JOURNAL OF AFRICAN CULTURE AND INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTANDING - No. 6 October - December, 2013

No. 6Journal of African Culture and International Understanding 1

African Culture and International Understanding is a quarterly publication of the Institute for African Culture and International Understanding, a UNESCO Category 2 Institute at the Olusegun Obasanjo Presidential Library, Abeokuta, Nigeria.

The journal aims to provide insightful commentaries and position statements on all matters relating to the promotion of diverse African cultures and how these impact on international understanding.

No. 6 October-December, 2013

Regional themes2 Potentials and Progress of Opening Up Africa to Africa

Olusegun Obasanjo

6 Deepening Regionalism in West Africa through the Protection of Migrant Workers Ashimizo Afadameh-Adeyemi and Evance Kalula

12 Democracy and African Leadership Angus N. Maduegbuna

Focus on West Africa16 Ghanaian Case Study of Singing Games in Ethnomathematics

D.W. Mereku, D. K. and C.W.K. Mereku

24 Nollywood: Using Theatre to Propagate African Culture Omotayo Ikotun

Focus on North Africa29 Role of Educational Institutions in Mapping and Preserving Cultural Diversity

in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Region Gina Cinali

Focus on the Youth

31 Gazing Few Years Ahead: How the Youth can Shape the Future of African Culture Ibukun Olagbemiro

About the Institute

Published by the Institute for African Culture And International UnderstandingOlusegun Obasanjo Presidential Library, Abeokuta, Nigeria

JOURNAL OF AFRICAN CULTURE AND INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTANDING

Journal of African Culture and International UnderstandingNo. 62

Potentials and Progress of Opening Up Africa to AfricaOlusegun Obasanjo

His Excellency, Olusegun Obasanjo was President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999-2007) and Military Head of State (1976-1979). He was Co-Chairman of the Commonwealth Eminent Persons Group on South Africa; Chairperson-in-Office, Commonwealth of Nations, 2003-2005; Chairperson, African Union, 2004-2006; and joint promoter of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development. Email: [email protected].

In 1963 when leaders of independent African countries came together to form the Organisation of African Unity,

they outlined some fourteen objectives that would drive the Organisation. Top on the list of objectives was “to accelerate the political and socio-economic integration of the continent.” This aspiration remains as relevant today as it was fifty years ago. The need to take a critical look at the success stories and challenges of achieving continent wide integration as epitomised by a number of the Regional Economic Communities will also help in providing critical inputs into the African Union 2063 Agenda which aims to achieve “an integrated, prosperous and peaceful Africa, driven by its own citizens and representing a dynamic force in global arena”. Furthermore, this kind of reflection and exchange between stakeholders from the public and private sector will also assist in country-level policy making particularly in identifying critical success factors that need to be enhanced and replicated and failure factors that should be avoided and eliminated.

Only two months ago, and fifty years after they identified integration as crucial to the continent’s development, African leaders gathered in Addis Ababa and agreed that “the ultimate goal of the Union is the construction of a united and integrated Africa.” In that solemn declaration adopted by the 21st Ordinary session of the Assembly of Heads of State and Government of the African Union on 26 May 2013, African leaders outlined the following critical steps to deepen integration.

• Speed up the process of attaining the objectives of the African Economic Community and take steps towards the construction of a united and integrated Africa.

• Speedily implement the Continental Free Trade Area; ensure free movement of goods, with focus on integrating local and regional markets as well as facilitate African citizenship to allow free movement of people through the gradual removal of visa requirements.

• Accelerate action on the ultimate establishment of a united and integrated Africa, through the implementation of our common continental governance, democracy and human rights frameworks.

• Move with speed towards the integration and merger of the Regional Economic Communities as the building blocks of the Union.

Other aspects of the May 26 declaration were also critical to Africa’s integration efforts and the continent’s overall growth and development. They include:

• Accelerate Africa’s infrastructural development to link African peoples, countries and economies and help to drive social, cultural and economic development.

• Develop our human capital as our most important resource, through education and training, especially in science, technology and innovation, and ensure that Africa takes its place and contributes to humanity, including in the field of space sciences and explorations.

• Take ownership of African issues and provide African solutions to African problems.

• Mobilise our domestic resources, on a predictable and sustainable basis to strengthen institutions and advance our continental agenda.

From my experience in and out of government, the success or otherwise of these beautifully-crafted declarations largely depends on the level of commitment, and in some cases involvement, of African leaders in the private sector. While our leaders in the public sector have expressed commitment to integration, it is leaders in the private sector that must take the wheel and drive the process. I say this because the quest for integration in Africa is not new. In fact, it is as old as independent Africa itself. It began in 1958 with the Union of African States, an organisation comprising the then newly independent states of Ghana, Guinea, and Mali. Although short-lived, the impact of the Union of African States and the benefits of regional integration in the fight against Africa’s colonisation were obvious to the rapidly growing number of African countries which gained independence in the early 1960s. This inspired the formation of the Organization of African Unity, primarily as a structure for the agitation of self-governance complete elimination of colonialism.

From my experience in and out of government, the success or otherwise of these beautifully-crafted declarations largely depends on the level of commitment, and in some cases involvement, of African leaders in the private sector.


With almost all African countries gaining independence in the 1960s, came the desire for close cooperation among Africans. The continent was moved along two tracks in this regard – those who wanted close and immediate cooperation on political and economic basis and others who preferred gradualism. Despite their different views on Africa’s integration process, both groups generally agreed on the continent’s need for integration. Yet, the nature and character of the post-colonial African state made it unattractive for the political leadership in Africa to aggressively pursue integration. By the mid-1960s and 1970s, however, several economic arguments began to emerge in support of rapid integration. Indeed, it became obvious to African leaders themselves that most African states were too small or too weak to independently negotiate on the international scene. This gave rise to the birth of several regional economic communities which are commonly regarded as the “building blocks” of the African Union.

To be fair to them, regional economic communities have played a key role as instruments for the further integration of the African continent. In spite of this, integration efforts in Africa have not seen enough success to give many Pan-Africans hope and satisfaction. Intra-Africa economic, political, cultural, or even military relations have at best been minimal and insignificant when such relations are compared to those between African states and European or Asian countries. Figures in the early 1990s suggest that the proportion of trade for instance was only 8.4 per cent in 1993 compared with Western Europe (69.9 per cent), Asia (49.7 per cent), North America (33 per cent) and Latin America (19.4 per cent). The situation has hardly changed today. And let me say here I do not buy the argument that we cannot trade among ourselves because we produce similar or the same commodities. In Europe, Germany and France produce similar or the same commodities and they normally trade between themselves.

Sad Commentary on our Integration Efforts

Our inability to trade and relate with one another has meant that we are unable to maximise and fully take advantage of the synergies and complementarities of our economies and take full advantage of the economies of scale and other benefits (such as income and employment generation) that a larger market integration would have brought about. Is it not sad that we still purchase roses and other beautiful flowers grown in Kenya from fancy stores in London and other parts of Europe? Why is Kiwi shoe polish produced

in Kenya not widely distributed all over Africa? Cases such as these where products and services could have been sourced competitively from other African countries but were procured from outside the continent is the greatest sad commentary on our integration efforts. Several factors account for this slow progress including lack of political will, weak inter-country infrastructural facilities, political instability, economic nationalism, suspicions of dominance by large states and divisions along colonial heritage. Clearly, the challenges are mostly political in nature.

Our inability to trade and relate with one another has meant that we are unable to maximise and fully take advantage of the synergies and complementarities of our economies and take full advantage of the economies of scale.

A major failing of these past efforts, therefore, has been the focus on the political leadership and the negligence of non-state actors in the integration process. Or put another way the political declarations are not synchronised with private sector efforts to move the process forward on the economic plane. Indeed, it was not until the 1990s that African leaders gave non-state actors a strong voice in the continent’s integration initiatives. At the Conference on Security, Stability, Development and Cooperation in Africa (CSSDCA) organised by the Africa Leadership Forum (ALF) and held in Kampala, Uganda in 1991, there was, for the first time, an extensive analysis and synthesis of how to promote regional cooperation and integration for Africa’s socio-economic development, security and stability which involved Africa’s civil society and other non-state actors. Participants at the conference agreed that “the process of integration is too important to be left to governments alone. Equally important is the need to encourage and promote active involvement in the integration process of various socioeconomic actors such as trade unions, chambers of commerce, academics, women, youths and other professional associations.”

In subsequent forums, ALF continued to impress on African leaders that the leading driver of integration is the private sector, after governments have provided conducive atmosphere. The result of these civil-society interventions


has been a significant shift of focus from state actors to non-state actors in Africa’s integration process.

Africa’s Investment in Africa: Contribution of the Private Sector

In many more ways than are currently recognised, Africa’s private sector has proven effective in blurring state-border lines and promoting the free-flow of goods and services, capital, labour and markets. A significant catalyst for this cross-border commerce is the emergence of African multinationals which were non-existent about 20 years ago. The multinationals are Africa-based companies that are wholly founded by African investors with accumulated capital that can be easily moved within Africa. As a result, Africa’s investment in Africa are becoming significant.

Recent reports indicate that African multinationals are expanding across the region, building partnerships with players from other African countries, and opening up trade and manufacturing within the continent. This demonstrates that integration is about people and their constant aspiration for opportunities, and not so much about states and political institutions. Kenyan, South African and Nigerian companies have taken the lead in this drive to explore the African market and integrate commerce on the continent. Examples of this include companies like United Bank for Africa (U.B.A), Multichoice, Dangote Group, Oando, Zenith Bank, Equity Bank, and DAAR Communications, among others. Their impact is well documented in publications like the 2010 McKinsey report, Lions on the Move: The Progress and Potential of African Economies, Pioneers on the Frontier: Sub-Saharan Africa’s Multinational Corporations and books like Africa’s Third Liberation by Greg Mills and Business in Africa: Corporate Insights by Dianna Games.

A significant catalyst for this cross-border commerce is the emergence of African multinationals which were non-existent about 20 years ago.

Within the last 15 years, these African multinationals have rapidly expanded in Africa and in doing so have hastened the process of integration and improved relations between their home countries and host countries. For example, the Nigeria-based U.B.A Group operates in about 19 Sub-Sahara African countries. As its deliberate policy of integration, a staff of U.B.A in Kenya, for instance,

is required to see himself as a staff of the multinational U.B.A Group instead of U.B.A Kenya. Closely related to the UBA example of how corporate Africa is removing borders is the case of the Kenya-based Equity Bank. The bank recently began its expansion into other East African countries by acquiring local banks. Reconciling employees of the acquired banks with Equity Bank’s corporate culture was time-consuming and expensive. To mitigate these costs for new operations in Rwanda and Tanzania, the company brought 100 employees from those markets to work at headquarters in Kenya before they began work at the branches abroad.

Impact on Cultural Integration and Socio-economic Development

This throws up an interesting aspect of economic integration which is that it ultimately enhances social and cultural integration. Today, Africans are learning more about their cultures and those of other Africans because of companies like Multichoice. There is hardly any Kenyan with a satellite connection who has not watched a Nigerian drama on the very popular Africa Magic channel. In Nigeria, and I believe several parts of Africa, a song called Khona has been on the lips of young people for a while now because it has been actively promoted by African multinationals in the entertainment industry. I am told it is a song by the South African music group Mafikizolo. The effect is that Africans are more and more connecting with their brothers and sisters than it was decades ago. Wherever I go in Sub-Saharan Africa, people greet me Igwe! Obviously copying what they had watched in Nollywood films on African magic.

The success stories of the private sector in Africa’s integration efforts are many. It seems to me that whatever the public sector gives, the private sector makes greater. Let me illustrate this with the private sector-led telecommunications revolution that has enhanced connectivity in Africa and beyond. In 1999, when I returned as President of Nigeria, the telecoms sector had only one licensed operator which was the state-owned NlTEL. The company had an installed capacity of 450,000 telephone lines in the entire country, most of which owned by government offices or officials. Soon after, we began the process of liberalising the sector. By 2007, owing to the mobile network, this number had increased to 38 million, making Nigeria the country with the world’s fastest-growing teledensity. By April 2010, the number of mobile phone lines had increased to 85 million, with many people subscribing


to multiple lines. That number has exponentially grown to 113 million active lines as of December 2012.

To provide the infrastructure that supports this high teledensity, another Nigerian company funded by the Africa Finance Corporation, the Pan-African Infrastructure Development Fund (PAIDF) and a number of Nigerian banks, has built and is expanding a submarine communications cable with potential to connect at least ten African countries, including Nigeria, Ghana, Morocco, Senegal, Gabon, Cote-d’Ivoire, Angola, South Africa, Congo and Namibia. For these to continue to happen, there must be synergy, mutual confidence and mutual encouragement between the private sector leaders and public sector leaders.

But the growth in Nigeria’s telecoms sector is not the focus of my illustration. I would rather we pay attention to the fact that all the major players in the sector are African multinationals. They include the likes of South Africa’s MTN and Nigeria’s Globacom. The Zimbabwean mobile operator, Econet Wireless, was also a key player in the early days of the mobile revolution. Non-African operators like Vodacom who thought the business environment in Nigeria was too unpredictable refused to take advantage of the mobile revolution at the initial stage. They realised too late in the day that the reforms were indeed real and profitable, much to the advantage of their African counterparts who had faith and moved on and reaped the benefit of their faith and enterprise. I believe that this trend in Africa’s telecoms sector can be replicated in several other sectors to provide opportunities for African businesses in Africa. In this regard, the ongoing privatisation of the power sector in Nigeria offers African companies a huge opportunity to move into a sector that urgently needs to generate and distribute well over 40, 000 MWs of power from its current 4, 000 MWs if Nigeria is to be an industrialising nation.

Despite my optimism that Africa can be a productive ground for African businesses, I am aware of the challenges that need to be urgently addressed. There are issues of inadequate infrastructure that limits production as well as the movement of goods, people and even capital; weak institutions that are unpredictable and unreliable; labour forces that are unskilled; harsh political and business environments; intellectual property infringements; cultural differences that impede growth; corruption that drowns corporate transparency and integrity. Let me conclude by saying that I believe Africa’s rapid economic integration is possible and it will happen but it will happen faster with the active involvement of the political leadership. At best, the

expansion of businesses and the opportunities it will bring along will force the hands of political leaders into action. It is therefore not only politically wise but also strategic that political leaders recommit fully to efforts aimed at ensuring rapid integration across the continent by helping African businesses grow on the continent and beyond.

There are issues of inadequate infrastructure that limits production as well as the movement of goods, people and even capital; weak institutions that are unpredictable and unreliable; labour forces that are unskilled; harsh political and business environments; intellectual property infringements; cultural differences that impede growth; corruption that drowns corporate transparency and integrity.

Editor’s Note: This paper is an excerpt from the Opening Statement made by His Excellency, President Olusegun Obasanjo at the 4th Africa Governance, Leadership and Management Convention 4th September 2013, Leisure Lodge Resort & Golf Club, Mombasa, Kenya.


Deepening Regionalism in West Africa through the Protection of Migrant WorkersAshimizo Afadameh-Adeyemi and Evance Kalula

Dr Ashimizo Afadameh-Adeyemi and Professor Evance Kalula are globally-renowned scholars in international law at the Faculty of Law, University of Cape Town, South Africa. Professor Kalula is currently Director, International Academic Programme Office of the same university. Email: [email protected].

A prominent impact of globalisation has been the gradual disappearance of strict borders which

originally existed between countries. Although physical boundaries still exist, goods and services now flow across national boundaries with relative ease. Alliances are now been forged by countries, thus enabling them to integrate their economies. The resultant effect of integration among countries has been multifaceted in that it has resulted in a convergence of ideas, norms and values among the integrating countries. Axline (1968:2) has described the broad idea of integration among countries as one which is social in nature in that it brings about cohesiveness in society. The cohesiveness achieved by societies through integration helps to establish a common identity for members of the integrating regime. One way in which countries have been able to integrate their economies has been through the use of regionalism. Regionalism has been defined as “the adoption of a regional project by a formal regional economic organisation designed to enhance the political, economic, social, cultural, and security integration and/or cooperation of member- states” (Lee, 2003:8). Regionalism thus seeks to transform a geographical area into an identified social space (Bach, 2003:22).

In 1975, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was created to foster a common identity among West African countries. As part of plans to achieve cohesiveness among West African countries, ECOWAS made efforts through legal instrumentation to create an enabling environment to facilitate the free movement of persons within the region. Invariably, the stage was set to facilitate intra-regional migration of workers within West Africa. Globally, human mobility (migration) has been recognised as an inherent component for the development of societies around the world (Adepoju, 2005:13). The nexus between human mobility and the development of societies is embedded in the fact that when persons

move from one society to another, they carry along with them, their skills, technical know-how, culture, values and ethos. Therefore, any society that creates an enabling environment for human mobility, invariably paves a leeway for the free movement of labour and cross fertilisation of culture, values and ethos.

Apart from the social value of migration or human mobility, migration has been accepted as a veritable tool for adjusting the skills, age and sectoral composition of national and regional labour markets and migrant labour has become an essential feature in meeting economic and labour market challenges (Taran, 2006: 1). Economists argue that labour is an essential source of economic growth, thus making it a vital component for the development of societies (Appleyard, Field & Cobb 2005: 205). In this regard, Sen and Koray (2000: 327) have noted that over the years, the movement of labour across geographical boundaries has played an important role in the social and economic development of societies. In West Africa, recognition has been given to the fact that free movement of labour is central to achieving regional integration. West Africans are noted to be among the world’s most mobile population with almost 3% of the region’s citizens living in West African States that are not their country of origin (ECOWAS Commission 2007:3). In other words, there is a significant level of intra-regional migration within West Africa.

The high level of intra-regional migration within West Africa traces its origin to pre-colonial era when the present geographical delineation of West African States was non-existent (Awumbila, 2007: 2). In pre-colonial times, West Africans moved freely within the region ‘...in search of security, new land safe for settlement and fertile farming’ (Adepoju, 2005:1). However, with the arrival of colonial masters, territorial boundaries were established and economic structures were put in place which curtailed the free movement of West Africans within the region. Also, the free movement of persons within West Africa was further curtailed when most West Africa states gained independence.

Given the high level of intra-regional migration in West Africa and its importance to the development of the region, it is imperative to have in place an effective framework for protecting the rights of these migrants workers. Protecting the rights of migrant workers is essential in achieving regional integration because enabling the free flow of labour would boost the economy of the region by making labour readily available in countries


of demand. Also from a social point of view, the free movement of labour strengthens social interaction among Community citizens and this is an essential component of the integrative process (Robert 2004: 19-20).

With the formation of ECOWAS, Heads of States and Governments of ECOWAS saw the need to put in place a formal structure that would aid free movement of West Africans in the region. Putting in place a formal structure for the free movement of persons was seen as a means of giving impetus to the region’s ambition of achieving integration. To this end, ECOWAS Heads of States and Governments adopted the 1979 Protocol Relating to Free Movement of Persons, Residence and Establishment, the 1986 Supplementary Protocol on the Second Phase (Right of Residence) of the Protocol on Free Movement of Persons, the Right of Residence and Establishment and the 1990 Supplementary Protocol on the Implementation of the Third Phase (Right of Establishment) of the Protocol on Free Movement of Persons, Right of Residence and Establishment. These protocols were intended to replicate the pre-colonial homogeneous society wherein West Africans freely traversed the region (Adepoju, 2002: 11). Furthermore, when the 1975 Treaty of ECOWAS was revised in 1993, the Heads of States and Governments reaffirmed their commitment to remove all obstacles to the free movement of persons and grant the right of residence and establishment to citizens of ECOWAS in order to achieve one of the objectives of the revised treaty, which was the creation of a common market (article 3(ii) Revised Treaty of ECOWAS).

ECOWAS Framework for the Protection of Intra-Regional Migrants

As stated earlier, article 3 (ii) of the Revised Treaty of ECOWAS adopts the free movement of persons as a strategy for achieving its objective of developing a common market. Article 59 of the Revised Treaty of ECOWAS specifically gives citizens of ECOWAS a right of entry, residence and establishment. It further places an obligation on member-states to recognise this right (Article 59). The supplementary ECOWAS Protocols give effect to the right of entry, residence and establishment and acknowledges the existence of the rights of migrant workers. The next section of this paper, examines the relevant provisions of ECOWAS legislations that guarantee community citizens the right of entry, residence and establishment. It is important to note that not all the provisions of these legislations are dealt with in this paper; rather emphasis is laid on provisions that may act as bottlenecks to the free movement of migrant workers.

1979 Protocol Relating to Free Movement of Persons

This Protocol was the first attempt by ECOWAS Heads of States and Governments to define the content of the right of entry, residence and establishment of community citizens. It clearly sets out the various phases in which the free movement of persons will be achieved in West Africa (Part II, Protocol on Free Movement of Persons). This Protocol does not specifically create rights for migrant workers, rather it lays down the basis for granting community citizens the right to enter, reside and establish in the territory of member-states. Article 2 of the Protocol provides for these rights to be progressively realised in three phases.

The first phase entails the right of entry and abolition of visas for community citizens, the second phase guarantees community citizens the right of residence and the third phase provides for the right of establishment. Although community citizens are allowed visa free entry into the territory of member-states, they are required not to stay in the territory for a period exceeding ninety days. Where a community citizen decides to extend his/her stay beyond ninety days, Article 3 of the Protocol requires the community citizen to get authorisation for further stay in the territory.

Article 4 gives member-states the right to refuse admission of a community citizen into its territory if the community citizen falls into the category of inadmissible immigrants. The challenge with this provision is that the term ‘inadmissible immigrant’ is not defined in the Protocol. The definition is left to the national laws of the member-state. This creates uncertainty in the minds of immigrants because a member-state may arbitrarily classify nationals of a member-state as ‘inadmissible immigrants’. Article 5 regulates the procedure for the movement of private and commercial vehicles in the region. Private vehicles are permitted to remain in the territory of a member-state for a maximum period of ninety days. There is no provision on renewal or extension of the duration. It suffices to say that a community citizen who extends his or her stay beyond ninety days might not be legally permitted to use the vehicle for the duration of the extension.

Part V of the Protocol contains miscellaneous provisions. Of interest in this section is article 11 which provides for the expulsion and repatriation of a community citizen from the territory of a member-state. This article ensures that the security of the community citizen, that of his or her family and property are guaranteed during the process of expulsion or repatriation.


Supplementary Protocol on the Second Phase (Right of Residence)

In 1986, member-states of ECOWAS adopted a Supplementary Protocol on the Right of Residence (Protocol on the ROR). This Protocol for the first time, made use of the terminology ‘migrant worker’. Article 1 of the Protocol on the ROR defines a migrant worker to mean ‘any citizen who is a national of one member-state, who has travelled from his country of origin to the territory of another member-state of which he is not a national, and who seeks to hold or proposes to hold or is holding or has held employment.’ Article 2 of the Protocol on the ROR creates an obligation on the part of member-states to grant community citizens the right of residence in their territory for the purpose of seeking and carrying out income earning employment. Article 3 defines the right of residence to include the right to:

• apply for jobs effectively offered• travel for this purpose, freely, in the territory of

member-states• reside in one of the member-states in order to take

up employment in accordance with the legislative and administrative provisions governing employment of national workers

• live in the territory of a member-state according to the conditions defined by the legislative and administrative provisions of the host member-state, after having held employment there.

Article 4 excludes the applicability of article 3 for the purposes of employment in the civil service of a member-state unless permitted by national laws. Article 5 of the Protocol on the ROR further stipulates that community citizens who desire to reside in the territory of a member-state shall be obliged to obtain an ECOWAS residence card or a residence permit. In line with this requirement for community citizens in the territory of member-states to obtain residence cards, the Authority of ECOWAS in 1990, through a Decision Establishing a Residence Card in ECOWAS set out guidelines for the issuance of residence cards to community citizens.

Article 4 (1) of the Decision Establishing a Residence Card lists a number of supporting documents that need to be presented while applying for a residence card. For the purpose of this discussion only three of these documents will be mentioned. They are (a) repatriation guarantee or a letter of guarantee from the employer; (b) employment contract stamped by the competent Department of the host country; and (c) proof of registration in the register of trade names and business enterprises in the case of traders

and for the liberal professions, proof of membership of the relevant professional body or any certificate as proof of educational qualification. These documents are of interest to this discussion because they presuppose that every community citizen who is a migrant worker must either be gainfully employed in the formal sector of the member-state before they qualify to apply for the right of residence or must have a business which has been formally registered in accordance with the national laws of the member-state. However, a migrant worker as defined in article 1 of the Protocol on the ROR would include a community citizen who seeks to hold or proposes to hold or is holding or has held employment. The phrases ‘who seeks to hold or proposes to hold’ can be construed to accommodate community citizens who are yet to be gainfully employed but immigrate with the hope of getting employment upon arrival in the territory of the member-state. Also the phrase ‘who has held’ can be interpreted to mean migrant workers who were once employed within the territory of a member-state. This analysis is strengthened by the fact that the definition of migrant workers expressly includes persons who are presently employed in the territory of a member-state.

It goes without saying that the conditions set out in Article 4 (1) of the Decision on Residence Cards will invariably exclude unemployed migrant workers and consequently make them ineligible for residence cards. This is because unemployed migrant workers may not have the necessary documentation to obtain a residence card. Also, unskilled migrant workers who do not have stable jobs may also not be able to fulfil this requirement. Furthermore, migrant workers in the informal sector (such as petty traders), may find it difficult to obtain a residence card because they are required to furnish a proof of registration of their business enterprise. In some jurisdictions in West Africa, a business registration would only be issued to community citizens with valid residence card. In other words, the residence card for which the proof of registration is sought becomes a condition precedent to obtaining the business registration.

Another dilemma is created in Article 13(2) of the Decision Establishing a Residence Card. This article provides that ‘the holder of a residence card shall leave the territory of the host member-state at the expiration of the Residence Card, unless he has applied for its renewal one month prior to its expiration.’ The provision does not stipulate the procedure for renewal. If the renewal process requires the submission of the same set of documents initially presented for the original application, migrant


workers who lose their jobs shortly before the expiration of their permit will be unable to renew their permits because they would neither be able to furnish an employment contract nor an employer’s guarantee. The consequence of this is that they either leave the territory (irrespective of the number of years they have spent and the social and cultural ties they must have established) or stay in the territory as illegal immigrants. From this analysis, it is evident that the procedural requirements for obtaining a residence card may effectively serve as a bottleneck to the free movement of community citizens. This, in essence, defeats the purpose for permitting free movement of persons. The inescapable truth is that these procedural bottlenecks would only aid in the increase of migrant workers who live illegally in the territory of a member-state. Records show that a large number of migrant workers in West Africa are both unskilled and undocumented (Adedokun, 2003: 12). For these workers, furnishing the appropriate documents for obtaining a residence card would definitely be a herculean task – a task that might never be accomplished.

Going back to the provisions of the Protocol on the ROR, chapter V of the Protocol protects migrant workers from arbitrary expulsion. Chapter VI provides for individual expulsion and respect of fundamental rights of migrant workers. Article 14 stipulates that a migrant worker may only be expelled from a host member-state for reasons of national security, public order or morality; refusal to comply with orders given by a public medical authority for the purpose of protecting medical health; non-fulfilment of an essential condition for the issuance of a residence or work permit; and if the expulsion is in accordance with the laws and regulations applicable in the host member-state. It is submitted that giving member-states the latitude to expel migrant workers in accordance with its national laws creates room for abuse of the entire process. It means member-states can enact laws to expel migrant workers irrespective of the fact that they have complied with the provisions of the Protocol. Chapter VII of the Protocol ensures that migrant workers can transfer their savings to their country of origin, chapter VIII deals with co-operation between competent administrations of member-states and chapter XI deals with miscellaneous provisions.

1990 Supplementary Protocol on the Implementation of the Third Phase (Right of Establishment)

The preamble to this Protocol on the Right of Establishment (Protocol on the ROE) specifically acknowledges that the uniform implementation of ECOWAS text on free movement of persons is a pre-requisite for harmonious development of the economic, social and cultural activities of the region. It also adopts the definition of migrant workers as contained in the Protocol on the ROR. The Protocol on the ROE defines the right of establishment to mean the right granted to a citizen who is a national of the member-state to settle or establish in another member-state other than his or her State of origin, and to have access to economic activities, to carry out these activities as well as to set up and manage enterprises, and in particular companies, under the same conditions as defined by the legislation of the host member-state for its own nationals.

From the foregoing definition, migrant workers are guaranteed access to economic activities on the same basis as nationals of the member-state. Chapter II provides for establishment of or access to enterprise. Chapter III provides for sectors of economic activity governed by special measures where such activity involves non-nationals. In this section member-states undertake to accord non-discriminatory treatment to nationals and in the event that the member-state is unable to comply with this provision, the member-state is obliged to notify the Executive Secretary of ECOWAS (article 4). Chapter IV provides for the promotion of and protection of capital for investment or already invested in the establishment of an enterprise or for the purpose of obtaining access to economic activity. Chapter V governs the movement of capital for investment and current payments, chapter VI provides for cooperation between relevant administrations in member-states and finally chapter VII deals with general and miscellaneous provisions. The specific provision of interest in this Protocol is Article 12 (4). It enjoins member-states to cooperate with the Executive Secretariat in order to make possible the acquisition and exploitation of landed property situated in the territory of one of the member-states by a national of another member-state, in-so-far as it is permitted by the laws of the member-state. It is argued that subjecting the exercise of the right to acquire landed property to the laws of member-states is counter-productive and defeats the idea of regional integration. It invariably means that a migrant worker who might have resided in the host territory for a better part of his life might be unable to acquire landed property if the laws do not permit.


Enforcing the Fundamental Rights of Migrant Workers in West Africa

The content of what constitutes the fundamental rights of migrant workers is not spelt out in the ECOWAS Protocols on ROR and ROE. Rather, the definition section of these Protocols deems the fundamental rights of migrant workers to include any right granted in the Protocols on ROR, ROE and International Labour Organisation (ILO) Conventions on the protection of the rights of migrant workers. Furthermore, the Protocols on ROR and ROE do not state the extent to which the fundamental rights of migrant workers are applicable. However Article 16 (2) of the Protocol on ROR enjoins member-states to ensure that the fundamental rights of migrant workers are protected in the case of an expulsion (Robert 2004: 16).

Within the ILO framework, protecting migrant workers forms part of the basis for the creation of the organisation (Preamble to ILO Constitution). In line with its constitutional mandate, the ILO ensures that the welfare of migrant workers around the world is guaranteed. To this extent, it has put in place Conventions which guarantee these rights of migrant workers at an international level. Leary (1982:6) opines that apart from the ethical consideration for the protection of human beings in their workplace, international regulation is also needed to offset any economic and competitive disadvantages that might apply if governments were left alone to tackle the welfare of migrant workers.

Several ILO Conventions have been adopted over the years to protect the rights of migrant workers. These conventions include the Convention concerning Migration for Employment (No.97); Convention concerning Migrations in Abusive Conditions and the Promotion of Equality of Opportunity and Treatment of Migrant Workers (No. 143); the Convention concerning Forced or Compulsory Labour (No.29) and the Convention concerning Abolition of Forced Labour (No. 105). The rights provided for in these Conventions have been summed up in one convention and adopted under the auspices of the United Nations as the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families (ICMW).

The ICMW was drafted in conjunction with the ILO (Sen and Koray, 2000:331, Cholewinski, 1997: 145). The ICMW Convention has been recognised by ECOWAS and member-states are enjoined to adhere to its provisions (ECOWAS Commission 2007:4). Some of the rights guaranteed under the ICMW include: the right to non-

discrimination with respect to rights in the Convention; equal treatment between migrant and nationals and regular and irregular immigrants; protection against violence; equal work and employment conditions; free choice of employment, social security rights; right to health; right to housing; right to family reunification; right to education; cultural rights; political rights and residence rights (Cholewinski, 1997:154-186).

From the rights mentioned above, it is evident that the scope of rights created under the ICMW is wider than that of the ECOWAS Protocols. The principal challenge with enforcing these rights of migrant workers stems from the fact that there is a stark contrast between policy response at the national level and that which is internationally recognised by the community of States (Cholewinski, 2006: 410). Though member-states may have committed to protecting the rights of migrant workers at the international level through regional and international instruments, implementing policies and legislations at the national level to give effect to these rights is a different ball game. The implementation of these commitments is sacrosanct to the enforcement of these rights because where there is no structure for implementation, violation of these rights would go unpunished.

In the context of this discussion, migrant workers in West Africa may seek recourse for the violation of their rights either in the national courts of the host member-state or in the ECOWAS Court. The jurisdiction of the national courts to entertain such a complaint would stem from the fact that sovereign states do have the competence to resolve any dispute that arises within their territory. On the other hand, the ECOWAS Court would derive its jurisdiction to entertain such complaint from the relevant ECOWAS Treaty which makes the Court the appropriate forum for resolving disputes that arise from a Community instrument. While migrant workers may be able to lay claims to rights that accrue to them under the Protocol on ROR, ROE and other ILO Conventions, the extent of enforceability of these rights in national courts is dependent on how international law is applied in the municipal domain of each member-state.

There are two approaches to how international law applies in the municipal domain of member-states. Some States take the approach that for the provisions of international law to be enforceable within their municipal domain; such provisions have to be incorporated into the national laws of the member-state through the enactment of enabling legislation (Wallace, 2005: 37). For ECOWAS member-states that adopt this approach, the rights of a


migrant worker will only be enforceable if the member-state has taken necessary steps to incorporate the rights guaranteed under the ILO Conventions and the ECOWAS Protocols on ROR and ROE into its national laws. On the other hand, some States take the approach that the provisions of international law which have been ratified by the State are directly applicable in the municipal domain of the State (Shaw, 2003: 121-122). In countries where this is applicable, a subsequent enactment of a national legislation is not required to guarantee rights that are created through an international instrument. If this approach is adopted by an ECOWAS member-state, the rights of migrant workers as provided for both in the ILO Conventions and ECOWAS Protocols on ROR and ROE will be automatically enforceable by the national courts.

From the above illustration, it is apparent that in some countries, the extent to which national courts of member-states afford protection to migrant workers may depend on the commitment of a member-state to incorporating ECOWAS legislations into its national laws. Also the ability of a migrant worker to enforce a right which is derived from the ECOWAS Protocols or other ILO Conventions within national courts may vary from member-state to member-state. However, irrespective of a country’s approach to international law, if a community citizen is of the opinion that a member-state has failed to protect a right which is derived from ECOWAS legislation, such a Community citizen may seek recourse in the ECOWAS Court (Hadijatou Mani Koraou v The Republic of Niger). In this situation, migrant workers may be able to enforce their rights under the ECOWAS Protocol on ROR and ROE if they can establish that the member-state either violated such rights or failed to guarantee it. Be that as it may, it would not be sufficient for the migrant worker just to claim that a right has been violated. The violation in itself must be attributable to the member-state (ibid: 10-11).

As regards a migrant worker’s ability to effectively seek remedy in the ECOWAS Court, it is doubtful if a claim would succeed if it is based on a right that is derived from an ILO Convention which has not been ratified by a member-state. This is because there is no direct regional obligation on the part of member-states to give effect to rights provided for in the ILO Conventions. Even if is argued that the rights enunciated in the various ILO Conventions are enshrined in the ICMW, and ECOWAS member-states are enjoined to ratify them, the weakness of this argument is in the fact that States can only be bound by treaties that they have ratified. In other words, a more effective

way of ensuring that the rights guaranteed under the ILO Conventions are directly applicable to all ECOWAS member-states, is to distil those rights into an ECOWAS instrument.

Conclusion

Bohning (1984:13) acknowledges that “anthropologically, migration is an irrepressible human urge. People have always wanted to move to places with more spiritual freedom, greater political liberty or higher standards of living.” This assertion holds true for West Africans who constantly sojourn within the region for the hope of a better future. As pointed out earlier, putting in place structures that would help to improve the welfare of these migrants is beneficial to the region. Although the existing efforts to enhance free movement of persons in West Africa are quite commendable, a lot more can be done to make the system more effective. Also measures can be put in place that would enable the enforcement of the rights of migrant workers.

In terms of the requirements for obtaining residence permits, it is suggested that consideration should be given to migrant workers in the informal sector. Although it is acknowledged that stringent measures have to be put in place to curb illegal migration, latitude should be given to migrant workers who legally enter into the territory of the member-state with the aim of seeking employment. This will relatively aid member-states in ascertaining the actual number of migrant workers in their territory. As regards the protection of the fundamental rights of migrant workers, it is suggested that ECOWAS should enact a regional instrument which expressly spells out the fundamental rights of migrant workers. This will help ascertain the rights that accrue to migrant workers in the region. As noted earlier, the existing framework makes references to fundamental rights of workers in terms of ILO Conventions and the rights provided for in the ECOWAS Protocols but the rights provided for in the ECOWAS Protocols are not as robust as the rights in the ILO Conventions and the ICMW. The challenge with this dual source of rights is in the fact that the ability of migrant workers to seek recourse for the violation of rights that derive from the ILO Conventions or ICMW would to a large extent depend on whether the member-state has ratified these Conventions. However if the rights provided for in the ILO Conventions and ICMW are given effect to vide an ECOWAS legislation, it might be easier for migrant workers to benefit from these rights and also to enforce them in the event of a violation. Finally, taking into consideration that ECOWAS recognises


that human mobility is vital to both regional integration and the integration of West African economies into the globalisation process (ECOWAS Commission 2007:4), technical assistance should be given to member-states to facilitate the free movement of persons. This would aid strengthening the drive towards free movement of persons and help close the existing gaps in the framework.

References

Adedokun, O. (2003). The Rights of Migrant Workers and Members of their Families: Nigeria. UNESCO.

Adepoju, A. (2002). Fostering Free Movement of Persons in West Africa: Achievements, Constraints, and Prospects for Intraregional Migration. International Migration , 40 (2), 3-28.

Adepoju, A (2005). Migration in West Africa. Geneva: Global Commission on International Migration.

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Changing-Patterns-And-DynamicsAxline, A. (1968). European Community law and Organisational

Development. Dobbs Ferry, N.Y: Oceana.Bach, D (2003) New regionalism as an alias: regionalization

through trans-state networks’ in Andrew Grant and Fredrik Soderbaum (Eds) The New Regionalism in Africa. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing.

Bohning, W.R. (1984). Studies in international labour migration. London: Macmillan Press.

Cholewinski, R. (2006). International labour law and the protection of migrant workers: revitalizing the agenda in the era of globalisation . In Craig, J & Lynk, M.(Eds), Globalisation and the Future of Labour Law (pp. 409-444). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cholewinski, R. (1997). Migrant Workers in International Human Rights Law. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

ECOWAS Commission. (2007). Meeting of Ministers on ECOWAS Common Approach on Migration. Abuja: ECOWAS Commission.

Hadijatou Mani Koraou v The Republic of Niger, ECW/CCJ/JUD/06/08 (ECOWAS Court of Justice October 27, 2008).

Leary, V.A. (1982). International Labour Conventions and National Law: The Effectiveness of the Automatic Incorporation of Treaties in National Legal Systems. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff.

Lee, M. (2003) The Political Economy of Regionalism in Southern Africa. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press.

Robert, R. (2004). The Social Dimension of Regional Integration in ECOWAS. Geneva: International Labour Office.

Sen, F & Koray, S. (2000). Migrant Workers Rights. In Symonides, J (ed), Human

Rights: Concepts and Standards (pp. 327-341). Aldersot, Hants: Ashgate Publishing Limited.

Shaw, M. (2003). International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Taran, P. (2006). Imperatives for union leadership in defending a rights based approach to migration in the age of globalisation. Geneva: International Labour Office.

Wallace, R. (2005). International Law. London: Sweet & Maxwell Limited.

Democracy and African LeadershipAngus N. Maduegbuna

Professor Angus N. Maduegbuna is Dean, Faculty of Management Sciences, Tansian University, Umunya Anambra State, Nigeria. Email: [email protected]

It is a source of worry that democracy as a model of governance favoured in many countries of the world is

yet to find a firm foothold in Africa. With the benefit of hindsight, it is easy to criticise the type of democracy that is perceived to be in practice in Africa when compared with the system in many developed economies. People have always raised a voice over the nature of democracy in Africa that gives room to multiple of crises. While some school of thought ascribe the system to the non-existence of democratic constitutions, others say it is as a result of wrong orientation of governance. In the true sense of it, democratic constitution usually gives birth to governance which is conceived by people’s consent through a referendum or constituent assembly. The practice of democracy is that people are allowed to air their views on the issue of governance without being gagged. The essential thing is that people are recognised as the true repository of power whose opinions are supreme in matters which affect them. For democracy to take firm root the constitution should have democratic flavour and exist as supreme law of the land that dictates the dispensation of the law and justice.

In Nigeria, for instance, over the years, election has never been free and fair except in the case of Chief M.K.O. Abiola which was widely believed to be free and fair. The 2011 general election which ushered in the present administration in the country is also largely acknowledged to be free and fair to all intents and purposes. In Nigeria, people wonder at the highhandedness and recklessness of leaders especially after election into offices. While some attribute this behaviour to corruption in high places, others label it to a defect ab initio in the constitution of the land which was prepared by a handful of unelected persons. For


instance, the 1999 constitution of the country apparently was prepared, adopted and lorded over the populace by the military and ever since, the country could not be said to be at peace with itself, in spite of huge monthly revenue allocation to states. In the same vein, most of the countries in Africa under military siege for a long time experienced similar harrowing stories. All this and all others seemingly contributed to stunted growth of African economies.

Impact of leadership on the people

Two things are significant to make democracy blossom in the African continent, namely, democratic constitution and quality of leadership. In the words of Nwabueze (2010), in The legacies of Dr. Alex Ekwueme to Governance and toPolitical and Social Development in Nigeria, a democratic constitution is defined more essentially by the process by which it is adopted and connotes primarily a constitution adopted through the democratic process of a referendum or constituent assembly. A leader is supposed to be a role model and when a leader fails to demonstrate this essential trait, he or she loses the grip of commanding followers. African leaders are in the grip of poor governance due to lack of democratic constitution and the misuse of authority for personal aggrandisement. Good leadership qualities are necessary for sustainable governance. If a leader shows exemplary life in the process of institutional governance, the coming generation will imitate him or her.

In South Africa, Mandela is a role model and his exemplary leadership has opened up new vistas of generational and vibrant leadership for the country that can sustain the growth of the economy. No nation can grow under a bad leadership. During the 8th Ramadan lecture, organised by the NTA, FRCN and VON, with the theme, “Moral upbringing in Islam” the Sultan of Sokoto, Alhaji Sa’ad Abubukar noted that the complete breakdown of family and leadership values have left the youths with no role models to emulate, either at home or at the national level (see Sunday Sun, July 14 Vol 10, 2013) . It is the wish of the Sultan that parents, leaders and teachers would sit up and nurture the youths to be leaders of tomorrow who will be patriotic enough to develop their nation. When a visionary leader is voted to power, he should have clear ideas of what should be done to make the economy grow. African states and their leaders have become enmeshed in corruption and this state of affairs has become an obstacle to economic, political and social development. Bad leadership and corruption have linear relationship in African setting. Many African states achieved their

independence without a clear-cut political structure that can fit into their environment, that is to say, looking for a system of administration that can best suit them, due to their peculiar circumstances. Many have, therefore, adopted a costly system that is at variance with their culture and environment, leading to crises at various levels of administration. In Nigeria, for instance, the economy is carrying the burden of the presidential system which is very costly to run, in addition to unsettled issues of constitution which create immense challenges in the management of the national economy. People still believe that lingering economic, political and social problems cannot be solved without paying attention to fiscal federalism.

Even though Africa is endowed with mineral resources as well as immense human resources, the continent refuses to grow to expectations due to corruption in high places. Confirming this state of affairs, Transparency International (TI) has released its 2013 global corruption barometer to say that four African countries namely, Nigeria, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Liberia among others in the third world have very active corruption tendencies. Since Liberia is one of the nations leading the table, the country’s President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, fired the country’s Auditor-General for corruption (Daily Sun, July 15, 2013). In Nigeria, for instance, politicians are largely to blame for encouraging corruption. In an attempt to address the issue of corruption which has eaten deep into the fabric of the society, National Judicial Council (NJC) led by Chief Justice of Nigeria, Justice Mariam Aloma-Mukhtar, has set up reform agenda to sanitise the judiciary and look into corrupt practices involving judges in various courts in the country.

African states have many social, economic and political problems induced by corruption. In Egypt, for instance, the masses were disturbed over the corruptive enrichment of former President Mubarak who was ousted following people’s protests and demonstrations. Due to institutionalised corruption in the African States, Mubarak’s successor, President Morsi, was overthrown by the military. According to the editorial comment of Daily Sun, ousted President, Morsi, took off on a wrong footing immediately after his election. Instead of delivering on his electoral promise to run an all inclusive government, tackle poverty, unemployment, insecurity and stimulate the economy which had been run down, Morsi, began a clampdown on the state media and used the judicial system to persecute perceived political enemies, the same accusations he levelled against his predecessor, Mubarak.


African leaders present their manifestos when they seek for electoral offices but immediately election is won, midway, they forget quickly what they have come into the offices to do. Some of them start amassing ill-gotten wealth as well as buy houses in choice cities in the world. This is why political scientists advocate for strategic and effective leadership structure in government business.

Mandela laid a solid foundation in South Africa by going into the leadership of the country with a purpose and coming out with his head high. It is already a problem in many African States that leaders in government do not want to leave at the expiration of their tenure due to selfishness and tyranny. Some of them tinker with the constitution in order to perpetuate themselves in office. This explains some stay in office upward of twenty years. There are records of some dying in office.

African leaders hardly pay attention to education which would have reversed this ugly phenomenon. Education is one of the major keys to sustainable development but African leadership is interested in stifling education so that the led will continue to be enslaved. In Africa many states have less than 10% of their national budgets allocated to educational development, giving rise to their leaders ignoring the rule of law and principles of democratic governance. The African charter on the rights and wellbeing of the child adopted by the Organization of African Unity (section II), reinforced the resolutions with the call for the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women and girls. In 1990, four affiliate organizations of the United Nations (UNESO, UNICEF, UNDP and the World Bank) organised a meeting in Jomtien, Thailand, to reach an understanding which translated to a world declaration, on the right to education for all. In reference to this statement, one of the advantages of the declaration is that if everybody is given access to education, the government of any nation should be cautious of the policies it formulates and executes because individuals will know their rights and could raise their voice if their fundamental rights have been encroached.

Education is a powerful instrument that can make leaders in government sit up and in so far as the level of literacy is high in a country, government is bound to be less insensitive in matters affecting the citizenry. Added to this, the more African countries start to think of investing in human capital as an instrument of societal growth, the better for the continent, in terms of quality leadership, institutional governance and national development. When people are properly educated and elected into offices, chances are high that they will respect the law of the land.

Factors that encourage sit-tight culture in Africa

People aver that the sit-tight culture in Africa emanated from colonialism. In the Nigerian experiment, for instance, most of the Governors -General during colonial rule, in the words of Ukpe (2011), from Lord Lugard to Sir Lyttleton, were military officers. This background could explain why many African countries found themselves under military rule immediately after independence. With the passage of time, African leaders believed that acquisition of political power was a do-or-die affair and this mentality prevailed until the advent of the sit- tight culture due to the winner-takes-all syndrome.

...the more African countries start to think of investing in human capital as an instrument of societal growth, the better for the continent, in terms of quality leadership, institutional governance and national development.

On the eve of independence in many African countries, the colonial masters resisted to relinquish power after realising that they were losing grip in the face of nationalist agitations. By the time governance went to African leaders, they believed that one could not handover power on a platter of gold to one’s opponent. However, apart from this phenomenon is corruption. This can be why many communities celebrate corruption when their sons win electoral positions. Various clans in African communities, honour politicians with chieftaincy titles and other forms of commendation, just as in Nigeria, where people are given national honours even when their characters are questionable. As far as you are a strong politician, people see you as having joined the bandwagon of people to share in looting the national treasury and as such, the title given to you might suggest your throwing money to them as part of their own share of the loot. Due to attachment of money to African politics, only moneybags do the costly campaigns for electoral offices. In spite of one’s eminence with respect to qualification for election, you cannot do it successfully without the splash of money and in some cases, this state of affairs gives room to godfatherism.

Political campaigns in Africa is very expensive. After expensive campaigns, the electorate will want you to spend through your nose in order to attract their support. After winning the election, the elected officials will not be


in a hurry to meet electoral promises and manifestos before recouping the enormous expenditure incurred during the election. In some cases, they may like to perpetuate themselves in office if the constitution can be manipulated. If power of incumbency is not broken by right policies, the right candidates may not have the opportunity to serve in any capacity due to error in constitutional arrangements. In the words of Malan (2009), one of the problems of democracy in Africa is short-termism, the inclination of elected officials to disregard the bigger picture in favour of the next election date.

In a typical example of Nigeria, people who are called to draft or effect adjustment in the constitution always place their interest above that of the nation. It is indeed very difficult to explain the rationale behind people drafting a constitution, making a sitting governor or president to vie for a position in an election without first resigning his appointment in government. During Yar’dua’s administration, he accepted that the election that brought him into power was flawed. Some members of the ruling party regard their party as “a family union” that will through their determination and power, rule the country for the next sixty years. Some members say it openly that their party had already won the election that has obviously not been contested.

It is a gladdening development that African people are now waking up politically, to understand the import of democracy, that to survive, democracy must be practised. It is as a result of this understanding that in Senegal, the citizens by vote, were able to unseat the sitting government led by President Abdoulaye Wade, in the general election that took place in 2012. The European Union Foreign Policy Chief, Catherine Ashton, said it was a great victory for democracy in Senegal and in Africa (Daily Sun, 27th March 2012, p 14).

Security Challenges in Africa

The growing security challenges in the African continent has been a matter for worry. The insecurity is exemplified by youth restiveness, robbery, kidnapping, terror attacks and human trafficking among others. In many developing countries inclusive of Nigeria, the youth constitute the major segment of the population. In Nigeria, for instance, the current security challenges ranging from kidnap for ransom, Boko Haram insurgency as well as other disturbances may be traceable to failed youth development policy. Any country that ignores a policy that can empower the youth is inviting crises. Policy thrusts on

inflation and unemployment if properly addressed will go a long way in lessening crimes arising from youth joblessness and neglect.

In African states, due to bad leadership, the youth policy which is critical to growth of African countries is neglected, leading to various vices which assume dangerous dimension. There are disturbances in African countries resulting in wanton destruction of property, lives and other state assets, due to avarice of leaders, greed and corruption in high places. In Egypt, Libya, Tunisia and many other African countries, things have gone wrong in the process of governance leading to unprecedented level of unemployment, civil disturbance, highhandedness of leadership, extrajudicial killings, intimidation of rival parties by the party in power. With what has gone wrong in the continent, the leaders should go back to the drawing board and evolve concrete plans that will place premium on true democracy by adopting democratic constitution that is acceptable to the people as a means of moving the continent forward.

Conclusion

Concluding, I commend the Institute of African Culture and International Understanding of UNESCO, for its guts and determination, in promoting international peace and understanding through scholarly research and publication. Having gone through the gamut of analysis of African political situation, we identified major obstacles that slow the expected growth of African countries. The basic legal requirements or documents the countries need for institutional governance are completely absent in the process of constitutional administration. Democratic constitution must be accepted in the continent as a means of achieving true democracy. One of the practical steps African countries can take is to consider the stand of the UN on the education of the youth for all in this century. There is the need for youth development policies to address the issue of security challenges threatening the continent .

References

Abubakar, S. (2013). Sultan blames parents, leaders over youths immorality. Daily Sun, Newspapers July 14, 2013.

Ashton, C. (2012). Opinion of European Foreign Policy statement, on “Senegalese General Election” Daily Sun, Newspapers 27th March .

Daily Sun Newspapers (2013) Editorial opinion of the paper, July 17 www.sunnewsonline.com

Dictionary of Contemporary English, New Edition (2009) for Advanced learners, Pearson Education limited.


Faculty of Management Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka(2011). Proceedings on the theme, “ Managing Public -Private partnership for African prosperity”.

Isa, G. (2013). Corrupt judges know fate today as NJC, sits (Daily Sun, Newspapers, July 16,2013).

Malan, D (2009). Strengthening democracy through governance in Africa, Ghana. A paper delivered at the conference of the Business, Ethics, Network of Africa.

Nwabueze, B. (2010). The legacies of Dr. Alex Ekwueme to Governance and to political and social development in Nigeria, Awka, SCOA Heritage Limited (Educational Publishers).

Ukpe, E. (2012). The sit -tight culture and the problem of democracy in Africa, Cotonou, 5th International Conference in Democracy and Governance in Africa.

Ghanaian Case Study of Singing Games in EthnomathematicsDamian Kofi Mereku and C.W.K. Mereku

Professor Damian Kofi Mereku and Dr. C.W.K. Mereku are of the Department of Mathematics Education, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana: Email: [email protected]

All cultures have generated mathematics ideas just as they have generated language, religion, morals, customs

and games. In the last three decades, researchers have tried to establish that mathematical ideas exist in every culture (Gay & Cole, 1967; Lancy, 1978; Zaslavsky, 1973; D’Ambrosio, 1985). The Brazilian mathematician, Ubiratan D’Ambrosio, termed such mathematics ideas as ethnomathematics. D’Ambrosio (1985) defined ethnomathematics as intersections of culture, historical traditions, sociocultural roots and mathematics. He explains that ethnomathematics is the application of mathematical ideas and practices to problems that confronted people in the past or are encountered in present contemporary culture.

Other researchers and educators who have over the decades supported the use of such cultural ideas in mathematics education have also attempted to define the concept of ethnomathematics. For example, Gerdes (1997) referred to it as indigenous mathematics (Gay & Cole, 1967; Lancy, 1978); sociomathematics (Zaslavsky, 1973); and oppressed mathematics (Gerdes, 1982). But Gerdes (1997) pointed out that these definitions “have been gradually united under the more general ‘common denominator’ of D’Ambrosio’s ethnomathematics” (p. 339).

Zaslavsky (1973) has shown that a range of mathematical ideas can be found in indigenous African

cultural activities such as recreation, language, architecture and craft. From these activities, mathematics can be said to be a kind of cultural knowledge which all cultures generate. For example different cultures use different bases of numeration. This may lead to the arbitrariness of selecting a base in which to work. Gay and Cole (1967) assert that it is necessary to first investigate “indigenous mathematics” in order to be able to build effective bridges from this for the introduction of the subject in school. It is therefore important for teachers to begin with materials available in indigenous culture, leading the children to use them in a creative way and from there advance to school mathematics. In doing so mathematics teaching should lead to the discovery of new facts about one’s self, society and culture.

...a range of mathematical ideas can be found in indigenous African cultural activities such as recreation, language, architecture and craft.

According to Bishop (1988) mathematical ideas and culture interplay; that is, they cannot be separated from each other. In an attempt to demonstrate that mathematics is not culture free, he pointed out that mathematics can be conceived as a cultural product which is developed as a result of various activities. Bishop (1988) summarizes six fundamental activities which he argues are universal because they are carried out by every cultural group ever studied and are necessary for the development of mathematical knowledge as counting, location, measuring, designing, playing and explaining. Though these six fundamental and universal activities, which can be used to make mathematics learning more meaningful in school, exist in all cultures they are taken for granted within many societies throughout the world (Zaslavsky, 1998; Orey & Rosa, 2006; Davis, Bishop & Tiong Seah, 2008; Zhang & Zhang, 2010). For example, measuring is seen as a fundamental human activity since all cultures have evolved some form of measuring systems. Davis et. al., (2008) observed that in Ghana, some form of measurement is exhibited in the workplace and in the market place, where people buy and sell things and carry out mathematical activities including giving change, measuring pieces of cloth and other materials and weighing meat. But people see mathematics as a subject that has little or nothing in common with their methods of working or their cultural activities.


Mathematics Games

For a whole issue (Volume 15, No. 1, January 1986) of the journal “Mathematics in School’ to be devoted to games is clearly an indication that games are considered sufficiently important in the teaching of the subject. We have experienced ourselves the fun that can be obtained from playing games such as ludo, cards and scrabble by playing the games ourselves or watch others play. Games generate enthusiasm, excitement, total involvement and enjoyment (Ernest, 1986). Several games are used in the classroom because children enjoy them and are well motivated to play when learning them. Research indicates that apart from knowing how to play the game better, children acquire and develop new concepts when playing a game (Bright, Harvey and Wheeler, 1985).

Mathematical games allow children to do real mathematics. Real mathematics here means mathematics which is important and meaningful to children, and doing what real mathematicians do, using mathematical processes and thinking in a mathematical way (Ainley, 1988). Games, puzzles and play are interrelated human activities which have, for many years, contributed to the development of logical thinking and mental capabilities. Although puzzles and certain play activities also allow children to do real mathematics, they are not necessarily games. For an activity to be classified as a game, it has to possess certain characteristics. The interrelationship of these activities makes it rather difficult to exclusively define a game. As Brighter, Harvey and Wheeler (1985) indicate, a game can be described as an activity in which:

Research indicates that apart from knowing how to play the game better, children acquire and develop new concepts when playing a game.

• players (one, two, three or more) challenge a task or opponent;

• there is a definite set of rules. The rules describe all the procedures for playing the game, including goals sought; in particular, the rules are structured so that once a player’s turn comes to an end, that player is permitted to retract or to exchange for another move made during that turn;

• there is conflict of interest among the players;• all alternatives available to a player at each stage can,

theoretically, be examined by that player;

• the sequence of moves of a player and a player’s op-ponents each time a move is made is likely to be dif-ferent and unknown to all the players beforehand; and

• a finite number of moves is made before it ends.

In mathematics, games are used for the consolidation of concepts (Oldfield, 1991; Gough, 1999). Through games many children are able to recall instantly, certain facts such as the multiplication tables of 1 to 12 and apply the four basic rules on whole numbers in the range 1 - 100. It is critical, therefore, that we understand not just how games work but how different types of games work and how game taxonomies align with learning taxonomies.

In their research, Brighter, Harvey and Wheeler (1985), distinguished between three types of use for games. These are pre-, co-, and post-instructional, based on when games are used in relation to the existing curriculum. They found that there were indeed differences by learning level and by whether games were used prior to, during, or after other instruction and also that there were interactions between these two factors. They concluded that although drill-and-practice-type games made up the vast majority of edutainment titles. Instructional games could be effective for higher learning levels if designed and implemented well. Ferdig (2009) added that instructional or serious games can promote learning at higher taxonomic levels which require and promote problem-solving and situated cognition before they are integrated with instructional activities or content.

Finally, mathematical games provide the child with enormous opportunities to develop his or her ability to reason mathematically. The desire to win a game puts both players under pressure. Langdon (1989) identified the following as some of the mathematical processes the child undertakes under such pressures in the game of ‘wari’: visualise or count the number of stones in each hole; be aware of, and anticipate, empty set; count back from a possible finishing hole in order to recognise a good starting hole; use rotational symmetry; anticipate the effect of a move on the opponent; plan ahead; and reject poor possibilities and eliminate positions which are vulnerable to the opponent. These abilities are the foundations of a child’s development of mathematical thinking. A child will not understand higher level mathematics unless he or she has had the opportunity to develop these basic abilities.

The Southern African Development Community (2001) also outlined several advantages of using games in teaching mathematics to children including developing positive attitude towards mathematics, consolidating


mathematical concepts and facts, developing mental arithmetic skills, developing strategic thinking, promoting discussion between students and between teacher and student(s), encouraging co-operation among students and contributing to the development of communication skills.

Today electronic games are an integral part of children’s lives all over the world. The goal of using electronic games in mathematics is to increase the proportion of children who enjoy learning and using mathematics by engaging them through the play of electronic games in the context of existing classroom educational methods (Ferdig, 2009). Shin, Norris & Soloway (2006) found such games to be beneficial to students in learning mathematics, especially for low-ability students, regardless of gender and ethnic background. However most electronic games are associated with violence but little connection has been established between anti-social behavior and electronic game playing (Lawry, Upitis, Klawe, Anderson, Inkpen, Ndunda, Hsu, Leroux, & Sedighian, 1995). Lawry, et. al. (1995) also reported that many children who play electronic games have interests also in music, programming, reading, and school. In view of their numerous advantages, today there are myriads of exciting, free, online mathematics games to help children practise mathematics skills including counting, addition and subtraction, multiplication tables, fractions, measuring, shapes, angles, telling the time and lots more. But for many children in less developed communities in Africa who have no access to electronic games, cultural games can make a lot of difference in their learning of mathematics. Critics of the use of ethnomathematics in the classroom however argue that the over-reliance on use of cultural activities in the subject could lead to a watered-down mathematics curriculum that overemphasise inductive reasoning (like continuing visual patterns), because this is supposed to be good for women and minorities, and de-emphasising deductive reasoning and mathematical proofs, which is the heart of mathematics (Olin, 2003). Though research has shown that several fundamental and universal activities exist in all cultures, which can be used to make mathematics learning more meaningful in schools, in Ghana such activities are generally taken for granted and ignored in school mathematics.

...over-reliance on use of cultural activities in the subject could lead to a watered-down mathematics curriculum that overemphasise inductive reasoning.

Teaching mathematics with African games

The games to be described are pebble in fist, pebbles picking, sansaw akroma singing game and the firing game, which can be used in teaching certain concepts and skills in mathematics.

Pebble-in-fist game

This is a strategy game played in pairs with players facing each other. A player takes his or her hands to the back, hides a pebble in one hand and clenches both hands into fists. S/he brings the fists forward for the partner to guess and tap the fist containing the pebble. Finally the fists are opened for the partner to verify if the guess was right. The player with the pebble wins when the partner’s guess is wrong, otherwise the partner wins for a correct guess. A partner takes her/his turn of hiding the pebble until s/he wins else continues to do the guessing.

Mathematical concepts the game can be used to develop: Playing the pebble-in-fist game several times and comparing the results captured on score sheets can be good context for children to discuss the probability concepts of ‘fairness’ and ‘chance’.

Using the game in the classroom to teach mathematics: The game in this case constitutes the major activity of the lesson. Children can be made to compare the results of Ata and Kuma in a ‘pebble-in-fist game’ illustrated in the score sheet in Box 1. Scores are not very important for the purpose of the lesson, but serves as a source of motivation to the learners. Recording of results on a score sheet as in Box 1 is however an important mathematical process that the children must learn. It is necessary for the teacher to design an appropriate score sheet for children’s use before the lesson. Box 1 Ata and Kuma’s ‘pebble-in-fist game’

score sheet

Guesser’s initial

Hand with pebble

Hand guessed Outcome

Scores

Ata Kuma

Kuma Left Left IAta Left Right

Ata Right Right

Kuma Left Right

Kuma Right Left

Kuma Right Right IAta Right Left

Ata Left Left I


Kuma Right Left

Kuma Left Left I

In Box 1, a win is recorded by (or 1 in a blank circle) and a loss by ‹ (or 0 in a shaded circle). From the score sheet children can discuss the answers to such questions as:

• Who began the game with the pebble in fist?• How many times was Ata a guesser in the game?• Who has better chance of winning the game, Ata or

Kuma, if the game is continued? Why?• Is the game fair?

When children are playing the game, they may try as much as possible to be fair in the first few rounds. But as the game continues, the fairness will be considerably influenced by how the players’ attitudes and interest change with the game. Some will try to cheat by dropping the pebble behind them and sending forward empty fists or using smiles and eye movements to offer clues to their opponents. Through discussion and comparison of the game, children will realise that such natural tendencies can hardly influence the results of the game and this will help in a way to refine their understanding about games which are fair and those which are not.

Pebbles-picking game

This is a strategy game played by two, three or four players. Each player takes a turn in playing with five marbles. The player collects all the marbles into both hands and drops them on the floor. S/he selects one of the marbles and uses it to pick up others in the following way:i. Throw up the selected marble, pick another

immediately on the floor with the same hand and catch the air-borne marble with it.

ii. Put the marble you have successfully picked with the selected marble aside and continue with the process until all the marbles are picked with the selected marble for the first round.

iii. Do the second round in the same manner as above, but this time, pick two marbles at a time (that is, picking two and then two).

iv. In the third round a three and then a one are picked; and in the final round a four is picked at a go.

At each stage, a player works out the combinations needed in order to pick the right number. A player fouls when s/he is unable to pick the right number or is unable to catch the air-borne marble with the marbles picked. The winner is the one who completes the tasks successfully. The

game moves on to the next player when a player commits a foul or successfully completes all the rounds. The game is similar to the ‘Cinco Marias’ (Five Marias) played in Brazil (Lankford, 1996).

Mathematical concepts and skills the game can be used to develop: The pebble-picking game can be used as an activity to teach number facts and also as a practice (or follow-up) activity. When the pebbles are replaced with numbered cubes the game can help children to practice not only basic numbers facts but also problem-solving strategies like trial and error, looking for pattern, making and testing hypothesis, reasoning and disproving.

Using the game in the classroom to teach mathematics: To help them investigate number facts, children can play the pebble-picking game using numeral cubes. All the cubes are numbered on all sides by the same number as shown in Figure 1. Children start with the game before the investigation in order to visualise some of the strategies they will need to carry out the activity.

Figure 1 Numbered cubes for game

Children play the game several times taking the cube first as ordinary pebbles (i.e. with no regard to the numbers). When they have done this sufficiently to revise the rules of the game, ask them to include the following conditions:

• change the goal sought for in the game from only carrying out the tasks successfully to include also a score;

• the first cube that is selected to be used in collecting the others will not carry any score;

• the number on a cube collected successfully is recorded as a score, but if more than one is collected, their product is recorded as the score; and

• the final goal is to get the largest score.Children will need a simple score sheet like the one in Box 2 to record the results of the game.


Box 2 Senyo and Dzifa’s Cube-picking game score sheet

Rounds Selected cube

Player ‘A’, Senyo’s score

Total score

Selected cubes

Player ‘B’ Dzifa’s scores

Total score

Round 1

Round 2

Round 3

Round 4

1

2

2

3

2+3+4+5

1×4+3×5

1×3×4+5

1×2×4×5

Total

14

19

17

40

90

3

1

3

4

1+2+4+5

3×4 +2×5

2×4×5+1

1×2×3×5

Total

12

22

41

30

105

Ask the students to study the results in Box 2 and compare the scores of Senyo and Dzifa. The results show that in round 2, Senyo selected the cube with the number 2. He threw this up and successfully collected the two cubes 1 and 4. He repeated the process and then collected the other two cubes left (that is 3 and 5) making a total score of 19. When children are conversant with the game and the scoring they can be asked to change the rule to making a total score of 100 or 150. After some time they should be able to work out the total scores without the cubes. With the help of the teacher children can make a table of all the possible scores a player can obtain at each round as shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Possible scores a player can obtain at each

3 2×4×5+1 41˶ ˶ ˶˶ ˶ ˶

With the completed table children will be able to investigate the highest possible score or minimum score of the game. They may make conjectures on the type of combinations they will need in order to win the game and try to verify these as they play the game. The investigations can be extended by asking children to verify the number of cubes to, for instance, four or six.

Sansaw akroma singing game

This is a singing game performed by three or more people each with a small stone. The players squat in a circular formation, each with a hand grabbing the stone on the ground. At the word go, they all start singing and passing their stones to the next player on their right according to the rhythm of the first two lines of the song entitled “Sansaw akroma” (see (Mereku, 2012) for the full rendition and scoring of the song). The players agree on whom to lead, and this leader begins to call the song with all joining with the tap on the beat (2 times in a bar pass, grab/pass grab) with their stones. They all pass their stones continuously in an anti-clockwise direction to the neighbour to their right making the rhythm or sound illustrated in Box 3. The game continues until a player misses the rhythm and is unable to pass on his or her stone. The player who misses the game is the loser and withdraws from the game.

It is difficult to reach the final winner for it becomes easier as the number reduces. The objective is to avoid leaving the game early. Figure 2 shows a picture of children and a teacher playing the ‘sansaw akroma’ singing game.

Box 3 Rhythm of the sansaw akrɔma song

round in the cube picking game

Rounds Selected cube

Possible scores that cubes collected can make

Total score

Round 1 1 2+3+4+5 142 1+3+4+5 133 1+2+4+5 124 1+2+3+5 115 1+2+3+4 10

Round 2 1 2×3+4×5 261 4×3×2+5 221 2×4+3×5 232 1×3+4×5 232 4×3+1+5 17˶ ˶ ˶˶ ˶ ˶

Round 3 4 2×3×5+1 314 1×2×3+5 11


Figure 2 Picture of children and a teacher playing the ‘sansaw akroma’ singing game

Mathematical concepts and skills the game can be

held by the child in position A will move to position C; if the game continues it will move to position E and at the end of the third round go to position A. This means it comes back to A at the end of the rhythm after 3 rounds of 8 beats each (or after 24 beats). The activity can be varied by changing the number of players or the number of beats in the rhythm. Children can be given the worksheet in Box 6, which has activities based on a 6-beat singing game to complete.

Number of players doing the 6 beat singing game

Position at which object in Position ‘A’ will land at the end of

each round

Total number of moves

1st 2nd 3rd 4t

h 5th 6t

h 7th

4 C A 12

5 B C D E A 30 used to develop: The ‘sansaw akroma’ singing game can be used to teach a wide array of mathematical concepts. The children can discover another application of the concept of Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) which is taught in primary school mathematics. They will discover that the total number of moves that an object will make in order to end on the last beat of a rhythm at its original or start point is the LCM of the number of players and the beats in the rhythm.Using the game in the classroom to teach mathematics: The places where the players sit around a circle in the game is labelled A, B, C, D and E. for the purpose of the

investigation. The players mark their objects so that they will be easily identified (see Box 4).

A

B

C

D

E

F

Box 4 Players’ positions around a circle in the sansaw akroma game

In this investigation, children are helped to find the number of moves an object will make in order to end on the last beat of a rhythm at its original or start point. For example, let us consider the six players shown in Box 3 using a rhythm which has 8 beats as shown in Box 5. It will be observed that after the first 8-beat round, the object

Box 6 Number of players doing the 6-beat singing game by their positions at the end of each round

After completing the worksheet, certain patterns become obvious. Help children to find the relationship between the beats in the rhythm ‘b’, the number of players ‘n’ and the total number of moves ‘M’, by rewriting their results in a mapping (b, n) →M as follows:

i. (8, 4) → 8; (8, 5) → 40; (8, 6) → 24; (8, 10) → 40 and

ii. (6, 4) → 12; (6, 5) → 30; …

With the mapping activity some of the children should be able to describe the relationship as ‘M’ is the smallest number that ‘n’ and ‘b’ can divide or ‘M’ is the lowest common multiple (LCM) of ‘n’ and ‘b’. This can become another application of the concept of LCM and primary school children can explore. The most common applications of the concept found in their books are about taps filling bath tubs which are very foreign to most children learning in less-developed countries.

Poh! (or Firing) game

The fourth game is a response--rhyme game played by any number of players. A player leads the game each time. The players agree on whom to lead, and this leader begins the rhyme (see Box 7) then all join in with the right response. The rhyme is usually about several elements belonging to a particular defined set. For example, the rhyme in Box 7 is about plants that bear fruits. It can also be about animals that fly, animals that have four legs, numbers that are divisible by 4 or numbers that sum up to 10.


Box 7 A rhyme for the Poh! gameLeader Other playersMany plants yield fruits yield fruitsMany plants yield fruits yield fruitsorange plants yield fruits yield fruitspawpaw plants yield fruits yield fruitscocoyam plants yield fruits poh! poh!mango plants yield fruits yield fruitssugar-cane plants yield fruits ….. …..

Mathematical concepts and skills the game can be used to develop: It can be used as a drill-and-practice-type game for helping children to consolidate number facts in mathematics. The game can help them to recall their number facts quickly and stimulate their mathematical thinking as they verbalise their decisions in order to win.

Using the game in the classroom to teach mathematics: Using number facts in the children’s native language in defining the set of elements in the rhyme (as in Box 8) can make the rhyme an exciting drill-and-practice-type activity which help children to consolidate number facts.Box 8 A number rhyme for rhyme for the Poh! game

in Eve (a Ghanaian) language

Leader Other players All

Nɔmba wo kpe’a Wɔ’a wo() Wo’a wo() Wo’a wo()

Nɔmba wo kpe’a Wɔ’a wo() Wo’a wo() Wo’a wo()

Œ kple kpe’a wɔ’a wo ()?

Wo’a wo() Silent

’ kple Ž kpe’a wɔ’a wo ()?

Wo’a wo() Silent

kple kpe’a wɔ’a wo ()?

Wo’a wo() Silent


Wo’a wo() Poo!


Wo’a wo() Silent


Wo’a wo() Poo!

Box 9 Numbers that sum up to 10, sum up to 10 (rhyme)

Leader Other players AllNumbers that sum up to ten ()

sum up to ten ()

and sum up to ten ()?

sum up to ten ()

Silent

and sum up to ten ()?

sum up to ten ()

Poo!

Box 9 Numbers that sum up to 10, sum up to 10 (rhyme)

Box 9 presents the English translation of the rhyme in Box 8. Anytime an ordered pair named the players have to respond that it belongs to the set. This continues until an ordered pair which does not belong to the set is named. The response in this case is silence. The command and response in the game follows the rhythm or sound illustrated in Box 10. Box 10 Rhythm of the rhyme ‘Nɔmba wo kpe’a wɔ’a wo’

Box 10 Rhythm of the rhyme ‘Nɔmba wo kpe’a wɔ’a wo’

A player who breaks the silence by responding when the member named does not belong to the set, commits a foul and consequently all the others ‘fire’ at him POH! POH! The player who loses or is fired at, usually takes the turn as the leader to continue the game. The teacher can have several other pairs on numbers on a card for the children to pick and use to do the activity. The game can be varied by changing the sum whose number bonds they are to determine. e.g. numbers that sum up to nine, sum up to nine, or numbers that sum up to twelve, sum up to twelve.


General Observations

Though the primary mathematics curriculum in African countries acknowledge the fact that games in mathematics can be effective vehicle for teaching the subject, very little is made of traditional African games in the teaching of the subject (Southern African Development Community, 2001). The few games that are played in the classrooms are largely foreign and used as motivational activity to introduce lessons or given to more able children as ‘time-fillers’ to keep them busy when they have completed their class exercises. The fact that most traditional African games are out-door games has prevented their use in teaching mathematics in schools. In such out-door games, children chase one another, wrestle, throw, prick things, sing and dance, and so it is not convenient to play these games in a weather of an average temperature of 30oC. Although some of the games involve estimation, co-ordination of senses and strategies, the mathematics involved in such processes are not very obvious. Also in most traditional games, scoring is non- existent.

The goals sought in most traditional African games are basically the ‘winner’ or ‘loser’ or who comes first or last. The reward of winning is an applause or praise and that of losing is in many cases humiliation. The humiliation takes various forms including teasing, hooting or beating. Many children have often wept at the end of games as a result of such humiliation. Sometimes even adults join in such embarrassments. This has made some children as well as teachers, especially those who have continuously experienced lack of success in their childhood games to hate playing games. In view of its numerous advantages including providing enjoyment, encouraging cooperation and discussion (Southern African Development Community, 2001), games should be used in the mathematics classroom for their intended purposes of providing drill-and-practice for consolidation as well as teaching of concepts and facts and not for humiliation.

Conclusions and Recommendations

It has been demonstrated that cultural activities can provide a useful context for teaching certain topics in mathematics as well as for consolidation of mathematical facts and mental skills. Using numbers in the children’s native language in defining set of elements in a rhyme can make the rhyme an exciting drill-and-practice-type game activity for making children to consolidate their number facts. The game can help them to recall their number facts quickly and stimulate their mathematical thinking as they verbalise their decisions in order to win. The ‘sansaw akroma’ singing game yields an interesting investigational activity that children understand as another application of

the concept of LCM since the most common applications of the concept found in their books are about taps filling bath tubs which are very foreign to most children learning in less developed countries.

The mathematical processes and the deductive reasoning in the game activities described in the ‘sansaw akroma’ singing game and the pebble picking game debunks the pessimists’ argument that over-reliance on ethnomathematics in the classroom could lead to a watered-down mathematics curriculum that overemphasise inductive reasoning which is the heart of mathematics (Olin, 2003). Since there are no more books that give pages with drill and practice exercises to consolidate mathematical facts and skills, teachers in Africa should be encouraged to use games in teaching the subject. There are lots of strategy, response and singing games, like those described in this paper that can be found in most African communities and teachers should be encouraged to adapt these in teaching mathematics.

Since there are no more books that give pages with drill and practice exercises to consolidate mathematical facts and skills, teachers in Africa should be encouraged to use games in teaching the subject.

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Nollywood: Using Theatre to Propagate African CultureOmotayo Ikotun

Omotayo Ikotun is a Visiting Administrative Fellow at the Institute of African Culture and International Understanding, Olusegun Obasanjo Presidential Library, Abeokuta, Nigeria. She is a former Registrar of the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Email: [email protected].

The theatre, ever since inception has presented itself as a driving force in popular culture and as a valid

platform for reconstructing cultural identity. It has helped in sketching out alternative ways of defining and measuring the force of social signification. This paper considers some aspects of the propagation of African culture via the film format of theatre. Particular, it establishes its claims from the perspective of the Nigerian film industry popularly referred to as “Nollywood”. The paper has been organised into the following sub-heads: concept of culture, African culture, theatre, theatre and culture, Nollywood and the propagation of African culture, and conclusion.

Concept of Culture

Culture describes the many ways in which humans express themselves for the purpose of uniting with others, forming a group, defining an identity, and even for distinguishing themselves as unique. Most formal definitions of culture describe it as the way of life of a certain group of people in a particular society. However, a more embracing perspective on culture will consider all the material and nonmaterial expressions of a people as well as the processes with which the expressions are communicated. Culture in that sense could therefore depict glaring similarities between people within the same territorial space that foster a feeling of oneness that they would wish to preserve for future generations.

Taylor (cited in Luzbetak, 2002: 134), argues that culture is “a complex whole, including knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other habits acquired by people as members of a society”. It is for Ang (1996), “the objectified set of ideas, beliefs, and behaviours of peoples” and for Hall (1997), concerned with “the production and exchange of meaning – between members of a society or group” (cited in Gillian Rose, 2001: 6). Hence, culture is all about living and the manner of doing things in the society. Nanda (1984) describes culture as “…that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society. It is a patterned way of life shared by a group of


people”. Although culture is not necessarily for the survival of the human species, notions of culture and cultural identities are present in almost every human society on earth. As the world moves closer together through increased globalisation, migration, and technological advancement, human beings are beginning to question the role (and reach) of culture within all aspects of human existence. The questions have reflected on how culture has historically been used to justify and legitimise certain behaviours, practices, traditions, and overall ways of living.

Culture has some distinguishing characteristics. The World Book Encyclopedia (1992) identifies some of these as: (a) satisfies human needs in particular ways; (b) acquired through learning; (c) based on the use of symbols; and (d) consists of individual traits and groups of traits called patterns.

Culture is a powerful constituent and vehicle at the core of possible transformations, given that it mediates and transfers ideas, values and intellectual refinement, between generations and between civilizations. It is both a preserving and a reproductive force, by transmitting the patterns of the past and the present, to the future, and an important innovative influence, by its power to inculcate new attitudes, thoughts, values and norms.

African Culture

Africa is home to innumerable tribes, ethnic and social groups, some representing very large populations consisting of millions of people, others are smaller groups of a few thousand. Some countries have over twenty different ethnic groups, and also are greatly diverse in beliefs. The culture of Africa encompasses and includes all cultures within a continent of Africa. There is a political or racial split between North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa, which in turn, is divided into a great number of ethnic cultures. African cultures are diverse and dynamic, and like most of the world have been impacted upon by both internal and external forces. African culture includes all the cultures that were ever in the continent of Africa. These include the music, art, literature and practices of Africa. African culture is the general widespread core values, beliefs, cultural themes and behaviours as they existed prior to European contact and as they still exist, especially in the rural areas and to a lesser extent in the urban areas of Africa. It is upon this which many, if not most, fundamental thought processes and behaviours of contemporary Africans are based and continue to derive from.

The Theatre

The theatre is one of the most dynamic art form in the contribution to the development of human society. Theatre reinforces the natural crossover between the arts. Osanyin (1983) describing the relationship between theatre and other art forms, says that “Theatre encompasses all art forms. The theatre is the melting pot of all the arts. It uses arts in their most dynamic state.” Theatre is a composite name which embraces other media like film and television, radio and live performances. It uses a form of art that utilises performers such as actors, presenters and dancers to present the experience of a real or imagined event to an audience. The performers communicate this experience through combinations of gesture, movements, speech, song, music, dance and other visual or aural aesthetics.

African Culture and Theatre

In modern times, African culture is functionally linked to theatre especially the popular media forms such as radio, TV, and films, since they played a very significant role in the struggle against colonialism and exploitation. Since time immemorial, the media have helped to rescue, incorporate, preserve, and mediate elements which serve the interests of these popular classes. These interests include not only the people’s aspirations, but also those factors which define their beliefs, expressions, and historical and cultural development in general. Throughout history, popular theatre forms such as dances, dramas, musical compositions, narratives, and others have played a role in the cultural struggle of the African peoples and their development. The nature of struggle has dictated the role of these art forms.

African culture is functionally linked to theatre especially the popular media forms such as radio, TV, and films, since they played a very significant role in the struggle against colonialism and exploitation.

Colonialism disrupted not only the political organisation and economic production of the many African political entities; it also brought forms of cultural alienation, invasion, and disorientation. Control of wealth, natural resources, and cultural products were the main aims of colonialism. New systems for the production and distribution of wealth were initiated, along with mental and


psychological control of self-perception and awareness. Consequently, African culture was destroyed, undervalued, undermined, and distorted. The systems by which Africans had struggled with nature and organised their societies became irrelevant in an incomprehensive and exploitative social order. However, elements of African culture survived in its various languages, performing and other arts, religions, oration, and literature and depict the strength of African culture. These elements also underscored African resistance to annihilation and cultural destruction. During the fight for independence, African theatre and cultural forms became elements of resistance and the struggle for independence. Songs, dances, and ritual dramas mobilised people to understand and reject their colonial situation.

Africa’s cultural regeneration has been an integral aspect of post-independence nation-building on the continent, with recognition of the need to harness the cultural resources of Africa to enrich the process of education, requiring the creation of an enabling environment in a number of ways. In recent times, the call for a much greater emphasis on the cultural dimension in all aspects of development has become increasingly vocal. Today, using popular theatre, arts forms with the available modern media have helped to strengthen the national bonds that Africans need to forge ahead. After decades of existence, the various African theatres, especially the media form has given rise to a number of issues- questions abound as to whether they are playing a significant role in new development strategies and how they are meeting their goals. However, despite severe handicaps, the theatre has in its own way helped to fashion out a new consciousness for African culture. We shall subsequently examine how the film form of theatre has helped to propagate the African culture. The thematic focus rests on the Nigerian film industry popularly referred to as “Nollywood”.

Nollywood and the Propagation of African Culture

Over the years, the medium of film has come to be closely associated with the culture industry. In Nigeria, such a role for the film industry is still evolving although certain factors are altering the profile of what could be regarded as the country’s culture. Local cultures in their original form have become secondary considerations in film content. Local cultures are, of course, in transition all over the world. Globalisation is setting the pace in the interaction of cultures with the consequence that local cultures are being submerged. Despite this setback, film is

still a great transmitter and propagandist item of Nigeria’s culture. This view stresses the fact that film in black Africa is geared towards a reawakening of African consciousness, developing the cultural ethos of the people, which had hitherto been trampled upon by colonialism. Film is one of the most versatile medium by which the identity, image, culture, aspirations and achievements of a nation are impressed on people’s minds. The ability of films to create a psychological accord between audience and screen characters emphasizes their relevance of cultural development. Films can be used to correct distortions by highlighting the indigenous social and cultural values. Indigenous films are one of the strongest link for Nigeria’s culture and cultural identity.

As far back as 1979, even when the home video industry is yet to berth, Arulogun (1979) remarked that “film is a powerful tool for the transmission of cultural values”. He identified three main areas where film could further the cause of cultural identity. First, as a propaganda tool, film remains a vehicle employed by governments and others interested in the art of subtle diplomacy. Because of its popularity as an entertainment medium, it easily becomes a means of relaying and reinforcing information meant to promote a certain reality. Secondly, film also plays the role of stereotype helping to shape perspectives on a people’s culture. The impressions which viewers develop about a people and their cultural values are greatly influenced by film portrayals. Thirdly, film as an educational medium covers issues in the school curriculum or things about their country of origin which tell viewers about different countries and peoples.

Kafewo (1999) corroborates this view when he remarked that:

Film, no doubt, is one of the art forms that are the greatest carriers of our cultures and values. This is why it has been deployed as comrade in arms by different countries in the world to propagate their cultures. Lenin had no doubt that the cinema held the greatest promise in the struggle for the sustenance and spread of the Russian revolution. What we know today about the American, British, Indian, and the so-called Chinese films (actually made in Hong Kong) came from the arts ably carried by the film medium.

The word “Nollywood” coined following the style of Hollywood (referring to the American film industry) and Bollywood (referring to the Indian film Industry) is the generic name for the Nigerian film industry. It grew from the rich traditional culture of Nigeria into a supposedly modern internationally-recognised industry. Since its


inception in the early nineties, the Nollywood movie industry has progressively projected the African cultural heritage to other parts of the world. This encompasses both good and bad aspects of the culture. Today, many Africans in Diaspora tend to feel at home whenever they watch any of the Nollywood movies.

Significantly, Nollywood films are exponents of the social, political, economic, cultural, and technological developments of Nigeria. Thus, their contact with an audience from a different cultural background has some implications. The films could arouse the interest in such audiences positively towards the situations so portrayed. In other words, Nollywood films would then be transmitting, promoting and preserving the culture, and have the likelihood of influencing the audiences’ culture through a development of interest. This agrees with the view that, “what movies offer society, the manner in which it is offered, and its content are inextricably bound with the condition of industrialisation” (Ekwuazi, 1991). It can be said that Nollywood films are deep-rooted socially, in the sense that they not only reflect the ways of life of Nigerians, but also tell stories of Nigeria’s past and present. If nothing else, the village scenes, the political and traditional justice systems, land tenure, costumes, the hair-dos, tattoos, drumming, singing and dancing, indigenous foods and drinks, as well as religious beliefs exhibited in most of the films, tell the past history of Nigeria and its unity in diversity. For instance, the first Nigerian video film, Living in Bondage, projected socio-cultural traits and have a breakthrough in business. Thus, Nigerian video films are not only rebuilding such cultural values but playing a very significant role in Nigeria’s socio-politico-cultural influence in Africa, and the Black world in general. Hence, Nollywood, the acclaimed second largest film industry in the world, is a cultural product that tells the story of Nigeria and Nigeria’s past and present.

...the village scenes, the political and traditional justice systems, land tenure, costumes, the hair-dos, tattoos, drumming, singing and dancing, indigenous foods and drinks, as well as religious beliefs exhibited in most of the films, tell the past history of Nigeria and its unity in diversity.

One of the greatest sources of stories responsible for Nollywood’s propagation of African culture is the use of African folktales to build their themes. Folktales are

valuable pieces of African culture. Stories reflect a group’s cultural identity and preserving the stories of Africa help in preserving an entire culture. Storytelling affirms pride and identity in a culture. In Africa, stories are created by and for the ethnic group telling them. Different ethnic groups in Africa have different rituals or ceremonies for storytelling, which creates a sense of belonging to a cultural group. To outsiders hearing an ethnic group’s stories, it provides an insight into the community’s beliefs, views, and customs. For people within the community, it allows them to encompass their group’s uniqueness. They show the human desires and fears of a group, such as love, marriage, and death. Folktales are also seen as a tool for education and entertainment. They provide a way for children to understand the material and social environment. Every story has a moral lesson to teach people, such as “good will prevail over evil”.

Arguably, Nollywood has impacted and transformed Nigerian and African cultures. Unfortunately, Nollywood movies in recent times now ply the glamorous lane of materialism. According to Ukadike (2000), “video has become a fertile ground to display the current quest for materialism. It has also become a cankerworm subject to criticism”. The films now parade “high-profile, working class people”, he adds, “especially businessmen and women ‘who have made it’, branding about in the latest expensive posh cars, expensive cloths, and imported wines and whiskeys in the get-rich-quick mentality of the fast age. Some of these video-films are significant for their outrageous fashion shows rather than the entrenchment of an artistic tradition that mirrors local content or ‘national character’. It is not uncommon, sad to admit, to see a Yoruba movie (though Igbo films are the most affected) whose lead character is jobless, yet living in an apartment that even an average working class Nigerian would find idealistic to acquire, with a delectable car in spite of the high cost of fuel. Undoubtedly, this new phase in Nigerian film, and Yoruba genre specifically, was heralded by the mad drive to imitate Hollywood and its larger-than-life artistic realism. The industry has exalted glamour to the gross neglect of artistic truism of the social realities in Nigeria by merely recreating modern lifestyles found in most Hollywood films.

Although there are concerns about Nollywood’s alleged distortion of cultures, the industry has been a tool for transforming and preserving African culture despite the forces of globalisation. For example, Nollywood uses Nigerian indigenous languages to tell African stories. The language and culture of the people are central to their identity and aspirations for self-determination. In addition, Nollywood tells the traditional, hybridised and


contemporary lives of the people of Nigeria. Other African countries have followed in the footsteps of Nollywood by producing movies on video. This allows them to tell their stories, which are predominantly done by the West and a few African filmmakers. In addition, the affordability of video makes it easier to showcase the culture of African people.

Conclusion

In this paper, we reviewed the different dimensions of culture and identified the film as a core element. We narrated major highlights of the good, the bad and the ugly sides of Nollywood- Nigeria’s film industry and canvassed the accentuation of the edifying sides.

Film as a cultural element evolves out of the cultural environment of its parent culture and should therefore be employed by all cultures to accentuate their individualities and perceived differences. By implication, the transmutation of film from western culture to African soil necessitates its domestication or indigenisation to disrobe it of the initial western cloak and adorn it with the peculiarities of the new culture. However, in Nigeria, film has not fully and truly attained this lofty height. It is still in the imitative state with little or no efforts by its practitioners to free it from all forms of foreign domination. Nigerian video-film artists are yet to be alive and responsive to their cultural role, thereby using film mainly as an instrument of entertainment and commercialism. Nollywood films should be used to reject the supremacy of alien culture as portrayed in most western films. As Horatio-Jones (1979) asserts, film is a propaganda and cultural tool which every culture must utilise to make a voice and re-write the Hegelian impression of the whites being superior to the blacks. Hollywood, in recognition of film’s cultural potency, has conquered the entire world with perceived American superior culture through the silver screen and brought other cultures to their kneels psychologically. It is in a bid to refute this cultural subjugation that the Indian film industry – Bollywood – strives to break Hollywood hegemony by entrenching her hold within the filmic landscape. Nevertheless, the culture-centred nature of most Nollywood films can be argued to depict the industry as grounded on indigenous cultures like any other folk media, produced and consumed by members of the group. In this case, “they reinforce the values of the people and are the visible features by which social identities and worldviews are maintained and defined” (Eilers, 1992).

Nollywood films should be used to reject the supremacy of alien culture as portrayed in most western films.

References

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Horatio-Jones E. (1979). Historical Review of Cinema in West Africa. In A. Opubor and O. Nwuneli O. (Eds). The Development and Growth of the Film Industry in Nigeria. Lagos: Third Press International.

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Role of Educational Institutions in Mapping and Preserving Cultural Diversity in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) RegionGina Cinali

Professor Gina Cinali is Assistant Director of Institutional Effectiveness at the American University in Dubai. Her research and teaching interests include international relations theory and practical application, globalisation and the politics of higher education in the Middle East, as well as quality assurance, assessment and global standards of educational excellence. Email: [email protected].

What role can and should educational institutions play in promoting a local cultural diversity agenda? How

might such institutions best promote local culture, when their very d’être is generally to promote an “international” and often “western” mode of education and seeking to adhere to “western” accreditation standards? How might such institutions collaborate with colleagues across a region – or globally – while at the same time serving and adhering to local norms, rules and regulations in the host societies in which they are embedded? This paper presents some answers from lessons learned from the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region.

Educational planners – institutions and individuals - can best advance education in their locale and worldwide through honestly sharing the realities on the ground and through celebrating and replicating their successes. Only then can we hope to increase return on investment for individuals, countries and all regions of the world. From egalitarian access, affordability, through careful planning and monitoring of academic and institutional effectiveness, professional product delivery, academic and institutional integrity to engagement of alumni, parents, business leaders and all stakeholders find areas where they can augment the end product: maximisation of capabilities, human capital and the possibility of meaningful lives and livelihoods and hope for all.

Ironically, many foreign model schools - particularly those with a good portion of faculty and student body originating from outside a culture - might be uniquely positioned, and perhaps more likely to perceive and promote cultural diversity for at least the following reasons:

• Coming from outside, many of the parties involved see the richness and diversity with fresh, unbiased eyes, new enthusiasm and no parochial interest in or penchant for favouring one particular cultural enclave at the expense of another.

• Foreign universities – whether American or European, often have a tradition of valuing, honouring and promoting cultural diversity, built into their mission statements and curricula.

• It is difficult for local stakeholders to deny a focus on all manifestations of cultural diversities, when an outside element calls attention to its value and worth of preservation and promotion.

• Some of these institutions are trained in focusing on cultural diversity, and sometimes have grant provisions for supporting minority students, perform outreach to minority communities, and mandates and funding for collaborative, consortium arrangements.

• Liberal Arts institutions – in their very raison d’être - focus on the holistic approach and value a multitude of studies into human interaction, patterns and cultures – this has long been “main-stream” rather than exotic .

This might be seen as the more positive side of the coin, in terms of outlook and potential for involvement. On the more “negative side” and equally ironic is the fact that a foreign model school may in advertently work to de-emphasise the local and the unique in terms of subsets and enclaves, as the very reason some students, staff and faculty are attracted to, say an American, British school or university. In other words, there is a pronounced tendency to focus away from the local and more towards the global, and in many areas of study, on common denominators for efficiency, expediency, at the expense of local, cultural values, mores, and richness.

The responsibility on elite and foreign model schools is great and the potential for influencing cultural preservation is enormous. By calling attention to cultural manifestations at risk of dying out, by celebrating the cultural richness, by installing in local students, staff and faculty a pride in and enhanced appreciation of the cultural diversity found within their own setting, and not least by opening up this fascinating universe to students, faculty and staff coming from outside, who are likely to help protect, preserve and promote these various and rich traditions, can make a significant and lasting contribution.

...there is a pronounced tendency to focus away from the local and more towards the global, and in many areas of study, on common denominators for efficiency, expediency, at the expense of local, cultural values, mores, and richness.


The potential for foreign-model schools, to perform as partner, supporters, and even originators of programmes, activities and services that help towards creating awareness and protection of the rich variety, is in fact enormous. The aggregate effect of such institutions – working together with local governments, ministries of education and international organizations such as UNESCO, OECD, UNICEF and overseas groups interested in supporting the cause in actions, spirit and finance makes the good foreign schools uniquely positioned to have a very positive impact.

Example of Heritage Preservation Projects

Looking at other potential venues for inspiration and collaboration, there has been a relatively recent but growing involvement of some of the nations of the Gulf region when it comes to preservation of local heritage. However, such initiatives are mostly either state sponsored, or the proponents and benefactors are prominent individuals with substantial means. It cannot be ruled out, that in the process of gathering information, curating examples of artistic and cultural expressions in various forms, some expressions may be “edited out”. With competing interests at political, and sometimes territorial levels, it is easy to see how some cultural expressions may be included or excluded from a national heritage discourse. In such cases, outside “interference”, in the form of bona fide expert opinion, as well as layman interest from students and scholars of various disciplines, could well serve as a corrective in some measure.

There is a strong interest from some actors in the region, sometimes in partnership or guidance from experts from abroad, to further professionalisation and standardisation of heritage practices at the local level. Sometimes the projects take the form of setting up a museum or arranging cultural events and speaker series. Qatar, which is often at the forefront in terms of new initiatives has engaged experts from the UK and elsewhere to set up museum and heritage programmes at certain universities.

In Kuwait, members of the ruling family are traditionally great patrons of the arts and some have opened their impressive private collection to public view, albeit in a very controlled fashion. Others in Kuwait have been striving to preserve some traditions, for example that of Sadu weaving, the vibrantly coloured pieces of art that have been produced for hundreds of years, and whose patterns appear on pillows, cushions, camel saddle bags and more. As with so many traditions, Sadu weaving remains a treasured, but somewhat “quaint” art form, not transmitted to the masses among the youth, but practiced by very few.

Lessons learned

What is needed throughout the MENA region is an overview of the variety of heritage practices, a cataloguing of manifestations in which one might envision a way to showcase and perpetuate some of these practices in the region. While there is some nascent appreciation of a need for creation of local heritage policies and heritage preservation” the words “cultural diversity” seem to be missing. Perhaps this is because the word culture is open, while “heritage” might be defined by the ruler or powers as something that has been “approved”. Culture has a tendency to be more unruly and yes, diverse.

Even when a region – a continent such as Africa agrees on the mandate as set forth in the UNESCO Convention, operationalising and funding these important activities will present a gargantuan task. One that nevertheless, needs to be embarked upon. No region has all the answers, but together we can devise a magic bullet to shoot down abuse, mediocrity and waste and instead create some “magic wands” to propel academe- research, professors and students – our world’s future - into a more promising future, and at the same time teach students and encourage teaching colleagues and administrators to explore and propagate the cultural richness found in each society.

Globalisation and Homogenisation of educational standards advance many things – including those of national priority, but can have the unintended outcome of deemphasising and diminishing appreciation for local heritage. Local values and customs may impinge on stated goals and endanger the integrity of a global approach - often cited in a mission statement - by invoking respect for local norms and cultural specificity. The challenge will be to reverse the +/- signs, to resolve the inherent tension in the global vs. local. One must make the projection to and from global and tackle the challenge in non-accusative fashion and language and leave behind any non-productive sense of victimisation or inferiority. In order to advance while preserving, one has to extract the best of all worlds

No region has all the answers, but together we can devise a magic bullet to shoot down abuse, mediocrity and waste and instead create some “magic wands” to propel academe- research, professors and students – our world’s future - into a more promising future.


Recommendations

In the light of the foregoing, a number of recommendations can be made. Efforts should be directed at creating a “local - diversity exchange programme”. We should also encourage universities throughout Africa to oblige students to know at least one other region/language within their country/region; create a portfolio – exchange amongst students and scholars; initiate exchange of students across the region; hold competitions and award prizes for student and faculty projects celebrating local culture; create on-line communities for student projects, celebrations, exchanges across institutions, regions, countries; build and expand on “model UN” type of events for students programmes across countries in region; and make certain diversity courses required components in schools and universities. Other recommendations are establish partnerships - community and industry dialogue, input from industry, government, community, NGOs to promote “relevance” and views to establishing incubation centres for activities that explore and display cultural diversity; award gifted student scholarships and preparation for gifted local candidates – prepare them for university and other higher learning in disciplines where they commit to studying and promoting cultural diversity mapping; foster collaborative, interdisciplinary research – intra-institutional (across programmes, schools, research centres and organisations) - involving students; initiate and continue international collaboration, especially to “kick-start” research in cultural diversity.

Gazing Few Years Ahead: How the Youth can Shape the Future of African CultureIbukun Olagbemiro

Ibukun Olagbemiro is an Assistant Programme Officer at the Institute of African Culture and International Understanding, Olusegun Obasanjo Presidential Library, Abeokuta, Nigeria. Email: [email protected]

The quest for social relevance is a major factor in the way young people live their daily lives. The 2003 United

Nations World Youth Report emphasised that “being local in a globalised world is a sign of social deprivation and degradation. The discomforts of localised existence are compounded by the fact that with public spaces removed beyond the reaches of localised life, localities are losing their meaning-generating and meaning-negotiating capacity and are increasingly dependent on sense-giving and interpreting actions which they do not control.” Youthful living in the light of the above could therefore mean that young Africans may strive to meet up with the social dictates in the global world even if it is at the expense of indigenous culture. How do young Africans regard their culture today? What are the resultant effects of such perception? What should be done to ignite their sense of responsibility, interest and passion towards promoting, preserving and developing African culture? Answers to these questions are provided in this paper.

A Growing Africa Youth Population

The world’s population was estimated to be over 7 billion in 2012 and Africa’s population second only to that of Asia, stood at over 1 billion (Population Reference Bureau, 2012). Africa is the most youthful continent, as the proportion of youth among the region’s total population is higher than in any other continent (United Nations Regional Overview: Youth in Africa, 2010). About 65% of the total population of Africa is below the age of 35 years, and over 35% are between the ages of 15 and 35 years - making Africa the most youthful continent (Youth Homepage of the Africa Union). This population profile has been characterised by expectations, criticisms and fear as echoed in the Bureau of Crisis Prevention and Recovery report in its 2005 Strategic Review of Youth and Violent Conflict which focused on West Africa. It posited that:

“There is often an automatic tendency to problematise youth as a factor in violent conflict while overlooking their many positive contributions to society, including their potential role in sustaining the social fabric and peace, as well as their survival in impossible


environments. Even this dichotomy of youth as a problem or youth as solution, perpetrator or victim, as economic asset or resource for change is limiting as a framework for understanding the complexity of the youth situation in developing countries.”

The influence young people may have on the continent in no distant future could have been evident from the protests that had been witnessed in some countries against certain government decisions. It can therefore be said that what is done or not done would determine the impact of young Africans on their continent in years to come. Putting our gaze on culture therefore, this youthful population growth should not be underestimated in terms of the positive potential to promote culture and the inherent danger if such prospect is not utilised constructively.

African Culture and Globalisation

Culture has over the years had different definitions. According to UNESCO (2001) “culture should be regarded as a set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of a society or a group, and it encompasses, in addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs’’. As a continuing, flexible and changing process, culture remodels tangible and intangible cultural heritage while inventing new forms of expression, thus revealing its infinite diversity (UNESCO CLT/CEI/DCE/2007/P1/32, 2007).

Cultures are not distinct, self-contained wholes; they have long interacted and influenced one another through war, imperialism, trade, and migration. People in many parts of the world live within cultures that are already cosmopolitan, characterised by cultural hybridity (Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, 2010). Cultural practices in the 20th century are not exactly what are obtainable in the 21st century as changes have occurred overtime. Obioha (2010) posits that culture is learned. Such learning does not take place through natural inheritance. It is not genetically transmitted. Rather, it takes place by a process of absorption from the social environment or through deliberate instruction, or through the process of socialisation.

The concept of the African traditional religion (one of the major elements of African culture) was explained by Awolalu and Dopamu in Omotoye (2011) that when we speak of African traditional religion we mean the indigenous religion of the African. It is the religion that has been handed down from generation to generation by the forebears of the present generation of Africans. It is not a fossil religion (a thing of the past) but a religion that

Africans today have made theirs by living it and practising it. This is a religion that has no written literature yet it is “written” everywhere for those who care to see and read. It is largely written in the people’s myths and folktales, in their songs and dances, in their liturgies and shrines and in their proverbs and pithy sayings. It is a religion whose historical founder is neither known nor worshipped. It is a religion that has not zeal for membership drive, yet it offers persistent fascination for Africans, young or old.

The changes that humanity has experienced have of course affected its social and religious life. Colonisation, civilisation, globalisation, information technology, cultural exchange and so on, have had its impact on the way of life of Africans. Culture is constantly changing, African culture being no exception due to its contact with other cultures. As beneficial contact with foreign culture may seem, it portends grave danger for the sustenance of African culture if deliberate efforts are not made to regulate this interface between cultures.

This paper sums globalisation up as a process of exchange of different ways of life between nations and territories economically, politically and socially where virile countries dominate and influence the codes and ethics of the aspiring and developing ones, and the latter also having minimal form of influence. This means that no one nation, forces down its ethos on other nations, at least not directly. However, it may seem so when treaties and global policy frameworks are reviewed. While this may contravene the many existing thought processes, it should be said that globalisation in effect has in its coffers many things to offer, all of which are not wholesomely negative. Even Obioha (2010) after many criticisms acknowledged that “certainly not all traditional practices are worth keeping in this cultural evolution. There are aspects of the African culture that have constituted a bane to the development of society and personality. Hence for Africa to develop there is the need to jettison or modify aspects of traditional culture that impede the development of these attitudes”. Therefore, it may be safe to say that while globalisation may seem like a ‘redefined modern day colonisation’, it has some positives to offer. Part of the weakness of the traditional African culture, Wiredu (1980) explained in Obioha (2010), is that it is authoritarian. Wiredu further observes that the traditional culture lacks the habit of exactness, and rigour in thinking, the pursuit of systematic coherence and the experimental approach. Another deficiency, Obioha (2010) noted, is that the traditional African culture is oral. As a result, it does not give much room for the development of


the features of the scientific mind. The abolition of harmful African traditional cultural practices is also some of the benefits of globalisation.

Why Youth are not Committed to the Development of African Culture

Some of the factors that discourage young people from being proponents of African culture include:

Poor Cultural Education and Documentation: A major cause of disinterest in edifying African culture by its youth is the advent of western education. Oni (2005) opined that “the foreign culture embedded in Western education has dealt a serious blow to African culture and has even almost wiped off our culture. It has produced a set of Africans with colonial mentality.” The efforts to dress, talk and act like the westerners have taken over the indigenous way of impacting formal education in Africa. Another challenge of African culture is the lack of proper documentation as it is often oral. Hountonji, (1983) in Obioha, (2012) noted that “oral tradition favours the consolidation of knowledge into dogmatic, intangible system. It is dominated by the fear of forgetting, of lapses of memory, since here memory is left on its own resources bereft of external or material support. This forces people to hoard their memory jealously, to recall them constantly, to repeat them continually, accumulating and heaping them up in global wisdom, simultaneously present, always ready to be applied, and perpetually available. In these conditions the mind is too preoccupied with preserving knowledge to find freedom to criticise it.” Well documented cultural precepts would make it easier to access knowledge and make room for diligent study of African cultural traditions.

Violence and Conflict: The memory of war and conflict lingers more than the past centuries of cultural richness. For example, the internal conflict in Sierra Leone has disrupted the development process through the massive destruction of material, human and socio-economic resources and activities. Through the civil war, out of a population of 4.5million, about 2 million became internally displaced persons and refugees, over ninety per cent of these causalities being civilians. The war also had devastating effects on cultural heritage and posed a serious challenge. In Nigeria, the civil war of the 1960s asides the irreparable loss of life and abrupt distortion of socio-economic activities, had some cultural consequence. Fatunsin, (1994) observed in Diamitani, (2005) that the Oran Museum which was located in the eastern part of Nigeria and had housed 661 out of the 800 Oran Kepi ancestral

figures when it opened in 1959 was bombed and destroyed during the war. The collections which were moved a few times for protection was finally moved to Orlu which became a refuge after the war. Unaware of the importance of these wooden objects, the inhabitants used them as firewood. Many were stolen and some were looted. When the war eventually ended, only 116 carvings survived and these were poor examples of what were originally in the collections. From a cultural standpoint, cultural identity is threatened by the destruction of cultural symbols, the outward cultural signs of the ‘other’ community, and the dislocation of the traditional core and values that make up identity. Conflicts in West Africa have forced hundreds of civilians to leave their homes and villages for refugee camps where they are cut off from their traditions and roots. In addition, during conflicts natural heritage is subjected to degradation with incalculable consequences. This leaves ‘incomplete’ artefacts for young people to have a grasp with their historical heritage.

Poor Governance: Libya’s late Moammar Gaddafi’s had over 42 years of dictatorship, Egypt’s Hosni Mubarak’s 31-year rule, Zimbabwe’s Robert Mugabe’s 24-year rule, Togo’s Gnassingbe Eyadema’s 37-year rule, Cameroun Paul Biya’s 31-year rule, late Mobutu Sese Seko of the Democratic Republic of Congo’s 37-year rule; are few of the many present and past long-serving Presidents, a flaw that is far from democratic principles that are preached by the United Nations, a global body to which most African countries belong. Such democratic ideals which are well ‘played’ out in the west may have attracted more young Africans to perceive leaders in these countries as the epitome of good leadership hence the attempt to emulate the lifestyle of their people at the expense of Africa’s cultural practices. As more youth find themselves caught in this circle, they tend to relegate the traditional African practices to the backwaters. If the present trend of globalisation in Africa is not checked and its youth encouraged to embrace their cultural heritage, it poses a grave challenge for the promotion, protection and development of Africa culture. Some of these threats include:

Undervalued Cultural Commodities: The cultural industry, which is the industry concerned with the production, marketing, sale of cultural commodities and the market that consume these commodities, is one with untapped potentials. Despite the rapid development of Nollywood, young Africans may be more influenced by products from Hollywood and Bollywood, primarily due to the vanity to appear civilised. The implication this brief is that subdued African precepts will make young Africans


more attracted to cultural commodities from the west thus undermining the potential of Africa’s cultural market and its export potentials.

Threatened Cultural Ingenuity: “In Africa, culture can be a tool for strengthening the social cohesion. Africa comes from culturally, ethnically, linguistically and radically diverse societies; yet we all aspire to nationhood, a single shared national identity and cohesive society that exist in harmony”, argues Aborisade (2011). However, this cohesiveness, like many other African cultural traits, had since fizzled out with indigenous language and technology undermined. Proficiency in African languages is declining on the continent because people are often quick to embrace western culture and civilisation. This has caused alienation for people who cannot speak foreign languages as language has been used as a vehicle of culture which has literally created a dichotomy between the elite and the masses”. There is therefore the need for deliberate efforts to promote and protect African culture so that a few years from now, the present generation of young people would not have committed cultural suicide.

Recommendations

In no uncertain terms, the present level of disposition of young Africans to cultural practices needs to be refocused and redirected. Some of the actions that would help correct this anomaly are listed hereunder.

Economic Development: In less than three generations, it is estimated that, 41% of the world’s youth will be African; at the end of the century, Africa will have the lowest dependency ratio in the world (Ibrahim Forum Facts and Figures, 2012). A critical action required is to provide an economically thriving community for young people. Youth on the continent would not embrace culture when they fruitlessly have to strive for economic wherewithal. Economically relapsed and socially unhealthy young people will turn deaf ears to any tangible evangelism on the need to promote culture.

Elimination of Poor Cultural Practices: Efforts should be made by all stakeholders to document cultural practices that are dangerous and harmful while others are modified to ensure safety and development. For example, it would not be safe to wear traditional attires into factories and places with heavy machineries as this poses grave danger to such individual. The practice of female circumcision is also another cultural practice that should be abolished in Africa. Custodians of certain masquerade festivals should not impose curfew on other people and infringe their right

to free movement and association just because they want to celebrate a festival. For African culture to develop, many of such regressive cultural practices should be eradicated.

Cultural Education and Documentation: Teaching should be modified to educate children about the diverse cultural practices, the historical backgrounds, modification and hybridity experienced through the times, the retrogressive aspects of the cultures, the beauty of the diversity of the cultures and the huge potential of our cultural market. This will help to develop the interest of young people in promoting culture from their tender age which would eventually translate into their improved perception and regard for their customs as they grow up, thus engaging in a culture of preservation and development of African heritage. Efforts should also be made to document existing African traditions for posterity to access. This can be done by ensuring that all museum and archives with Africa historical artefacts and documents are well funded and well preserved. Such collections should also be replicated into movies and other media format that will prevent damage and also make easily available for research.

Language Education: “Languages are vehicles of our cultures, collective memory and values. They are an essential component of our identities, and a building block of our diversity and living heritage. Yet, about half of some 6,000 languages spoken today are in danger of disappearing.” (UNESCO, 2011). Civil war, genocide, politics of domination; are just some of the factors that militate against the development of indigenous languages. It is important that Africa takes after China by entrenching the use of indigenous language for teaching and learning in our educational systems. Though the diversity of the languages poses a major threat to this proposition, it nonetheless can be explored to look at the best ways to formulate such a policy.

Institutionalisation of Culture-Oriented Groups among Youth Circles: The embrace of science and technology has led to various technologically-motivated groups among youths in secondary schools and tertiary institutions. Concerted efforts should be made to institutionalise culture-focused groups in primary, secondary and tertiary tiers of education and vocational centres. This can be extended into rural areas with activities such as leadership development and cultural festivals organised regularly. It is in this light that the Institute for African Culture and International Understanding, the publishers of this journal, have set machinery in motion to establish a Cultural Security Forum across tertiary institutions in Africa as an action-


oriented follow-up to its March 2013 Regional Summit that held in Abeokuta, Nigeria. The forum which would soon be inaugurated would a platform for cultural education, promotion and preservation in a relaxed atmosphere while creating an avenue for cultural exchange programmes and skills development. More of such initiatives would, to a large extent, assist in rejuvenating the interests of these young minds in African cultural practices and its preservation.

Elimination of Violence and Conflict: This feat would be impossible without political-will and good governance on the part of African leaders. Conflict and violence maims and destroys heritage and customs. It strangulates communal cohesion that characterise rich African culture. It also creates in young people the shallow mind-set of the culture of violence. Leaders across the continent must begin to show practical willingness in their style of management and work relentlessly to eliminate politics of bitterness and marginalisation. No minority ethnic group should be cornered into irrelevance by any major ethnic nationality. It is usually the perception of marginalisation that instigates the need to seek liberation and freedom. Areas from which natural resources are derived should be seen to reflect wealth and comfort on its people and infrastructure. Violence can wipe out in days, the cultural heritage that had existed for centuries.

Promotion of Pan-Africanism and Renaissance: As Africa’s continental organisation celebrated five decades of promoting Africa’s unity and development in May 2013, it rallied member states and heads of government to promote pan-Africanism and renaissance – a call for a virile and united Africa and the continental rebirth necessary to achieve that unity. As indicated in the 50th Anniversary Solemn Declaration of the Heads of State and Government of the African Union, Section A, subsection iii and iv which states that:iii) Our commitment to strengthen AU programmes and

Member States institutions aimed at reviving our cultural identity, heritage, history and shared values, as well as undertake, henceforth, to fly the AU flag and sing the AU anthem along with our national flags and anthem;

iv) Promote and harmonise the teaching of African history, values and Pan-Africanism in all our schools and educational institutions as part of advancing our African identity and Renaissance.

African leaders must follow-through on these declarations and create a resounding and effective awareness in their respective countries. Such ideals, if properly and timely implemented, will certainly help

strengthen cultural exchange on the continent and promote diversity. And in twenty years to come, the continent will blossom in myriad of cultural pride, authenticity and acceptance the world over.

Conclusion

This paper has attempted to evaluate the present relationship between African youth and their culture and what this portends for the continent’s culture a few years from now. It argued that young people are more in-tune with the culture of globalisation which propagates the way of life of the westerners, leading to the marginalisation and subjugation of African culture. The feeling of backwardness associated with indigenous cultural practices is one of the factors that causes young Africans to flee their own continent at almost any cost for that of the economically, socially and politically more virile nations. It recommended some steps that should be taken to ensure that this trend of cultural inferiority and asphyxiation is curbed such that a few years from now, African culture would resonate with pride among other cultures of the world. However, looking at some years from now, if nothing is done to consciously promote African culture among its youth, African Union’s projection of the next fifty years of a virile pan-Africanism may be a farce and cultural atrophy may continue to plague African culture more severely.

References

African Union (2013). 50th Anniversary Solemn Declaration of the African Union. Retrieved from http://summits.au.int/en/sites/default/files/50%20DECLARATION%20EN.pdf on 15 July 2013.

African Union (2005) Document of UNESCO on “Educaton and Culture in Africa’s Quest for Development” AU/Educ/5(1) adopted at the Conference of Ministers of Education of the African Union (COMEDAF II) 1st Ordinary Session 8-11 April, 2005 Algiers, ALGERIA. Retrieved from http://ocpa.irmo.hr/resources/docs/COMEDAFII_Unesco_EdCultRole-en.pdf

African Union Commission Homepage. http://www.africa-youth.org/home Retrieved 24 June 2013.

Bureau of Crisis Prevention and Recovery (2005, April). Youth and Violent Conflict

Diamitani, B.T. (2005). Armed conflicts, peace culture and protection of cultural heritage. Presented at the ICCROM Forum held on October 4-6, 2005.

Farah I., Kiamba, S., and Kesegofetse, M., (2011). Major challenges facing Africa in the 21at century: A few provocative remarks. Presented at the International Symposium on Cultural Diplomacy in Africa – Strategies to confront the Challenges of the 21st Century: Does Africa have what is required? Berlin 14-17 July 2011.

Ibrahim Forum Facts and Figures (2012). Africa Youth: Fulfilling the potential: Presented at the 2012 Mo Ibrahim Forum in Dakar, Senegal. 11 November 2012. Retrieved from


www.moibrahimfoundation.org/downloads/2012-facts-and-figures.pdf‎ on 20 May 2013

Obioha U.P., (2010). Globalisation and the future of African culture. Philosophical Papers and Reviews, Vol.2(1), p. 1-8, April 2010.

Omotoye R.W. (2011). The study of African traditional religion and its challenges in contemporary times. Ilorin Journal of Religious Studies Vol 1. No. 2, 2011 p.21-40

Oni, A.A. (2005). Globalisation and its implication on African Culture and Development: Challenges for Education. International \journal of African and African American Studies Vol IV, No.2, July 2005. p 9-12

Owoye, O. and Bissessar N. (2012). Bad Governance and Corruption in Africa: Symptoms of Leadership and Institutional Failure. Paper presented at the International Conference on Democratic Governance: Challenges in Africa and Asia, University of Pennsylvania, USA.

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Society and Development in Crisis? Strategic Review of youth and violent conflict in West Africa. Retrieved from http://www.unicefinemergencies.com/downloads/eresource/docs/Adolescents/Youth%20and%20Violent%20Conflict%20UNDP-BCPR_160.pdf on 3/06/2013

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News of the InstituteAfrica Regional Conference on “Harnessing Culture For Sustainable Development and Human Security in Africa”. This conference is scheduled to take place between the 4th and 5th of March 2014 at the International Conference Centre, Olusegun Obasanjo Presidential Library, Abeokuta, Nigeria. It will bring together a broad range of stakeholders from across the world including Heads of State and Government, Ministers responsible for Education, Agriculture, Economic Development, Health, Youth and Women Development, community leaders, academia, civil society groups, private sector, youth organisations, women groups and other individuals and groups that are engaged in the promotion of culture, human security and development in Africa. The conference is a response to the increasing celebration of Africa as the second fastest-growing region of the world today on several socio-economic indicators, trailing only developing Asia. For a region that has long been debased in development discourses as a liability to the rest of the world, the current image of Africa calls for celebration. While the rest of the world celebrates Africa, Africans must approach the emerging scenarios with a soberly, diagnostic and prescriptive mind. Some of the questions that the conference will address are: How do we push discourses on development in Africa from the export-oriented economic growth strategies towards the transformation of culture into a basic tool for meaningful growth and value-added commodity? What policy framework and international understanding is needed for this consideration?

Database of experts on culture and human security: The Institute has initiated the development of a database of experts on culture and human security under the direction of Chief Moji Ladipo, mni (Associate Expert) and the National IT Officer, Tunde Sobola. The database will be a unique resource providing electronically-searchable information including detailed curriculum vitae, email and phone contacts and areas of specialisation of the experts.

Policy Briefs: The Institute has approved the publication of Policy Briefs which will research topical issues on culture and international understanding in Africa. Analysis of the data on the issues will be basis for drawing policy options that the Institute will make available to governmental and non-governmental organisations as well as the private sector in prosecuting their agenda related to such issues. The first Policy Brief is entitled: ‘Rebuilding Timbuktu’s Cultural Heritage in Mali’. Professor Isaac Albert (Associate Expert) is the Coordinator of the Policy Briefs Project.

Cultural Security Forum for African Youth: Preparations for the Cultural Security Forum are progressing. The event is expected to commence early in the first quarter of 2014. Coordinator: Ibukun Olagbemiro, Assistant Programme Officer.

Intercollegiate Debate on Human Security: Preparations for the 2014 edition of the debates have reached an advanced stage. Coordinator: Damian Oyibo, National Programme Officer: Advisers: Professor Isaac Albert and Ayo Tella (Associate Experts).

Capacity Building: The Institute’s Accountant, Oladiran Olaniyi, has just returned from a 10-day intensive training programme in London on modern methods of accounting. One of the benefits of the training is the reinvigoration of the Accounts Unit.

News from UNESCO HeadquartersDirector-General’s Official Visit to Nigeria

From 10 to 12 September, the Director-General of UNESCO, Her Excellency Irina Bokova, paid an official visit to Nigeria. The Assistant Director-General for Strategic Plans, Hans D’Orville was part of the Director-General’s entourage. During the visit, the DG met with several ministers working in UNESCO’s fields of competences, as well as the UN Resident Coordinator, Daoda Toure. The high point of her visit was the meeting with the Vice-President of Nigeria, His Excellency Architect Namadi Sambo.

In the course of the visit, the Director-General signed an Aide Memoire towards a new strategic Plan of Action, to enhance UNESCO’s cooperation with Nigeria and take on new areas including higher education, gender equality, bioethics, youth policies, natural heritage, oceans, the General History of Africa, the Slave Route, African cinema, the Living Human Treasures programme, community radio and journalism education, Memory of the World, and Open-Educational Resources.

While in Nigeria, the Director-General also inaugurated the UNESCO’s Regional Office in Abuja. The countries that will be covered by the new Regional Office are Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria. The opening of the Regional Office marks a turning point for UNESCO, and is the result of a pledge by the Director-General to strengthen the Organization’s presence in the field and to sharpen its ability to respond to the needs of Member States. IACIU


congratulates the newly-appointed Director of the UNESCO Regional Multi-Sectoral Office in Abuja, Professor Hassana Alidou and wishes her every success as head of the Office.

Forthcoming UNESCO Culture Events this Quarter

5th October, 2013 Belgrade, Serbia: Experts Group meeting on the contribution of audio-visual productions to the safeguarding of intangible cultural heritage Experts from South-East Europe will meet, within the framework of the 22nd edition of the International Festival of Ethnological Film, to discuss how documentary films and other audio-visual productions may contribute to the safeguarding and viability of intangible cultural heritage. The meeting will include a round table on the realisation of a possible regional audiovisual production on intangible cultural heritage in South-East Europe – challenges and opportunities. Participating experts will include representatives of heritage safeguarding agencies, anthropologists, film makers and other individual practitioners.

6-10 October, Halifax, Canada: Experts Group Meeting on University-based Research on Global Cultural Issues fostering Development. Participants will include researchers and policy analysts and will examine contemporary and future agenda for research in cross-cutting cross-regional issues on culture and development.

21-27 October, 2013, Apia, Samoa: Workshop on Community-based Inventorying of Intangible Cultural Heritage. The Workshop will bring together some 50 participants ranging from ICH custodians, traditional leaders, senior officials responsible for ICH safeguarding, NGOs, community-based organisations, to faith-based organisations. The workshop will provide stakeholders with training in community-based ICH inventorying with hands-on exercise at Gataivai Village in Savaii Island.

30 October-3 November, 2013, Baku, Azerbaijan. Regional UNESCO/ICOM Thematic Museum Training for museum specialists from CIS countries and expert meeting on “Museum Service as a Basis for Quality Services to Visitors and the Factor of strengthening of a Social Role of a Museum.


About the InstituteThe Institute for African Culture and International Understanding, a UNESCO Category 2 Institute of the Olusegun Obasanjo Presidential Library (OOPL), Abeokuta, Ogun State was approved by the Executive Board of UNESCO in October 2008 and formally commissioned at its OOPL site on January 9, 2009 by Koichiro Matsuura, the immediate-past Director-General of UNESCO. The Governing Board of the Centre chaired by HE Dr. Christopher Kolade, was inaugurated on March 4, 2009.

Vision The vision of the Institute is “to increase inter-cultural dialogue and international understanding between Africa and other civilisations”.

Mission The mission of the institute is to preserve Africa’s cultural heritage, promote and strengthen renaissance in African cultures both at the regional and international levels.

Aims of the InstituteThe institute aims at:

• raising awareness among stakeholders at the national, regional and international levels about the important role played by cultural diversity and its corollary, intercultural dialogue, for social cohesion in pluralistic societies;

• facilitating the network of sister institutions working in these fields and inducing relevant academic and scientific studies;

• providing a platform of genuine cooperation for specialists in African culture;• providing capacity-building through the promotion of knowledge-sharing about spiritual and other

religious traditions and their underlying values in order to strengthen harmonious coexistence; and• highlighting the values of diversity and dialogue by studying tangible and intangible heritage as well

as contemporary cultural expressions in the African region and the Diaspora (through inventories and catalogues, including in digitised form, disseminating and exhibiting collections and other relevant materials).

Governing BoardChairman: Dr. Christopher Kolade Members: Ambassador Dr. Mary M. Khimulu, Ambassador Denise Houphouet-Boigny, Ambassador Mohamed Sameh Amr, Ambassador Dolana Msimang, Professor Hassana Alidou, (Director, UNESCO Abuja Regional Office); Mr. George Ufot (Representative of the Permanent Secretary Federal Ministry of Culture, Tourism and National Orientation), Magdalene Anene- Maidoh, Secretary-General, NATCOM-UNESCO, Professor Peter A. Okebukola; Sultan of Sokoto Muhammad Sa’ad Abubakar III, Prof. Oye Ibidapo-Obe.

SecretariatProfessor Peter A. Okebukola (Director), Omotayo Ikotun, Vitalis Ortese, Damian Oyibo, Oladiran Olaniyi, Ibukun Olagbemiro, Akintayo Peters, Tunde Sobola, Femi Jenrola.

Associate Experts and Experts Group

Professor Isaac Albert, Moji Ladipo, Ayo Tella, Professor Gbenga Ogunmoyela, Professor Wole Ogundele, Dr. Anthony Onwumah


Editor

Peter A. Okebukola

Editorial OfficeInstitute for African Culture and International UnderstandingOlusegun Obasanjo Presidential LibraryOke-mosan, Abeokuta, Nigeria

Tel: +2348022904423; +2348023400030Website: www.iaciu-oopl.org

Invitation to Potential AuthorsWe welcome articles and reports for publication in the journal. Such articles should be succinct and should convey messages in line with the aims and objectives of the Institute. Articles should be sent to [email protected].

Disclaimer

The opinions expressed in the articles in this journal are those of the authors and do not represent the official view of the Institute.

©Institute for African Culture and International Understanding, OOPL, Abeokuta

A I R M A I L POSTAGE STAMP

Institute for African Culture and International UnderstandingOlusegun Obasanjo Presidential Library Oke-mosan, Abeokuta, Nigeria Tel: +2348022904423; +2348023400030Website: www.iaciu-oopl.org

JOURNAL OF AFRICAN CULTURE AND INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTANDING - No. 6 October - December, 2013

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