Journal of Energy Research and Environmental Technology (JERET)

7/26/2019 Journal of Energy Research and Environmental Technology (JERET)

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Journal of Energy Research and Environmental Technology

(JERET)

Print ISSN: 2394-1561

Online ISSN: 2394-157X

Editor-in-Chief:

Shuja Ahmad Abbasi, Ph.D.Department of Electrical Engineering,

P.O. Box 800, College of Engineering,

King Saud University, Riyadh, 11421, Saudi Arabia

Editorial Board Members:

D.P. Kothari, Ph.D., FNAE,FNASc, Fellow-IEEE, LMISTE

Director General,

Former Director I/C, IIT DelhiFormer Deputy Director (Admin)

Former Prof & Head, Centre For Energy Studies, IIT, Delhi

Former Principal, VRCE, Nagpur

Govind Chandra Mishra, Ph.D.Environmental Science

Department of Civil Engineering,

MVN University, Palwal, Haryana, India

V. Venkat Ramanan, Ph.D.Environmental Sciences,

Chair for Sustainable Development, School of Agriculture

IGNOU, New Delhi, India

B. B. Singh, Ph.D.Department of Chemistry,

Dayal Singh College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India

Surendra Kumar Yadav, Ph.D.University Department of Engineering & Technology (SCRIET),

CCS University, University Road,

Meerut (UP)-250004, INDIA

Md. Wasi Alam, Ph.D.Division of Forecasting and Agricultural Systems Modeling,

Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute (IASRI),

Pusa, Library Avenue, New Delhi, India

Published by:

Krishi Sanskriti PublicationsE-47, Rajpur Khurd Extn., Post Office I.G.N.O.U. (Maidangarhi)

New Delhi-110068, INDIA

Contact No. +91-8527006560

Website: http://www.krishisanskriti.org/jeret.html


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(JERET)

Website: http://www.krishisanskriti.org/jeret.html

Aims and Scope:

Journal of Energy Research and Environmental Technology(JERET) (Print ISSN: 2394-1561; Online ISSN: 2394-157X) is a quarterly international open access journal of the Krishi Sanskriti (http://www.krishisanskriti.org), anon-governmental organization (NGO) registered under society registration act 1860 which is engaged in academicand economic development of the society with special emphasis on integrating industry and academia. The journalJERET is devoted to publication of original research on various aspects of energy research and environmentaltechnology including the scientific leads in the formative stage which has a promise for a pragmatic application. Thescopes of the journal include, but are not limited to, the following fields: generation of electric power, nuclear powerissues, energy planning (planning for generation capacity expansions, hydropower planning, network andtransmission planning, reliability), energy policy and economics (financial and customer markets, regulatory andfinancial issues), energy development (renewable energy as tidal, geothermal, wind, solar power, ocean, waste-to-

energy systems), energy systems operation (thermal and hydropower operation and optimization, scheduling, loadforecasting, demand-side management), bio-fuel and biomass energy, energy efficiency, reducing consumption ofor conservation of energy, energy sustainability as related to energy and power production, distribution, and usageenergy infrastructure issues (power plant safety, security of infrastructure network), applied research on atmospheric,terrestrial and aquatic environments, pollution control and abatement technology, conservation and management ofnatural resources, environmental quality assessment, environmental standards, environmental impact assessment,environmental chemistry and biology, transport and fate of pollutants in the environment, concentrations anddispersion of wastes in air, water, and soil, point and non-point sources pollution, heavy metals and organiccompounds in the environment, atmospheric pollutants and trace gases, solid and hazardous waste management, soilbiodegradation and bioremediation of contaminated sites, industrial ecology, ecological and human risk assessment,climate change and green house effect and so on. Publication is open to all researchers from all over the world.Manuscripts to be submitted to the Journal must represent original research reports and has not been submitted

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Contents


(JERET)

Volume 3, Issue 2; April-June, 2016

Contents

Experimental Investigation of Factors Affecting Performance and Efficiency of 47-51

Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Module

Nidhi Singh, Akhilesh Gupta and Ravi Kumar

Modern Ways of Implementing Renewable and Sustainable Technology and Smart Waste 52-55Management in Developing a Smart City

Saurav Verma, Kumar Rohit, Kanupriya Jain, Neeraj Kant and Divyanshu Sharma

Performance Analysis of Solar Air Heater 56-58

Vikram Dhaka, Ahilesh Gupta and Ravi Kumar

Research and Development of Aviation Bio-Fuel using Jatropha Oil 59-65

Dinesh Kumar.G, Francis Samruth, Davis Antony and Anderson Pearldian

Rejuvenation of Ghats at Varanasi (India) 66-72

Anil Bharti

Review of Green Building Material in India 73-75

Ms Ruchika and Shashank Shekhar Singh

Generating Electricity and Production of Ethanol using Kitchen Waste 76-77

Divyanshu Sharma, Prakhar Srivastav, Vedangi Dhyani,

Preeti Chauhan, Rima Mukherjee and Nishikant

Analysis of Solar Power Plant Dynamics and Reliability 78-83

Megha Khatri

Optimization of Storage Systems for Effective Integration of a Wind Farm into A Power Grid 84-87

G. Ruban Ebenezer and C.M. Benish


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Contents

Dairy Effluent: A Source for the Production of Bio-energy 88-90

Renu Baweja and Anita Kapur

Development of Low Cost- flexible Dye Sensitized Solar Cells using Polypyrrole Counter Electrodes 91-94

Radhika Velayudhan, Garima Dwivedi and Ashok N. Bhaskarwar

Techno-economic Evaluation of Grid Connected Solar Rooftop Projects in India 95-98

Saurabh Motiwala, Ishan Purohit and Amit Kumar

Performance Evaluation of Green Roof 99-102

Raunak Katiyar and A K Chauhan

Hazard Identification of Geological Storage of Co2 for Production of Methane from 103-107

Permafrost Gas Reserves

Karri Srinivas Anish, Sukamanchi Venkatesh and Goli Sai Rahul

Energy Savings by Installation of Solar Panels: A Mathematical Model 108-114

M.K.P. Naik and S.K. Sharma

Investigation of Performance and Emission Characteristics of a Dual Fuel Compression Ignition 115-120

Engine Using Sugarcane Bagasse and Carpentry Waste Producer Gas as an Induced FuelHarmanpreet Singh, S.K. Mohapatra and Mandeep Singh Kaler

Novel Investigation of Combustion and Noise Characteristics of Biomass Derived Producer 121-126

Gas Fired Modified Dual Fuel Compression Ignition Engine

Mandeep Singh Kaler, S.K. Mohapatra and Harmanpreet Singh

An Approach for Electricity Generation using Microbial Fuel Cell Technology: 127-130

A Green Energy Initiative

Ajay Agarwal, Gaurav Verma, Yogesh Singh, Anjali Kumari, Sanjeev Kumar, Om Ji Agnihotri, Sushmita,

Nishika Sabharwal, Akshay Jha, Mansi Singh, Pawan Kumar, Inderbir Kaur, Ruchi Gulati Marwah, GeetaMongia and Avinashi Kapoor

Club Enerji Program at Tata Power 131-136

Shubhi Thakuria and Sanjay Verma


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Contents

Paris Climate change Agreement and the Status of Achieving the Goal of Sustainable 137-140

Development: A Legal Analysis from the Perspective of Developing Countries

Satyadeep Kumar Singh

Experiences, Challenges and Opportunities of Direct Seeded Rice in 141-145

Bhandara District of Maharashtra

Sumedh R Kashiwar, Dileep Kumar, Usha R Dongarwar,

Bijoya Mondal and Triyugi Nath

An Overview on the Ground Water Recharge by Rain Water Harvesting 146-148

Sumedh R Kashiwar, Usha R Dongarwar, Bijoya Mondal and Manik Chandra Kundu

Clean Energy Technology for Sustainable Development in an Input-output Framework- 149-149

A Case Study of New Holland Agriculture Farm Industry

Saloni Chaudhary and Raghavendra G.Rao


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Journal of Energy Research and Environmental Technology (JERET)

p-ISSN: 2394-1561; e-ISSN: 2394-157X; Volume 3, Issue 2; April-June, 2016; pp. 47-51

Krishi Sanskriti Publicationshttp://www.krishisanskriti.org/Publication.html

Experimental Investigation of Factors Affecting

Performance and Efficiency of SolarPhotovoltaic (PV) Module

Nidhi Singh1, Akhilesh Gupta2and Ravi Kumar3

1Student, Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee 247667, India2,3Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee 247667, India

E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

AbstractSolar energy is one of the most popular, affordable,

inexhaustible and clean renewable energy. There are many

techniques to convert solar radiation into electric power, amongstwhich conversion through installation of photovoltaic (PV) panels is

popular in India. PV panels performance and efficiency is affected

by various factors like PV cell technology, ambient conditions,

selection of equipments and design parameters. To ensure full

utilization of system capacity and deliver a consistent and reliable

power it is essential to understand the significance of these factors on

system performance. In this work we have reviewed the effect of

Panel surface temperature, dust and irradiation. It includes the

experimental results obtained during the test conducted on two

identical panels (Multi Crystalline Silicon of 100W each) installed

side by side at the rooftop. The dynamic study of current voltage (I-V)

characteristics of two PV panels those were exposed to same ambient

conditions but one has been varied among them showed that factors

influence on panel performance. This comparative approach helped

in better understanding of losses attributable to a particular factor. Italso explained the phenomenon of power loss with the increasing

quantities of dust deposition and panel temperatures. The graphs

plotted with the data of the test clearly indicate that the open circuit

voltage was not significantly affected by dust and irradiation

however, short circuit current degraded to great extend. The results

obtained were in good agreement with the trends available in

previous literature. The drop in current and consequent drop in

efficiency could result in immense loss of electrical power and

economic loss considering the scale of the plant.

Nomenclature

Isc short circuit current

Voc open circuit voltage

1. INTRODUCTION

Ever increasing worlds demand for energy, huge emission of

carbon dioxide and other toxic gases into the Earths

atmosphere and limited supply of natural resources are big

Concerns over energy nowadays. In such scenario solar energyappears to be the most effective way to reduce carbon

footprint to save environment and a promising source to lift an

economy to new levels of prosperity. The government

announcement of JNNSM has given pace to development of

solar power plants under which it plans to expand its solarinstallation to 100GW by 2022. There are various factorswhich should be taken into consideration before installation so

that one has realistic expectations of overall system

performance and output [1]. The main limiting factors whichslow down additional dispersion of PV uses include the high

initial investment cost and the low conversion efficiency of

PV cells. Consequently, in order to establish PVs as a

commercially competitive technology high attention should be

paid on the factors which affect their performance [7].

There are some factors which can be controlled and the lossesoccurring by them can be eliminated but few of them are

inherent losses which can be reduced through proper

designing but not completely avoided [3]. The main factoraffecting the PV-modules output, is the variation of the solar

radiation intensity, increase of temperature and the

accumulation of soil and dirt on the surfaces of PV-panels.

Although dust effects are a priori site-specific i.e. depend onlocal conditions such as the presence of air pollution,

frequency of rain, wind speed, humidity, as well as on the

panels orientation and inclination, certain attempts have been

made to determine the influence of dust on the performance ofPV-panels and draw some more generic conclusions [2-8].

Most of the available PV module in market can convert 6-20%

of the incident solar radiation into electricity; this is entirely

dependent upon the type of solar cells used in the module andthe climatic conditions at the location of installation. The restof the incident solar radiation is converted into heat, which

significantly increases the temperature of the PV module and

reduces the PV efficiency of the module [6].

In this context, considering the increasing share of PVs in allfields including the educational institutes, investigation of

these effects on the performance of PV-modules becomes of


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Journal of Energy Research and Environmental Technology (JERET)p-ISSN: 2394-1561; e-ISSN: 2394-157X; Volume 3, Issue 2; April-June, 2016

48

special interest, especially in the case of our campus which got

its solarification just few years ago.

Table 1: Major effects on the energy production of PV module[7].

Effect Range

Temperature 1%-10%

Angle of incidence 1%-5%Ageing 5% over lifetime

Soil and dirt 0%-15%

Snow Location dependent

Partial shading Location dependent

Diodes and wiring 3%

2. METHDOLOGY

Fig. 1: Outdoor experimental setup

The method employed for processing of this experiment in the

outdoor conditions involved the study of I-V curves obtained

from two identical panels of the same specified ratingsinstalled side by side at an angle of 29o to the ground (which is

the latitude of the place) facing southwards on the rooftop ofmechanical and industrial engineering department IIT Roorkee

(latitude 29N, longitude 77E). The PV modules which are

studied in this work are 100W Multicrystalline silicon, whichis the most widely used type among all other types of PV

module available today. Multicrystalline silicon cells are less

expensive and simple to produce than monocrystalline once,with an efficiency range of about 12-14% [1].

Fig. 2: Indoor Unit

Table 2: Panel Specification

Dimensions

Module Dimensions(mm x mm x mm)

1150 x 675 x 35

Cell Dimensions (mm x mm) 45 x 61

Cells per module 36

Cell area per module(mm2) 0.776250x106

Electrical specification

Maximum power (W) 100W

Open circuit voltage (V) 21.5V

Short circuit current (A) 6.30A

Voltage at maximum power(V) 17.5V

Current at maximum power(A) 5.80A

The arrangement for the outdoor experimentation is depicted

in Fig. Both panels experienced the same instantaneousinsolation levels, ambient temperatures and wind incidence.

The solar radiations were measured using two pyranometers of

kipp & Zonen. The voltage was recorded by keithley 2701

Ethernet Multimeter and Data Acquisition system and thecurrent was recorded by DM-501 Digital Multimeter. A

rheostat was used as a variable load to get the characteristics

curves. The top and bottom panel surface temperatures were

measured using calibrated T-type thermocouples and wererecorded through a T-type thermocouple temperature

indicator. The thermocouple sensors were kept in contact with

the top and bottom surfaces of the panel. The data wererecorded every 5 min interval in various batches. The first set

of readings was taken when both panels were clean, in order to

characterize the performance of the two panels under identical

ambient conditions. For the second batch of measurements,

the panel on right in Fig. above was spread with dust layer inorder to approximate the reduction in the performance due to

dust. For the last batch of readings the date of few months was

collected, with different panel surface temperatures but almost

same irradiation levels. Even at times the panel wasmaintained at required temperatures by the flow of air from

duct below the panel. The experimental results have been

described in the following section.

3.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

In order to indentify that the two same specified panelsinstalled are also similar in their behavior, it was first required

to plot the IV characteristics curve of the two panels under

similar conditions.


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Experimental Investigation of Factors Affecting Performance and Efficiency of Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Module 49


Fig. 3 I: V characteristics of both panels with clean surfaces.

Fig 3 demonstrates the comparision of the I-V curves of the

two modules at the irradiance level of 444 W/m2. It can be

seen in fig that the two profiles are nearly overlapping each

other. The open circuit voltage and the short circuit current arealmost same for the two cases. After this performance check

we have safely assumed that the panels are identical for ourfurther work.

Effect of solar intensity

Fig. 4 :Varition of short circuit current(Isc) under

different solar irradiances.

Fig. 5 Log Log graph of open circuit voltage (Voc)with

rradiation.

As seen from Fig. (4,5), the short circuit current increases

with the increasing solar radiations, whereas the open circuit

voltage increases logarithmically, which in the above figure is

a horizontal line when plotted on a log-log graph.

Fig. 5: Output efficiency Variation with solar irradiances.

The influences of irradiance on the cell characteristics areshown in Fig.

Fig. 6 I-V characteristics at different irradiation and similar

surface temperatures.

To show the variation of panel performance under variable

solar insolation levels the data obtained with differentirradiation value but same temperature was chosen and I-V

curves were plotted. The curves clearly indicate that with theincreasing solar radiations the short circuit current increases

significantly whereas the open circuit voltage increases

slowly. Thus the output power increases. This again proves the

linear relation of Isc and a logarithmic relation of Voc with solar

radiations.

Effect of surface temperature

The influence of panel surface temperature on the cell

characteristics is shown in Fig. 7.


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50

Fig. 7: I-V characteristics at 252 W/m2at two

different surface temperatures.

The effect of the increase in panel temperature is on short

circuit current, which increases with the cell temperature aswell as on, the open circuit Voltage which decreases with the

increase of the cell temperature.

Fig. 8 I-V characteristics at 344 W/m2at two different surface

temperatures.

Fig. 9: Effect of increased cell temperature on PV cell

characteristics at 837 W/m2.

Effect of dust deposition density

The effect of dust on panel performance was investigated by

obtaining I-V characteristics of identical panels subjected to

the same conditions of insolation and ambient temperature,

while one of the panels was totally clean whereas the other

was spread with dust on its surface. A comparative analysis of

the I-V curves led to an understanding of the phenomenon of

power loss due to dust accumulation on photovoltaic surfaces.

Fig.10 I-V characteristics at 252 W/m2of Clean and Dusty panel.

Fig.11: I-V characteristics at 252 W/m2of Clean and Dusty panel.

From the recordings and the graphs, the following

observations can be drawn:-

It is clearly visible from the graph that dust depositiondoes not largely affect the open circuit voltage of the

panel. It is very slightly reduced from the clean panelvoltage I-V characteristics at 446 W/m2 and cell surface

temperatures of 30C at various irradiation levels.

Dust has a huge impact on short circuit current of thepanel which kept on reducing from that of the clean panel

short circuit current values with the increasing quantities

of dust at all solar radiation intensities.

Power output was reduced due to dust deposition. Thiseffect of reducing power output became more severe with

the increasing quantity of dust layer thickness.

Power loss due to dust at higher values of irradiation is

higher than at lower solar radiations.

Dust deposition on panels does not show any particular

influence on the cell operating temperatures. Sometimes

dusty panel was operating at few degrees higher and


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Experimental Investigation of Factors Affecting Performance and Efficiency of Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Module 51


sometimes at same temperature and sometimes at lower

temperature.

4. CONCLUSION

This study was done to get understanding of the scale of

influence of factors like solar radiation, panel temperature and

dust deposition on photovoltaic system efficiency andperformance. Two similar PV modules were installed and

tested for various days. The data collected was compared in

order to plot different characteristics curves. Curves to showthe relationship for reduction in performance and efficiency

with these factors were also obtained. From the study

conducted and the experimental results obtained, following

conclusion can be summarized

With the increase in the solar radiation from 0 to 1015W/m2,

the open circuit voltage increases logarithmically (19.5V to21.2V) whereas the short circuit current increases linearly (1A

to 5.9A) and thus the output power increases.

The effect of increased panel surface temperature is on boththe short circuit current which increases and the open circuit

voltage which decreases. For a temperature increase of about200C of the panel, power varied upto 12W and efficiency upto

5%.

It was observed that dust deposition does not significantly

alter the open circuit voltage of photovoltaic systems.However, the short circuit current was seriously affected by

dust deposition. For an increase in the dust deposition density

growing from 0 to 25gm/m2 the drop in the power output

increased from 0 to 25W and the consequent drop inefficiency also grew to 9.6%.

These small losses will prove to be an enormous wastage ofavailable energy when scaled up from a 100W experimental

test setup to a few MW sized photovoltaic power plant.

REFERENCES

[1] Mehmet Emin Meral, Furkan Dincer: A review of the factors

affecting operation and efficiency of photovoltaic basedelectricity generation systems. Renewable and Sustainable

Energy Reviews 15, (2011) 21762184.[2] Hai Jiang, Lin Lu, Ke Sun: Experimental investigation of the

impact of airborne dust deposition on the performance of solarphotovoltaic (PV) modules. Atmospheric Environment 45 (2011)

4299-4304.[3] Abhishek Raoa, Rohit Pillaia, Monto Mania, Praveen

Ramamurthya: Influence of dust deposition on photovoltaic panelperformance. 4th International Conference on Advances in

Energy Research 2013, ICAER 2013, Energy Procedia 54 ( 2014) 690 700.

[4] N. Ketjoy, M. Konyu: Study of Dust Effect on PhotovoltaicModule for Photovoltaic Power Plant. International Conference

on Alternative Energy in Developing Countries and EmergingEconomies, Energy Procedia 52 ( 2014 ) 431 437.

[5] J.K. Kaldellis, P. Fragos, M. Kapsali: Systematic experimentalstudy of the pollution deposition impact on the energy yield of

photovoltaic installations. Renewable Energy 36 (2011) 2717-

2724.[6] Swapnil Dubey, Jatin Narotam Sarvaiya, Bharath Seshadri:

Temperature Dependent Photovoltaic (PV) Efficiency and Its

Effect on PV Production in the World A Review. PV Asia PacificConference 2012, Energy Procedia 33 (2013) 311 321.

[7] J.K. Kaldellis, A. Kokala: Quantifying the decrease of the

photovoltaic panels energy yield due to phenomena of natural airpollution disposal. Energy 35(2010) 4862-4869.

[8] Mohammadreza Maghami, Hashim Hizam, Chandima Gomes:Impact of Dust on Solar Energy Generation based on Actual

Performance. IEEE International Conference Power & Energy.(2014) 388-393.

[9] S. Mekhilefa, R. Saidurb, M. Kamalisarvestanib: Effect of dust,humidity and air velocity on efficiency of photovoltaic cells.

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 2920

2925.[10] SHAHARIN A. SULAIMAN, HAIZATUL H. HUSSAIN, NIK

SITI H. NIK LEH, AND MOHD S. I. RAZALI: EFFECTS OF

DUST ON THE PERFORMANCE OF PV PANELS. WORLDACADEMY OF SCIENCE, ENGINEERING ANDTECHNOLOGY VOL:5 (2011).


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Journal of Energy Research and Environmental Technology (JERET)p-ISSN: 2394-1561; e-ISSN: 2394-157X; Volume 3, Issue 2; April-June, 2016; pp. 52-55 Krishi Sanskriti Publicationshttp://www.krishisanskriti.org/Publication.html

Modern Ways of Implementing Renewable and

Sustainable Technology and Smart WasteManagement in Developing a Smart City

Saurav Verma1, Kumar Rohit2, Kanupriya Jain3, Neeraj Kant4and Divyanshu Sharma5

1,2,3,4,5Graphic Era University, Dehradun, B.tech CSE

E-mail:[email protected],

[email protected],

[email protected],

[email protected],

[email protected]

AbstractAcross the globe, the movement of population from rural

to urban areas is increasing steadily. In terms of urbanization India

has been viewed as a by-product of failed regional planning. Nowwith the announcement of 100 smart cities in the budget by the

government, India is also on the way to fast development and planned

urbanization. In a smart city, economic development and activities

are sustainable and consequently incremental due to the fact that it is

being based on success-oriented market drivers such as supply and

demand. They benefit everybody including citizens, government and

also improve exposure to tourism. But, there are many obstacles

which are to be taken under consideration during this process. It is

quite clear that planning a smart city and making it come alive on the

ground from paper is a big challenge when it comes to engineering.

Keeping in mind the environment factor, there should be technologies

that are renewable and sustainable. In this paper there is information

about the fundamental sectors of economy that are to be considered

while making a smart city, their problems or loopholes and the

solution to them by modern technologies and planning which areefficient, eco-friendly and are already being used in some parts of the

world with effective results. These technologies when used in a

proper manner can come out as a boon for both the social and

economic sector. Most importantly the environmental degradation is

very much checked when the techniques that have been suggested are

applied effectively.

1. INTRODUCTION

The concept of smart cities varies from city to city and countryto country. There isnt any fixed or universal definition of asmart city. Even the word smart city is a fresher word incontext to what it was called earlier as sustainable city or

digital city during 1990s and early 2000s. It mainly dependson the city residents. Their intension to change the social aswell as economic infrastructure. Twentieth century prototypesof urbanization were applied without consideration of futureoutcomes. But in the twenty-first century the planning should

be done so that there is growth in prosperity of city and socialcollaborations. This is because the future cities will serve asdrivers for national & regional economics.

2. METHOD AND APPROACH

In this paper we have considered various primary sectors of aneconomy and presented the different methods that can be usedto enhance the stability of them. These methods are being usedin several regions around the globe and have provedthemselves. Such techniques and measures when encompassedcan actually make the planning of a city and its various aspectsworthy calling smart. The sectors we have highlighted are:

Water resources and management Road Technology and Smart Street Lighting Disaster Management Latest TechnologiesIn the coming era as the value of time would be unspecified

and so as the speed of persons. The persons who used to walkon street would be on latest technology to utilize time in bestpossible way. And hence the idea of smart city arises keepingin mind the comfort and convenience of people. All the latest

plus safe and sound facilities are used in it. The use ofrenewable sources and waste is also practiced.

3. INTEGRATED RAINWATER HARVESTINGSYSTEM

The retention and storage of rainwater is simply termed asRainwater Harvesting. In the preceding decade the processof rainwater harvesting have proved its usefulness all aroundthe world. Rainwater harvesting is widely practiced for

irrigational as well as domestic purposes. One vital applicationis the groundwater recharging systems. The rainwaterharvesting is categorized into two parts:

3.1. Traditional Methods

This type of rainwater harvesting is done usually in ruralareas. Surface storage bodies like ponds, irrigational tanks,temple tanks, etc. are used under this category.


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Modern Ways of Implementing Renewable and Sustainable Technology and Smart Waste Management in Developing a Smart City 53


3.1.2.Modern Methods

The modern methods of harvesting are planned morescientifically and are more efficient as compared to traditionalmethods. The modern approach involves various techniqueslike: Artificial Recharging

Groundwater Recharging Groundwater Dams

Though all these techniques have been in use continuously buttill now no such system have been developed which canmanage the rainwater from several houses of a locality and usethat water for further necessary applications. In other words asmart integrated system of rainwater harvesting isnt yet beendeveloped. Such systems are useful because they help thewater collected to be used for purposes like gardening, publicdrinking water points, etc., even after being accommodated fordomestic use.

The concept of such a technique comes from the water

management system of the Indian Presidents residentialplace, The Rashtrapati Bhawan.

3.2. An overview of rashtrapati bhawan water

management system

The Rashtrapati Bhawan is about 133 hectares in span andholds up the staff strength of 7000 people. On an averagecount about 3000 visitors attend the Presidential Estate daily.Clearly the consumption of water in the premises is not just

big but its huge. All this load is managed by differentmeasures such as well recharging, rainwater storage tanks, etc.But the system which is most considerable is Johad.

Johad is a crescent shaped architecture made besides a slopingcatchment in which the surface runoff is captured and storedin the groundwater storage with the help of several pipelinesand drainage.

3.3. Concept of johad system to build integrated water

harvesting model

The model of Rashtrapati Bhawan water management systemcan be very useful because of the integrated system which oneone side hold larger amount of water stored and on other side

benefit both the individual and public. In simple words it canbe explained as a system of several connecting waterlines orpipelines which come from the rooftops of houses and other

sources and store it into a set of small storage tanks which areplaced underground. Firstly this water is sent to the respectivehouses from which they come for washing, bathing, etc.

purposes. After this now the water again starts filling thestorage tank. When the water starts filling to the extreme levelor the flush point it is flushed into a bigger tank from where itis sent to treatment plant for further use. This can be used forvarious household purposes like washing, bathing, cooking,gardening, etc. or can act as supplies for public toilet, drinkingwater points and much more.

4. FUTURE ROADS

Due to flexibility of roads being more than other severaltransport options and the affordability of a larger section ofsociety to the road transport. It is considered the backbone oftransport system of a country. The invention and rapiddevelopment of automobiles have made the expansion andimprovement of roads come alive to a wider extent. Asphalthave been used as a traditional material when it comes toengineering and building of a road. As we know there isalways a scope of improvement in everything then how comesthe usage of asphalt be an exception to it. The improvement ofroads is possible when we use some modified materials whilelaying down the roads. Two such roads which are being usedin various parts of the world and can be a deserving part of asmart city are:

Plastic Roads Rubber Roads

4.1. Plastic roads

Plastic roads refer to adding up of waste plastic with asphalt ormore precisely with bitumen to prepare roads. The benefit ofdoing so lies itself within the side effects of asphalt andstability of traditional roads. Before going to the concept of

plastic roads some facts about the asphalt should be raisedforward. Asphalt is to be blamed for emitting nearly 1.6million tones of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere everyyear which is only 2% of total roadways emissions. On theother hand, plastic road doesnt emits such a huge amount ofCO2as well as they are unaffected by corrosion. Also they canlast over 50 years and survive extreme conditions from -40degree Celsius to 80 degree Celsius. The plastic road can also

be made in such a way that there is a gap between the base andthe uppermost layer. This type of system is hold by severalsupports. As a result a small hollow chamber can be madewithin a road which can be used for pipelining purposeseasily. The other method of including plastic is the mixing ofit with bitumen. The following procedure takes place while

preparing plastic roads by plastic-bitumen mixture:

After removing PVC waste from collected plastic wastethe whole collected waste is shredded

The aggregate is heated upto 165oC and transferred tomixing chamber where the bitumen which is also heatedupto 160oC is sent.

The shredded plastic is mixed with the aggregate and it

gets coated on the mixture. This plastic coated mixture ismixed with bitumen and laid at temperature between110oC to 120oC. The roller capacity is 8 tones.

4.2. Rubber roads

Rubberized asphalt concrete (RAC) or rubberized asphalt is apavement material made by adding with bitumen rubber ascrumb rubber from tires. Asphalt rubber can be the mostreliable material for making roads especially on highways.


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Saurav Verma, Kumar Rohit, Kanupriya Jain, Neeraj Kant and Divyanshu Sharma


54

This is because the roads made of rubberized asphalt requireless maintenance due to anti-ageing property invoked becauseof the anti-oxidants of tires used. Also they do not undergoreflective cracking due to the fact that such roads are shockabsorbent.. Rubberized asphalt when used in Stress AbsorbingMembranes (SAM) or Stress Absorbing Membrane Interlayers(SAMI) reduces the occurrence of reflective cracking to highextent because of its elastic properties. The SAM or SAMI caneffectively stretch and move with the underlying pavementsrather than cracking from the stresses. Such roads lesser thechances of skidding vehicles as a result reducind roadaccidents. The noise level of highway traffic tends to decreaseto about 5 decibels using rubber roads. Over millions of tiresand rubber commodities are unused not only across a city butalso throughout the country. All such unused material can beused to make rubberized asphalt. About 500-2000 scrap tiresare needed to make a one mile road. Though such largeamount of tires may be unavailable at certain times and alsothese roads cant be made on every highway. Still such roadscan be made within a city or a locality or colony where

considerable amount of population lives so as to help thecitizens in travelling safely that even with lesser noise

pollution.

5. DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Disaster management one of the most challenging and mostrevolting topic in development of any economy as well as inany development. Natural disasters bring lots of damage to thesociety some of the precautionary cures are:

5.1. From earthquake

Sensitive Soniographs should be used in smart cities to alertthe citizens as fast as possible. A active voice message should

be send immediately to the citizens as fast as possible.Advance first-aid should be provided after disaster. Thesewere the precautions at the time of disaster. But before thedisaster the precautionary measures are The design of the

building in earthquake prone area should be of H, L, W, X andZ. The constructers should keep in mind the advantages ofconstructing these types of building may cure from highlyfatal earthquake shocks.

5.2. From floods

Flood another challenging disaster. Precautionary measuresbefore flood are the constructing design of a building shouldbe elevated above the surface and the pillars deep inside the

surface for the stability of house. This is done so that the forceof water is suffered by the pillars only and not by the wholehouse. As it is well said A DROWIND MAN CATCHES ASTRAW similarly a life-Jacket is a straw for victims of flood.After the calamity first-aid should be provided as soon as

possible.

5.3. For fire-safetyAt the time of fire High intensity alarms for alertness, highly -Sensitivity water sprinklers for emergency, Fire extinguishers

in each corridor of the floor and for each house, Auto-openingof windows and gates at the time of fire. Before fire

precautionary measures are at least one fire-station across tensocieties. Use of harvested rain water and solar water heatersfor getting water and heating it for extinguishing fire.

6. DIFFERENT TECHNOLOGIES IN THE SMARTCITY

Since to develop a city to smart city use of latest technology isnecessary so here are some of the latest tech. used in thedevelopment of a smart city are :

6.1. Radar sensors

For auto functioning of multiplex entrances and exits. It workson the principle of weight sensor. As the persons compressesits weight on or nearby sensor the entrance or exit gate opensautomatically.

6.2. Entry in multiplexes through retina or thumb

identificationThis technology is used when the person tries to enter amultiplex he/she is asked to either enter his/her thumbimpression or asked to show his retina. Through this properidentification is done of the person who will lead to a briefknowledge of the entering and exiting passengers. Thistechnology is introduced to reduce criminal and terror attacks.

6.3. Use of escalators

Escalated walkways as footpaths are used to increase humanefficiency and reduce time loss. This can even reduceaccidents as the persons cannot break any walking rulethrough it. This technology is also useful for the people who

are physically challenged.

6.4. Integrated road circuits

Integrated road circuits are used for managing traffic. It is asystem in which 4 to 8 roads are connected through a circulardiverge. This is used mostly on roads of heavy traffic. This hasalso lead to reduction in accidents on the heavy traffic roads.

6.5. Drainage automation

Drainage automation is a very useful tech. as at the time ofheavy rainfall this can protect the roads from getting filledwith water. This can also reduce traffic and accidents causedduring heavy rainfall as when roads are filled with water manyslipping and crashing cases are heard. The level of waterwould be lifted upto certain inches and then drains would beautomatically opened. This would lead to cleaning of drainagethrough forced water supply.

6.6. Vehicles running organic gases

Introduction of organic gas vehicles can lead to reduction inpollution as well as can strength the economy. Organic gasesare cheap and easily available and have high efficiency. The


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Modern Ways of Implementing Renewable and Sustainable Technology and Smart Waste Management in Developing a Smart City 55


efficiency of any organic gas can easily be moulded, so theuse of organic gas in vehicles is really useful. Example:ethane, methane. Use of organic gases like ethane andmethane as they cheap, efficient and are low on pollution. Thiscan lead to a strong economy as much of the national incomeis lost in the exchange of natural oil and gas.

6.7. Development of solar devices

Solar heaters, fans, lights and solar panels are the need oftoday as they lead to no pollution and are highly efficient.They are one time investment. Initially they may be foundexpensive but for long run they are considered cheap.

6.8. Temperature detector for safety measures

When there is a change in temperature it is gradual i.e. thetemperature rise is 2-5 degree centigrade in a day. But whenthere is sudden increase or decrease in temperature thisimplies a disaster or any problem surrounding that place. Atthis time the technology of temperature detector is used. When

there is a sudden increase in temperature this indicates thatthere is fire in that area and prevention could be quick.Similarly, when there is sudden decrease in temperature thisindicates that the flood is arriving or it is about to come and inthis case preventions can be taken as soon as possible.

7. SLUDGE TREATMENT

Bulky agents and sludge are first mixed. Then, they areseparated into two columns. One of the columns is forcedaeration and the other is turning. Firstly, in forced aeration themixing element is dried i.e the water is solid is separated andin tuning maximum liquid part is stored. Then from forcedaeration and turning liquids are mixed together in curing tank

and there they are treated by recovery agents like silica gel,chlorine and calcium hydroxide. They are treated under UV-Radiation and then stored for further use.

8. CONCLUSION

The concept smart cities is not without challenges especiallyin India. For example, the success if such cities dependshighly on their residents, businessmen, politicians and rate of

possible development in that area. There are many ways toimprove the daily life of citizens as a high percent of totalenergy used in the hands of users. It depends on them howthey adapt themselves to the change and their habitat and alsotime factor is a major issue because making such cities inreality can take 20-30 years. The latest technologies used arefor the sake of development and comfort of the coming

generation. This may lead to increase in efficiency and skilledhuman resources. Not only this, this may also lead to theimprovement in the economy as well as life style. TheBPL(Below poverty Line) could be increased with asignificant multiplier. The significant development intechnologies will also lead to increased rate of employment.The basic idea of smart city arrived from our present primeminister Shri. Narendra Modi.

9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This study was supported by Graphic Era University,Dehradun. We thank our colleagues from International YouthSociety of Eco-friendly and Renewable Technology(IYSERT), Graphic Era University, Dehradun who providedinsight and expertise that greatly, assisted the research,although they may not agree with all of theinterpretations/conclusions of this paper.

REFERENCES

[1] WikipediaK.Ahmad Khanhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org>wiki>K.AhmadKhan

[2] Crazypaving:Rotterdam to consider trialling plastic roads | World| Europetheguardian.com, Friday 10thJuly 2015.

[3] Process for laying plastic roads tce.edu>chemistry>process[4] Robert E. Hall, B.Bovermen, J.Braverman, J.Taylor, H. Todosow

and U. Von Wimmersperg, The vision of smart city in 2ndInternational Life Extension Technology Workshop, Paris,France, September 2000, pp. 1-3.

[5] What are future cities? origins, meanings and uses(WP 2O), fromGovernment Office for Science, Published at 29 July 2014.https://www.gov.uk>uploads>files

[6] WikipediaRubberized asphalthttps://en.m.wikipedia.org>wiki>rubberisedasphalt

[7] Niraj D. Baraiya, Use of Waste Rubber Tires in Construction ofBitominus Roads, in International Journal of Applicaton ofInnovation in Engineering and Management (IJAIEM), 7thJuly2013, pp 1-3.

[8] Benefits of Rubberised AsphaltClemson University.www.clemson.edu

[9] Use of Waste Tires for Road construction: An eco-friendlycosteffective solution for flexible pavements, By Tinna Rubber andInfrastructure Limited, India. www.nithe.org

[10] https://www.google.co.in/#q=radar[11] https://www.google.co.in/#q=retina+identification+sensor[12] https://www.google.co.in/#q=biometric+identification[13] https://www.google.co.in/#hl=en&q=integrated+road+circuits[14]

https://www.google.co.in/#hl=en&q=thumb+impressions+for+i

dentification[15] http://www.esru.strath.ac.uk/Documents/MSc_2009/Garg.pdf


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p-ISSN: 2394-1561; e-ISSN: 2394-157X; Volume 3, Issue 2; April-June, 2016; pp. 56-58

Krishi Sanskriti Publicationshttp://www.krishisanskriti.org/Publication.html

Performance Analysis of Solar Air Heater

Vikram Dhaka1

, Ahilesh Gupta2

and Ravi Kumar3

1M.Tech.(Thermal Engineering) Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering,

Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, Uttrakhand2,3

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering,

Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, Uttrakhand

E-mail:[email protected]

AbstractDouble pass counter flow solar air collector is one of the

important and attractive design. Absorber plate of this collector is a

critical part of design on which performance of collector depends.

Flat absorber plate is the simplest design. For performance

improvement different variations of absorber plate can be used. This

paper presents experimental analysis of double pass solar aircollector with flat and wavy shape absorber plate. Effects of various

parameters on the thermal performance and pressure drop

characteristics have been discussed.

1. INTRODUCTION

Solar energy is converted into thermal energy in a solarcollector. Solar collector basically is a device used to trap

solar energy to heat a plate and transfer the heat to a fluid

flowing under or above plate. When sun light falls onto a

plate, solar radiations reach the plate at lower wavelength andheat it up. Then the heat is carried away by either water or air

that flows under or above the plate. Solar collector used to

heat up air is called solar air heater (SAH). Air is much lighterand less corrosive than water. Heated air can be used for

moderate-temperature drying, such as harvested grains or fish.Since the solar air heater has less convective heat transfer

coefficient, some researchers tried to increase this convective

heat transfer coefficient. A popular type of solar air heaters isthe flat plate SAH, which has a cover glass on the top,

insulation on the sides and bottom to prevent heat transferred

to the surrounding, a flat absorber plate that makes a passage

for the air flowing with sides and bottom plate. Usually, thepassage or channel has a rectangular cross-section. The

absorber plate will transfer the heat to the air via convection.

Unfortunately, the convection coefficient is very low. To

increase the convection coefficient from the absorber plate, v-corrugated plate is used instead of a flat plate. Tao et al.(2007)

stated that a solar air heater with a v-grooved absorber plate

could reach efficiency 18% higher than the flat plate on thesame operation condition and dimension or configuration.

Karim dan and Hawlader (2006) found that a solar collector

with a v-absorber plate gave the highest efficiency and the flat

plate gave the least. The results

showed that the v-corrugated collector is 1015% and 511%

more efficient in single pass and double pass modes,

respectively, compared to the flat plate collectors. Choudhurydan and Garg (1991) made a detailed analysis of corrugated

and flat plate solar air heaters of five different configurations.

For the same length, mass flow rate, and air velocity, it was

found out that the corrugated and double cover glass collectorgave the highest efficiency. According to Naphon (2007) the

corrugated surfaces give a significant effect on the

enhancement of heat transfer and pressure drop.

2. EXPERIMENTAL SET UP

Experimental set up has been designed for external data

collection. Two identical air heater set up are designed andfabricated one with flat absorber plate and another with wavy

shape absorber plate. Both are double pass arrangement. One

pass is made between glass cover and absorber plate and

second pass is made between absorber plate and wooden base.Second pass has air flow in reverse direction. Both the passes

has same length that is 210 cm. Width of both the passes is

kept 60 cm and depth 2.1 cm. These collectors are fixed on

iron base inclined at 30 degree due south to maximize theincident solar radiation on collector for year round application.

Absorber plate of both set up is made of 1 mm thick aluminum

plate. Absorber plate is painted by black board paint which isassumed to have high absorptivity value. Below absorber plate

there is 20 mm thick wooden plate which act as insulation and

supportive base. Transparent glass cover of 4 mm thickness iskept as a cover which is transparent for short wavelength and

opaque for longer wavelength. Gap between absorber plate

and glass cover is 2.1 cm. Two passes are connected by

smooth U turn. Sides of both collectors are made by 20 mm

thick wooden plates. These collectors are supported on iron

base of size 25*25*5 mm. Entrance and exit duct are providedat inlet and outlet to stabilize the flow. These are made from

plywood of thickness 20 mm and having cross section same as

test section. This is done on basis of ASHARE Standard 92-77(1997). Two perforated aluminum plates of 1 mm thickness

and equal to cross section area of the passage are placed

perpendicular to flow direction to allow mixing of the air at


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Performance Analysis of Solar Air Heater 57


entrance and exit of test section and to facilitate measurement

of air temperature after mixing at entrance and exit of solar air

collector. Exit section is connected to blower through G.I. pipe

and flexible pipes. A centrifugal blower of 2.2 kW capacity is

used to draw ambient air into collector through the entrancesection. Measurement of mass flow rate of air through each

collector is accomplished by two separate orifice meters.

Temperature is measured by calibrated copper constantanthermocouples. The pressure drop across the collector has

been measured using a standard manometer with manometric

fluid as kerosene. The intensity of solar radiation has been

measured by means of a

Pyranometer (PSP Model supplied by The Eppley LaboratoryInc., USA) having a calibrated constant of 8.0 *10^6 volts per

watts/m2.

Dig- Line diagram of set up

Dig- Cross section of flat plate collector

Dig- Cross section of wavy plate collector

Dig- Actual set up of air heater

3. PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

The experimental data have been used to determine desiredparameters. All the properties of air, i.e. viscosity, density,

specific heat, used in the calculations, are evaluated at the

arithmetic mean of the inlet and the outlet temperature of air.

The useful heat gain, Qu is given as under

Thermal efficiency of double pass solar collector is

determined from following equation:

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Double pass counter flow solar air collector with wavy shape

absorber plate gives higher thermal efficiency in comparisonto double pass counter flow solar air collector with flat plate.

This can be due to the fact that the porous material absorber

plate. Because wavy shape absorber plate provides very largesurface area for heat transfer and hence the volumetric heat

transfer coefficient is high.


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Vikram Dhaka, Ahilesh Gupta and Ravi Kumar


58

Dig- Variation of efficiency with mass flow rate

Dig- Variation of intensity with intensity of

radiation

REFERENCE

1. Tao, L., Wen, X.L., Wen dan, F.G., Chan, X.L., 2007. AParametric study on the termal performance of a solar air collectorwith a V-groove absorber. Int. J. Green Energy 4, 601622.

2. Karim dan, Hawlader, M.N.A. 2006.Performance investigation offlat plate, V-corrugated and finned air collector. Energy 31, 452470.

3. Choudhury dan, C., Garg, H.P., 1991. Design analysis of

corrugated and flat plate solar air heaters. Renew. Energy I (5/6),595607

4. Abhishek Saxena, Varun, A.A. El-Sebaii(2014),A thermodynamicreview of solar air heaters, Renewable and Sustainable Energy

Reviews 43(2015)863-8905. Naphon, P., 2007. Heat transfer characteristics and pressure drop

in channel with V corrugated upper and lower plates. EnergyConvers.Manage. 48, 15161524.


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p-ISSN: 2394-1561; e-ISSN: 2394-157X; Volume 3, Issue 2; April-June, 2016; pp. 59-65 Krishi Sanskriti Publications

http://www.krishisanskriti.org/Publication.html

Research and Development of Aviation

Bio-Fuel using Jatropha OilDinesh Kumar.G

1,Francis Samruth

2, Davis Antony

3and Anderson Pearldian

4

1School of Aeronautical Sciences Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, Padur, Chennai-603 1032,3,4

B.E (Mechanical Engineering) LICAM, Chennai

E-mail: [email protected]

AbstractThis research work paper represents the production and

development of Alternative Aviation bio-fuel using Jathropha oil.

Other oils can be used for production. But Jathropha seeds were

chosen because it is containing 21% to 48% of oil. Also its not

edible therefore; it will not pose any problem to humans and animals

in food competition. Before the Transesterification process wascarried out, some basic tests such as free fatty acid content, iodine

value, and moisture content were carried out. This was done so as to

ascertain quality yield of bio- fuel before the reaction the production

of the bio-fuel was done with standard materials and under standard

conditions which made the production a hitch- free one. The

Jathropha oil was heated to 60C, and solution of sodium metho-oxide

at (55oC) was added to the oil and stirred for 45 minutes using a

magnetic stirrer. The mixture was then left to settle for 24 hours.

Glycerine which by-product, was filtered off. The bio-fuel was then

thoroughly washed to ensure that it was free from excess methanol

and soap. The characterization was comparing with Jet-A1 which

preformed was done in Hindustan Petrochemicals laboratory.

Keywords: Jathropa ,Glycerine, Bio-fuel, Trans-esterification,

Viscosity

1. INTRODUCTION

Due to the increased energy demand in the world, there is very

high potential for bio-fuels to leverage indigenous sources ofinputs. Potential increase in income and opportunities in rural

areas. Yet the development of a bio-fuel sector could increase

food insecurity for poor consumers. Currently, bio-fuel

production is minimal, accounting for only one percentage ofproduction globally. Supporting a future bio-energy sector will

likely require policy support (such as stimulus packages),

community and local interest, technological advancements,

and cost effectives feedstock production. Bio-fuels arepotentially important to worldwide because of the significant

number of lives they could impact and economic changes they

could cause. the terms of bio-fuels refers to several different

types of fuels, including bio-ethanol and bio-diesel ,which areboth viable options. Bioethanol is the most common form of

bio-fuel. It it likely that would use molasses, a by-product of

its Jathropha processing industry, to drive ethanol production.On other hand, there are major impediments to larger-scale

production and use of bio-ethanol in the world including price

competitiveness and production limitation. There is a

continuing search for new sources of fuels that are renewabledue to the rate of depletion of fossil fuels. The term bio-fuel is

used to define fuels that are obtained from plants or animals.

Being a renewable source, it is gaining attention all over theworld today. Bio-fuel is demand as fuel comprising of mono-

alkyl-esters of long fatty acids derived from vegetable oils orAnimal fats. These fuels could be either in the form of

vegetable oils or animal fats that have been transformed by

chemical or natural methods for use in powering variousengines. Bio-fuels are obtained from renewable energy

sources such as organic materials from living organisms and

can also be obtained from biodegradable waste. Hence, theterm bio-mass is defined as the source of bio-fuels. These are

wastes from plants and animals that are capable of being used

as fuels in original form or with little modification. These

wastes can also be used in production of fibres and chemicals

which are essential in our daily lives. the term bio-fuel is notthe same with fuels from fossils, the main difference between

bio-fuels and fossil fuels is the content of carbon and the

amount of emission they give off when burnt. A large variety

of engines manufactured today are made to run on a widevariety of fuels, such as premium motor spirit (petrol), diesel,

or gas as their pricipal fuels, with all these types of engines,

the diesel engine is the one most suitable to run on bio-fuel.Also, bio-fuels are very similar to petrol and diesel fuel in

composition; therefore, there is no need for engine alterations

to run on bio-fuels. Bio-fuel engine burns less fuel producing

the same amount of work when compared to a petrol engine.

Biodiesel is a carbon-neutral source of fuel and is increasinglybecoming popular. This is a fuel that is created by chemically

processing vegetable oil and altering its properties to make itperform similar to petroleum diesel. Biodiesel is very similarto petro diesel, but they are not identical. However, the

difference is really small when we compare the procedure for

making biodiesel and petro diesel. Bio-fuel is produced by aprocess called Trans-esterification; this process involves

modifying the chemical properties of a vegetable oil by using

methanol. Trans-esterification of vegetable oil is a simple

process that yields high conversion with glycerine as the only


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Dinesh Kumar.G,Francis Samruth, Davis Antony and Anderson Pearldian


60

by-product. In modern times, the need to find and develop

alternative energy sources is on the increase; this is largely.

The International Air Transport Association (IATA) has

approved the use for Alternative bio-fuel energy resources

used in aviation purposes in 2008 such as BIO-SPK, FT-SPK,which been implement in many airlines operation.

2.

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

Materials and apparatus used in the production of the bio-fuel

are as follows: thermometer, retort stand, pipette, measuringcylinder, separating funnel, magnetic stirrer, oven, water bath,

hydrometer, conical flask, digital weighing balance, stop

watch, hot plate, distilled water, methanol, and Jathropha oil.

2000 ml Jathropha Oil.

500 ml Methanol Solution.

Anhydrous Sodium Hydroxide ( NaOH ).

500 ml graduated cylinder.

250 ml graduated cylinder.

1L jar (2).

1L beaker.

Scale measuring to at least 0.1gram.

Hot plate.

Thermometer ( 0 110 C range ).

Stirring rod.

3. REDUCTION OF THE FATTY ACID

In the test carried out on the Jathropha oil, it was seen that thefree fatty acid (FFA) contents of the oil are high

(21.6%).Therefore, it became necessary to reduce it.

Procedure: Crude Jathropha oil was poured into a conicalflask and heated to a temperature of 60 C. A mixture of

Concentrated H2SO4 (1% w/w) with methanol (30% v/v) was

heated separately at (50_C) and then added to the heated oil in

the flask. The mixture was stirred for 1 hour and allowed to

settle for 2 hours.

3.1 PREPARING OF METHOXIDE SOLUTION

A small quantity of methanol was poured in a round

bottom flask and soxhlet apparatus, and the heater wasturned on. this was done to purify the methanol.

The sodium hydroxide pellet was placed in the weighing

balance to get exactly 0.25 g.

A solution of potassium methoxide was prepared in a 250mL beaker using 0.25 g (i.e., catalyst concentration of

0.5%) of sodium hydroxide pellet and 63 ml (i.e., mole

ratio of oil to methanol of (1: 6) of methanol.

The solution was properly stirred until sodium hydroxide

pellet was completely dissolved.

The sodium methoxide solution was placed in the oven to

bring its temperature to 60C.

4. TRANSESTERIFICATION PROCESS

One-step alkali based catalyzed Transesterification was

carried out for methyl ester production process from CPO,NCO, and CJCO. It is established that Transesterification

depends on several basic variables, namely, catalyst type,

alcohol type, catalyst -oil ratio, alcohol -oil ratio,

Reaction temperature, reaction time, agitation rate, FFA, and

water contents of oils (Ma and Hanna, 1999). In this work,

extensive preliminary experimentation with vegetable oilssamples showed that it was most efficient to fix reaction

temperature at 60 _C, agitation rate 400 rpm, and reaction

time for 24 h. Firstly, in the Transesterification process,different catalyst

NaOH -oil ratios (0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0%, 2.5% and 3.0%w/w) and different methanol -oil ratios (10%, 15%, 20%, 25%,

30% and 40% w/w) were used to determine their effect on the

methyl ester yields of the oils.All the reactions were carriedout in the reaction glass tubes, which were immersed inside a

glass water bath placed on the plate of magnetic stirrer of 400

rpm. The temperature and reaction time for all processes weremaintained at 65.0 0.5 _C and for 2 h, respectively. After the

reaction, the mixture was allowed to settle for 24 h to

overnight before separating the glycerol layer and the top layerincluding methyl ester fraction was removed in separate

bottles, weighed and analyzed by GC. Practically, the

separated methyl esters must be conducted to remove

impurities by washing with hot water until washing water isneutral. However, due to small amount of the oil samples

being used in the glass reaction tubes, the refinement stage onthis experiment was omitted.

4.1 Procedure:

10.5 mL of Jathropha oil was poured into 250 mL conical

flask and heated to a temperature of 50C.

A small quantity of methanol was poured into a round

bottom flask and soxhlet apparatus, and the heater wasturned on. this was done to purify the methanol. then

sodium hydroxide pellet was placed in the weighing

balance to get exactly 0.25 g

The sodium methoxide solution was kept in the oven to

bring its temperature to 60C.

The sodium meth-oxide solution was mixed with the

warm Jathropha oil and stirred vigorously for 50 minutes

using a magnetic stirrer. The mixture was then allowed to

settle for 24 hours in a separating funnel.


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Research and Development of Aviation Bio-Fuel using Jatropha Oil 61


The bio-fuel was then poured into a different beaker,

while the lower layer (which comprises of glycerol andsoap) was collected from the bottom of the separating

funnel.

Washing process will be implementing next forward.

4.2 Chemical Reaction

This reaction is shown in Equation where Rn refers to any

fatty acid chain (Meher et al., 2004).Transesterification oftriglycerides is a three-step process where alcohol molecules

react with one fatty acid chain at a time. The first step is the

rate limiting step in which the triglyceride reacts with thealcohol, a diglyceride and ester is formed. The diglyceride

then reacts with another alcohol molecule to form a

monoglyceride and second ester molecule. Finally, a third

molecule of alcohol is reacted with the monoglyceride to formglycerol and a third ester .All three reactions are reversible, so

in order for the reaction to proceed forward, there is an excess

of alcohol added to the reaction in more than three moles of

alcohol for every mole of triglycerides as shown.

Fig. 4.2

4.3 Post Reaction Processing:

After the Transesterification reaction is complete, there is still

a need to purify the fatty Methyl-esters. In the reactorcontainer, there is excess alcohol, free fatty acids, catalyst, and

the by-product glycerol.

4.5 Removal of Glycerol

Glycerol can be removed from the ester phase by washing orthrough a secondary reaction. Washing can be done by either

using water or mild acid. It is argued that by Introducing water

some of the esters can be lost due to hydrolysis .Due to the

possibility of ester lost the excess glycerol in the biodiesellayer can be removed through a reaction with alkaline catalyst

instead of water washing. Catalyst is added after the methanol

is removed so that the glycerol can be converted to

triglycerides. Once the triglycerides have been removed, theycan be added to new raw oil and re-enter the process.

After re-entering, they can be converted to usable methyl

esters.

4.6 Removal of Methanol

For purification of the ester phase, excess methanol must be

removed. Heating of the ester phase will remove the excessmethanol. The step to recover methanol should be done prior

to any washing procedure, in order to avoid additional

processing of methanol to be distilled from water .

4.7 Removal of Free fatty acids

Free fatty acids can be left in the oil. However, they will cause

problems with the fuels efficiency. Free fatty acids can beremoved after Transesterification by the addition of acid. As

described in acid catalyzed Transesterification, a small amount

of acid can be added to react with excess fatty acids .The acidmust then be washed out of the solution.

4.8 Removal of Catalyst

Catalyst can be removed from the bio-fuel by-product by

washing with water. The Catalyst is more soluble in waterthan oil so when washed, the catalyst will be removed from

the oil and dissolve in the water, which is not soluble with oil

(Meher et al., 2004). The mix can then settle and the two

layers separated. After all the steps and the process of theTransesterification. The samples had been made for resting

time process.

5. PRETREATMENT OF JATROPHA CURCAS OIL

Pre-treatment of J. curcas oil was done by acid catalyzed

Transesterification. As stated this is normally done for oils

with an acid value above 3mg NaOH/ 1g oil, even though theacid value test showed a value of 2.7mg NaOH/ 1g oil a pre-

treatment batch of samples was done to see if it would still

increase production of biodiesel.It was deemed unnecessary to proceed with an acid Catalyzed

Transesterification step after comparing the non-pre-treated J.

curcas oil to the acid Pre-treated J. curcas oil results after bothwent through the alkaline catalyzed Transesterification

reaction.

The non-pre-treated oil was able to reach a higher bio-fuelyield under a shorter period than the pre-treated oil as shown

in Figure 5. In Figure 5-2, the four flasks to the left were not

treated with an acid step and the four flasks to the right were

treated with an acid step. The figure shows that the four not

treated with the acid catalyzed Transesterification are clearerand have less soa

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