement of 5mm.Therefore for further trialpurposes, it was decided to

ANALYSIS

Figure11:Generaloutlineguidelines fordesignforactivedisassembly

CuZnAlSMA

beforeSME

SMPbeforeSME

CuZnAlSMA

duringSME

NiTiSMA

afterSME

NiTiSMA

beforeSME

Smart

materialdev ice

allowances

SMPduringSME


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ANALYSIS

employ lower cost, lower force-

actuators. Cu-based helical(spring shape) actuators alsoprovide sufficient force toactively disassemble calculatorcases.

ExperimentswithShape

MemoryPolymerReleasable

Fasteners

Numerous experiments were

conducted with SMP releasablefasteners applying them to the

active disassembly of various

products. The initial experimentsinvestigated the releasing ofPCBs and housing assemblies ofproduct housings.

SMPresults

Initial experiments to releasePCBs from opened product hous-ing assemblies proved successful.The SMP holding brackets

replaced the screw assembliesused in current production

methods. All experiments proved

disassembly within seconds ofbeing exposed to Tg (SMP trans-formation temperature) orhigher +55C (+131F) . It isenvisaged that highertemperatures outside of normaloperating temperatures wouldneed to be used for manyapplications.

SMP experiments shown inFigures 8, 9 and 10 are thoseemployed in the second set ofexperiments. These SMP sleeves

Aftermanuallydisassemblingandincorpora tingdev icesintothetest products,examina tionsweremadefor

anoutlineof genera lmethodologyfordesignmodifica tions.It wasfoundthat thetest productswouldbestincorpora teac tivedisassemblyusingsmart materials(ADSM)whendesigningwiththegenera l

considerationsbe low:

avoidalloys/combina tionmaterials standardgrabpoints accessibili ty

controlledbreakpoints compressionhinges modularity

over-specifica tionreduction generalsimplifica tion miniaturisation

hierarchyof subassemblies reusablecomponents separatematerials

vinculumstrengthreduction toxicmaterialelimina tion eliminateadhesives

isolationof costlymaterials undamagedcomponent disassembly reversiblefasteners

component/materialtypereductions mouldingmaterialfasteners

Althoughtheaboveconsiderationsare usefulforac tiveandotherdisassemblymethods,thereare anumber

of spec ificfac torsre latingtoADSM.Theseinc lude:

ac tuatorsshouldbeplacedinandaroundthefasteningelement

ac tuatorsshouldbeplacedsuchthat theac tua tortemperaturescorrespondtohierarchyof sub-assemblies

loca tionspecificforceprovision

forceprovisionmust surpasstensileforceinfasteningelementsof theconstituent assemblies

vec torialpassageforambient temperaturesare necessarytoinduceSME

averagetot ight tolerancingformemorydevices

loca torsandsea tsformemorydevices

passageforclean separation

temperature/timeba lanceaffec tsthestructura lintegrityof theproduct andthedisassemblypro

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