Journal CEA 2000 No.1 (Feromoni Pcela + Mali Obiteljski Ribnjaci)

7/28/2019 Journal CEA 2000 No.1 (Feromoni Pcela + Mali Obiteljski Ribnjaci)

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ASOPI

BLIKAFOLYI

Slovak Agricultural University in Nitra

University of Zagreb, Faculty of Agriculture

NITRA

KESZTHELY

of

University of Veszprem, Georgikon Faculty of Agronomy

CROATIA

HUNGARY

SLOVAKIA

Central European Agriculture

ISSN 6453-2356

VOLUME 1

JOURNALNo. 12000

ZAGREB

folyirat

publikacija

asopis


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ofCentral European Agriculture

ISSN 6453-2356

VOLUME 1

JOURNAL

No 12000

HUNGARY

SLOVAKIA

CROATIA

The Journal publishes original articles, rapid communications andproceedings of scientific meetings in English, Slovak, Hungarian and Croatian

Slovak Agricultural Univesty in Nitra

Tr. Andreja Hlinku . 2. SL 94976 Nitra

Slovak Republic

Faculty of AgricultureUniversity of Zagreb

Svetoimunska 25, HR 10000 Zagreb

Republic of Croatia

Publishedby

Pannon University of Agricultural Sciences

Georgikon Faculty of Agronomy

Deak Ferenc u 16, H 8360 Keszthely

Republic of Hungary

Tomas Kocsondi

Istvan Szabo

Zoltan Toth

Editorial Board

Nikola KeziTajana Krika

Milan Pospiil

Ondrej Debreceni

Ondrej Kadleik

Balogh

Frequency of publishing

Three times a year (one issue per each country)

http://www.agr.hr/jcea

CROATIA

HUNGARY

SLOVAKIA


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Volume 1 (2000) No.1

CONTENTS

1. Editorial...2

2. Honey bee colony pheromones.....3Drai M., Kezi N.

3. The analysis of small family commercial fish farms in Croatia11Treer.T., Safner R., Anii I.

4. Instructions to authors.......................................................................16


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SADRAJ

1. Uvod .....2

2. Feromoni pela 3Drai M., Kezi N.

3. Analiza malih obiteljskih komercijalnih ribnjaka u Hrvatskoj.11Treer T., Safner R., Anii I.

4. Instrukcije autorima.16



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Editorial

After all the hardships that usually accompany the creation of such a magazine, I am writingthe editorial for the first issue with great expectations.

Social and economical changes of the central European countries in transition have broughtmajor changes in agriculture, too. Instead of planned agriculture, the rules of the open market madedemands for a very quick exchange of information and knowledge. Thus, the problems of countries intransition being similar, starting off the common journal seamed only natural.

At the beginning of the new millennium, advanced electronic technologies offer new, untilrecently unthinkable possibilities of disseminating information to the most remote places of the globe.To be able to share the knowledge in agriculture, the internationalization is necessary. At the sametime every nation has the urge to cherish and preserve its national language. In an effort to reconcilethese contrasting tendencies, we thought the common international electronic Journal on CentralEuropean Agriculture might provide an answer.

As seen from the first issue, Journals Editorial Board is made up of three Croatian, threeHungarian and three Slovak members. The papers are published in English and/or in the language ofthe first author. If written in the language of the author, the mutual understanding is made sure of bybilingual description of tables and illustrations and detailed prolonged abstract in English.

The journal is intended for original scientific papers, short scientific communication andreview papers on all aspects of sustainable agriculture. The scientists working on agricultural scientific

and research programs in their middle and eastern European countries in transition are welcome tosubmit their research results to JCEA.

The Editor



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Uvodnik

S velikim iekivanjem piem Uvodnik za prvi broj novog asopisa. Drutvene promjenezemalja u tranziciji u centralnoj Europi, donijele su velike promjene na podruju poljoprivrede.Naputanjem planske poljoprivrede i ukljuivanjem u trinu utakmicu, stvara se potreba za sve bromrazmjenom novih spoznaja. Kako su problemi zemalja u tranziciji slini, stvaranje zajednikog asopisaini se loginim.

Poetak novog milenija i sve bra primjena novih elektronskih tehnologija prua nove, donedavno nezamislive mogunosti, kako objavljivanja tako i lakeg puta do znanja i onih unajudaljenijim mjestima u svijetu. Osim za znanjem, postoji i potreba za internacionalizacijom

problema. Istovremeno, nuno je ouvati i razvijati nacionalne jezike. U poljoprivredi, ovakosuprostavljene tenje, pokuali smo pomiriti pomou zajednikog meunarodnog elektronskogasopisa za poljoprivredu srednje i istone Europe.

Kako je vidljivo iz prvog broja, u Urednitvo asopisa ukljuena su po tri lana iz Slovake,Maarske i Hrvatske. lanci se objavljuju na engleskom jeziku i/ili na jeziku autora, a meusobnorazumijevanje se osigurava detaljnim produenim saetkom na engleskom jeziku i dvojezinooznaenim prilozima. U asopisu su posebno dobrodoli znanstveni lanci, kratke znanstveneobavijesti i pregledni lanci o razvoju u poljoprivredi.

Oekujemo da e u ovakvom asopisu svoje rezultate istraivanja rado objavljivatiznanstvenici koji sudjeluju u znanstvenim i razvojnim programima u svim podrujima poljoprivredezemalja u tranziciji srednje i istone Europe.

Urednik


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FEROMONI PELAHONEY BEE COLONY PHEROMONES

Maja DRAI1, Nikola KEZI2

SAETAK

U suprotnosti s hormonima, koji se izluuju unutar organizma i djeluju iskljuivo na organizam koj ihje proizveo, feromoni se izluuju van organizma i djeluju na razliite jedinke iste vrste.Da bi bio efikasan, feromon mora biti usko specifian tako da samo jedna ivotinjska vrsta reagira ivrlo djelotvoran tako da je potrebna vrlo mala koliina da ne iscrpljuje organizam koji ga proizvodi.Komunikacija feromonima je najvanija za ivotinje koje ive u sloenim drutvima, kao to su npr.mravi, pele ili kunii. Ova socijalna bia moraju komunicirati u sakupljanju hrane, odravanjuzajednice i u obrani. Kroz odailjanje kemijskih poruka, ove se ivotinje mogu nadopunjavati iorganizirati prema statusu i ulozi svake jedinke.Feromoni su jednako znaajni za ivotinje koje ive pojedinano, samo tada se kemijska komunikacijakoristi rjee u specifinim trenucima tijekom njihova ivota, npr. u vrijeme parenja.

Zbog ekonomske vanosti, a jednako i zbog zanimanja za organizaciju socijalnog ivota, feromonipela su meu najee istraivanima.Proizvodnja feromona u razliitih jedinki u pelinjoj zajednici ovisi o spolu i ulozi jedinke u zajednici,odnosno, o lijezdama koje posjeduje jedinka. Trutovi neke lijezde uope nemaju, a neke su slabijerazvijene nego u radilica ili u matice. Jednako tako, neke ljezde su u matice jako razvijene, a u radilicazakrljale i suprotno. Aktivnost pojedinih lijezda vezana je za ivotnu dob, odnosno za poslove kojejedinka obavlja.Utvreno je da feromone proizvode mandibularna (prednjoeljusna), Nasanovljeva, Koschewnikowa,tergitne, tarzalne (stopalne) i votane lijezde, jednako kao i rektum matice i membrana na bazi alcaradilica. Isto tako, znaajan izvor feromona je i pelinje leglo.Istraivanja feromona imaju ekonomsko opravdanje jer se njihovom primjenom moe manipuliratitetnim insektima na poljoprivrednim povrinama, odnosno upravljati pelama u vrijeme opraivanja.

KLJUNE RIJEI: feromoni, pele, komunikacija

ABSTRACT

Pheromones are chemicals produced as liquids by specialised cells or glands and transmitted into theenvironment as liquids or gases. In contrary to hormones, which are excreted in organism and haveeffect exclusively on organism that produced them, pheromones are excreted outside organism andeffect on different individuals of the same species.Pheromones mediate nearly all aspects of honeybee colony life including social defence, brood care,mating, orientation, foraging and reproduction.Pheromone investigation has high economic importance. With use of pheromones it is possible tomanipulate with pest insects on crops or to direct honeybees during pollination on target plants.

KEYWORDS: pheromones, honey bee colony, comunication

1 e-mail: [email protected]

Hrvatski stoarsko selekcijski centar, Kaieva 9, HR 10000 Zagreb, Hrvatska


Agronomski fakultet Sveuilita u Zagrebu, Svetoimunska 25, HR 10000 Zagreb, Hrvatska

Manuscript received January 15, 2000

Accepted for publication February 18, 2000

PREGLEDNI RAD REVIEW

Volume 1 (2000) No.1 (1-8) 1


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HONEY BEE COLONY PHEROMONES

Maja DRAI1, Nikola KEZI2

DETAILED ABSTRACTPheromones (greekpherein meaning to transfer and hormon meaning to excite) are chemicalsproduced as liquids by specialised cells or glands and transmitted into the environment as liquids orgases.In contrary to hormones, which are excreted in organism and have effect exclusively on organism thatproduced them, pheromones are excreted outside organism and effect on different individuals of thesame species.To be efficient, a pheromone has to be highly specific to initiate response from only one species andvery effective thus only small amount is sufficient.Pheromonal communication is most important for animals living in social communities like ants, beesor rabbits. These social animals have to communicate during foraging, colony growth, and defence.Through chemical communication, these animals can cooperate and organise according to status and

role of each individual in community.Pheromones are important for solitary animals as well. Chemical communication is used in specificsituations during life, for example, during mating period.Pheromones mediate nearly all aspects of honeybee colony life including social defence, brood care,mating, orientation, foraging and reproduction.Pheromone production in different individuals in honeybee colony depends not only on sex and roleof each individual in community, however it depends on developed glands of the individual. Dronesdo not posses certain glands, and some glands are less developed when comparing workers and queens.At the same time, queens have some glands highly developed that are reduced at workers and contrary.Activity of certain glands is related to the age or occupation of an individual.Pheromones are produced in mandibular, Nasanow, Koschewnikow, tergit and vax glands, as well asrectum of a queen and membrane on the sting basis. At the same time, important source of

pheromones is honeybee brood.Pheromone investigation has high economic importance. With use of pheromones it is possible tomanipulate with pest insects on crops or to direct honeybees during pollination on target plants.

KEYWORDS: pheromones, honey bee colony, comunication


Croatian Livestock Selection Center, Kaieva 9, HR 10000 Zagreb, CROATIA


Faculty of Agriculture University of Zagreb, Svetoimunska 25, HR 10000 Zagreb, CROATIA

REVIEW

Volume 1 (2000) No.1 (1-7)


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FEROMONI PELA

Journal of Central European Agriculture, Volume 1 (2000) No. 1 (CROATIAN) 3

UVODU mjerilima cijelog ivotinjskog svijeta, vizualne i zvunesignale za sporazumijevanje koristi mali broj ivotinjskihvrsta, dok su kemijske poruke karakteristika veineorganizama. Ovo je naroito izraeno kod insekata, nakojima je steeno najvie znanja o kemijskoj komunikaciji.

Veina specifinih reakcija insekata, kao to su seksualnoprivlaenje, rasprivanje, agregacija, agresivnost, signalizi-ranje opasnosti, regulirane su kemijskim tvarima.U suprotnosti s hormonima, koji se izluuju unutarorganizma i djeluju iskljuivo na organizam koj ih je proizveo,ove se kemijske komponente izluuju van organizma i djelujuna razliite jedinke iste vrste. Ovi se spojevi zovu feromoni,rije izvedena iz grke rijei pherein to znai prenoenje ihormon to znai pobuivanje. Sve tvari koje su proizvedeneu sekretornim ljezdama nazivaju se semiospojevi.Kemijskim signalima je mogue prenositi i neke porukeizmeu razliitih ivotinjskih vrsta, a takve spojeve nazivamoalomonima.Openito o feromonimaFeromoni su spojevi koje izluuju ivotinje, a izazivajufizioloke ili ponaajne odgovore druge ivotinje iste vrste,odnosno, djeluju kao kemijska poruka. Ovakav modelkomunikacije se sastoji iz tri dijela:

mehanizma koji emitira poruku, obino u formiljezdanog organa koji je specijalizirane strukture zaoslobaanje feromona

medija kroz koji se kemijska poruka odailja, obino jeto zrak, voda ili direktni kontakt.

mehanizma za primanje kemijske poruke, a to jemirisni ili okusni organ organizma koji sadri specifinestanice kemoreceptore.

Udaljenost na koju feromon putuje da prenese kemijskuporuku ovisi o:

uestalosti pri kojoj emiter oslobaa feromon

najmanjoj koncentraciji molekula feromona kojeprimalac signala moe detektirati

odlikama medija u kojem su molekule otopljene naminimalnu detektabilnu koncentraciju

udaljenosti na koju je potrebno prenijeti porukuFeromone je teko klasificirati iz vie razloga. Gotovo sveivotinje od primitivnih protozoa do viih primata koristeferomone kao sredstvo za komunikaciju. Feromoni serazlikuju kemijski od vrste do vrste i znaajno se razlikuju ubliskih organizama.Postoje neke slinosti u reakcijama koje izazivaju, pa seutjecaj feromona moe klasificirati s obzirom na reakcijuprimaoca signala, koja moe biti u jednoj od dvije forme:

Feromon moe proizvesti trenutni efekt releaser effect,gotovo trenutnu promjenu u ponaanju recipijenta. Naprimjer, lanovi ivotinjske vrste mogu pobjei iz nekogprostora kao odgovor na alarmne feromone izluene odjednog lana zajednice,

Feromon moe proizvdesti dugotrajni primer effect. Uovom sluaju odgovor primaoca nije direktna reakcija uponaanju, nego lanac fiziolokih promjena. Primjer jeferomon kojeg izluuje pelinje leglo, a koji spreava razvojjajnika u pela radilica.Zbog velike raznolikosti feromona, teko je opisati opeodlike, bilo fizikalne ili kemijske. Potpuno razliite vrstemolekula prenose sline poruke u razliitih organizama.Da bi bio efikasan, feromon mora biti usko specifian takoda samo jedna ivotinjska vrsta reagira i vrlo djelotvoran takoda je potrebna samo mala koliina da ne iscrpljuje organizamkoji ga proizvodi.Veina poznatih feromona sadri zmeu 5 i 17 ugljikovihatoma. Ovaj raspon dozvoljava dovoljno kombinacija istruktura molekula da kreira feromon koji je jedinstven zadanu vrstu. Ovi prirodni produkti, velike raznolikostiukljuuju organske kiseline, ketone, alkohole i velik brojalifatskih i aromatskih estera [3].Hlapivost je vana fizikalna odlika feromona koji koriste zrakkao medij za transport. Hlapiva komponenta je ona kojaisparava na relativno niskoj temperaturi. Visoka hlapivostdozvoljava feromonima da budu trenutno transportirani krozzrak.

U velikom dijelu, hlapivost tvari ovisi o njezinoj molekularnojmasi tako da se poveanjem molekule smanjuje hlapivost.Feromoni sa 5 do 17 ugljikovih atoma su dovoljno maleni dase smatraju visoko hlapivim i da jednostavno putuju zrakom.Feromoni koji se prenose vodom moraju biti stabilni irelativno netopivi u tom mediju. Feromoni koji daju signal uvrlo kratkom vremenu moraju se brzo razgraditi.Identifikacija feromonaIdentifikacija feromona vrlo je zahtijevan proces, a zapoinjeprikupljanjem i izdvajanjem sekreta ljezda. U prikupljenomse uzorku zatim odjeljuju razliiti spojevi, te se odreujekemijski sastav i graa svake pojedine komponente.

Nakon to je pojedini kemijski spoj izoliran, koriste serazliite tehnike za identifikaciju, na primjer, kemijskereakcije, fizikalna mjerenja, te metode kojima se utvrujebioloka reakcija organizma na spoj. Bioloke metode semoraju provoditi u uvjetima to slinijim prirodnim, a u obzirse moraju uzeti i fiziloko stanje i prethodno iskustvo testnihjedinki. Uvijek je jednostavnije ispitivanje tvari koje izazivajutrenutnu reakciju (release) nego tvari koje izazivajudugotrajne promjene (primer) u organizmu [10].


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Maja DRAI, Nikola KEZI

Journal of Central European Agriculture, Volume 1 (2000) No. 1 (CROATIAN)4

esto je teko primjeniti bioloke metode ispitivanjaferomona, tako da iznova pokuavaju pronai jednostavnijenaine za ove pokuse [24].Razvojem i primarnim koritenjem drugih osjetila, ivotinjei dalje zadravaju komunikaciju feromonima.Komunikacija feromonima je najvanija za ivotinje koje iveu sloenim drutvima, kao to su npr. mravi, pele ili kunii.Ova socijalna bia moraju komunicirati u sakupljanju hrane,odravanju zajednice i u obrani. Kroz odailjanje kemijskihporuka, ove se ivotinje mogu nadopunjavati i/ili organiziratiprema statusu i ulozi svake jedinke.Feromoni su jednako znaajni za ivotinje koje ivepojedinano, samo tada se kemijska komunikacija koristirjee u specifinim trenucima tijekom njihova ivota, npr. uvrijeme parenja.

TIPOVI FEROMONA

Najei nain klasificiranja feromona je prema tipu poruke

koju feromon primarno prenosi. Tako feromone moemoklasificirati kao:

seksualne atraktante

alarmne feromone

feromone za agregaciju jedinki

feromone za disperziju jedinki

Seksualni atraktantiSeksualne feromone izluuju ivotinje jednog spola, aizazivaju promjene u ponaanju kod drugog spola. Ovepromjene osiguravaju oplodnju i time irenje vrste. Jednomemitiran, seksualni feromon moe privui potencijalnog

partnera na veoj udaljenosti. Primalac prati poveanjekoncentracije feromona koja ovisi o udaljenoti i kree se odniih prema viim koncentracijama.

Alarmni feromoniOvi feromoni djeluju na jedinku tako da trenutno napustipodruje ili aktiviraju obrambeni mehanizam, ovisno o vrsti.Zanimljiv je nain funkcioniranja alarmnih feromona kodmrava. Kad je feromon prvi put otputen u zrak, hlapivimaterijal formira oblak oblika kugle, koji dosee radijus od6 cm u 13 sekundi. Tad se oblak poinje smanjivati sve doksignal ne zamre. Vanjski rub oblaka sadri nisku

koncentraciju alarmne tvari, koja slui da na mjesto alarmaprivue ostale lanove zajednice. Na taj nain mraviodgovaraju na zahtjev o pomoi. Sredinji dio oblaka sadridovoljnu koncentraciju alarmnog feromona da pobudi izadri karakteristino uzbuenje.

Agregacijski feromoniOvi feromoni slue da dovedu lanove zajednice ujedinstvenu grupu. Agregacija se moe definirati kaolokaliziranje vie jedinki u blizinu izvora feromona.Agregacijski feromoni slue da ostale lanove zajednicedovedu do izvora hrane ili do mjesta pogodnog zanaseljavanje.

Disperzijski feromoniVjeruje se da disperzijski hormoni mogu sluiti za viebiolokih funkcija

mogu odravati optimalnu rasprenost izmeupojedinih ivotinja,

mogu odravati optimalnu odvojenost izmeu teritorijasocijalnih skupina ivotinja iste vrste i

mogu uzrokovati rasprivanje lanova vrste kad sepojavi opasnost

Teritorij je podruje okupirano od jedne ili vie ivotinja kojeprepoznaju podruje kao njihovo iskljuivo vlasnitvo i branega od jedinki iste vrste.Feromoni se koriste da se oglasi ostalim lanovima vrste daje teritorij zaposjednut. ivotinje ostavljaju sekrete u kojimasu otopljeni feromoni tako da znak ostaje i ako je ivotinjaodsutna.Ponovno, moe se govoriti o preklapanju potkategorija

feromona, npr. alarmni feromoni se u nekim sluajevimamogu smatrati feromonima za disperziju, odnosno zaagregaciju jedinki ovisno kako pojedine vrste reagiraju nasignal o opasnosti.

FEROMONI PELAZbog ekonomske vanosti, a jednako i zbog zanimanja zaorganizaciju socijalnog ivota, feromoni pela su meunajee istraivanima.Najee su istraivane medonosne pele (Apis mellifera)porijeklom iz Europe, Afrike i Zapadne Azije, koje su kasnijeproirene u Sjevernu i Junu Ameriku, Australiju i Centralnu

i Istonu Aziju. Daleko manje istraivanja je provedeno naautohtonim azijskim vrstama medonosne pele (Apis dorsata,Apis florea i Apis cerana).Nema puno podataka o zaprekama u komunikacijiferomonima izmeu razliitih pelinjih zajednica, premdasekret mandibularne lijezde matica u razliitih pasminamoe imati donekle razliite omjere istih komponenti [10].

lijezde koje proizvode feromoneProizvodnja feromona u razliitih jedinki u pelinjoj zajedniciovisi o spolu i ulozi jedinke u zajednici, odnosno, olijezdama koje posjeduje jedinka. Trutovi neke lijezdeuope nemaju, a neke su slabije razvijene nego u radilica ili

u matice. Jednako tako, neke ljezde su u matice jakorazvijene, a u radilica zakrljale i suprotno. Aktivnostpojedinih lijezda vezana je za ivotnu dob, odnosno zaposlove koje jedinka obavlja.Utvreno je da feromone proizvode mandibularna(prednjoeljusna), Nasanovljeva, Koschewnikowa, tergitne,tarzalne (stopalne) i votane lijezde, jednako kao i rektummatice i membrana na bazi alca radilica. Isto tako, znaajanizvor feromona je i pelinje leglo.Mandibularna (prednjoeljusna) lijezda lei na bazi prednjiheljusti. Dobro je razvijena i kod radilica i kod matice, a kod


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FEROMONI PELA


matica je naroito velika. Osim to djeluje kao feromon,sekret ove lijezde se koristi za itav niz funkcija, a premaTomaecu [25] otapa vosak, propolis i koicu peludnihzrnaca, odnosno kokon.Tergitne lijezde su smjetene od etvrtog do estogabdominalnog tergita. Vrlo su dobro razvijene u mladih

matica, a radilice ih nemaju. Jedina uloga im je proizvodnjaferomona.Votane lijezde posjeduju radilice, a nalaze se od etvrtogdo sedmog trbunog segmenta kao parne tvorbe. Votanelijezde su najbolje razvijene kod mladih pela u dobi od 10do 18 dana, ali prema potrebi pele mogu izluivati vosak i ukasnijoj dobi [25]. Utvreno je da ljuice voska i mladavotina sadre tvari koje djeluju kao feromoni [2; 3; 4, 10].Nasanovljeva lijezda, katkad opisivana kao mirisna jerproizvodi jak i karakteristian miris, nije razvijena u maticenego jedino u radilica. Ova se lijezda nalazi na dorzalnojpovrini sedmog abdominalnog tergita, a njezin sekret senakuplja u mirisnom kanalu koji je normalno pokriven [23].Kad pela pone izluivati miris, posebnim miiima povuezadnji koluti prema dolje, pokrovni tergit prema gore, asama lijezda se izboi van [25]. Nasanovljeva lijezdaproizvodi viefunkcionalne feromone.Koschewnikowa lijezda je sastavljena od malih nakupinastanica u komori alca. Ovaj organ nije tako dobro razvijenu radilica kao u matica, a za svaku od kasti ima drugaijufunkciju.Opna alanog aparata je izvor vanog feromona koji seoslobaa kad je alac ispruen. Za membranu na bazi alca,za koju se dugo smatralo da lui feromone, su Cassier i sur.[7] dokazali da samo slui kao rezervoar za feromone izKoschewnikowe lijezde i za feromone iz opne alca, to su1995. potvrdili Lensky i sur [13].lijezde na tarzusu stopalu i matice i radilica su dobrorazvijene, a njihova uloga se u zajednici bitno razlikuje.Nedugo je otkriveno da rektum matice, ali ne i radilica,izluuje vaan feromon. ljezdani izvor ovog feromona nijeotkriven, pa se navodi da je izvor feromona rektum jer seferomon izluuje u rektalnom eksudatu.

ODLIKE FEROMONA IZ POJEDINIH LIJEZDA PELA

Feromoni mandibularne lijezde

Spojevi proizvedeni u mandibularnoj lijezdi matica sucentralni u svim aktivnostima zajednice. Njihove razliiteuloge ukljuuju atraktivnost za parenje, inhibiciju uzgojamatinjaka, okupljanje radilica za vrijeme rojenja izadravanje radilica u blizini legla. Ovo posljednjeomogueno je stalnim boravkom pratilja oko matice kojematicu dodiruju ticalima, prednjim nogama ili ustima. Zavrijeme socijalne izmjene hrane (trophallaxis) radilicemeusobno prenose i matine feromone [9, 16; 17].Prvi identificirani spoj u matinom feromomu bio je 9-keto-2-dekaenoina kisleina (9-ODA). Kasnije je identificirana 9-

hidroksi-2-dekaenoina kiselina (9-HDA). Smjesa ovihspojeva spreava uzgoj matinjaka u zajednici. Uz ovespojeve u sekretu mandibularne lijezde matice identificiranisu p-hidroksibenzoat i 4-hidroksi-3-metoksifeniletanol [4, 10,27, 29;] koji pojaavaju djelovanje matinog feromona. Usekretu manadibularne lijezde matice identificiran je jo niz

spojeva koji biolokim metodama testiranja nisu pokazaliferomonalnu aktivnost [10].Sekret mandibularne lijezde ima vanu ulogu u pokretanju,koheziji i stabilnosti roja, a jednako tako je vrlo jak seksualniatraktant, koji redovito privlai trutove neoploenoj matici[14, 28, 30]. Neoploene matice proizvode maksimalnukoliina 9-ODA u proljee, u vrijeme uestalih sparivanja iuestale pojave rojeva [4].Kad kune pele postaju uvarice ili sakupljaice, umandibularnoj lijezdi poinu proizvoditi vrlo mirisnu tvar 2-heptanon (2-HP). 2-HP ima ulogu slabog alarmnog feromonana ulazu u konicu, ali je njegova uinkovitost 20-70 puta

slabija nego alarmnih feromona iz alanog aparata [4, 8, 10].Jedna od vjerojatnih funkcija je da se feromon koristidirektno u obrani jer djeluje iritirajue kad se nanese na tijelopele ili drugih insekata, pa tako ima ulogu obrambenogalomona. Primjeeno je da pele prilikom obrane grizuuljeza, te Free [10] smatra, ne samo da se pele na taj nainbrane nego da obiljeavaju uljeza koji postaje prepoznatljivostalim pelama.Dodatno, velika koncentracija 2-HP djeluje kao repelent iini se da je to jedna od komponenti kojima sakupljaiceobiljeavaju cvjetove koji ne mede, dok suprotno, u malimkoncentracijama 2-HP djeluje kao atraktant.

Feromoni Nasanovljeve lijezdeRadilice ire feromon tako da izloe lijezdu, a samudisperziju pojaavaju lepezanjem krila [23]. Glavne mirisnekomponente su monoterpeni, meu kojima je najzastupljenijialkohol geraniol jedan od sastojaka ruinog ulja. Geraniolpele proizvode u dobi kad prestaju biti kune, a najvie gaproizvode sabiraice. Jo dva alkohola ulaze u sastav sekretanasanovljeve lijezde, od kojih je nerol zastupljen u malimkoliinama, a farnezola ima upola manje nego geraniola. Uzove terpenoide u sekertu Nasanovljeve lijezde izoliran jeitav niz drugih alkohola, aldehida i njihovih derivata, tetopivi proteini koji zajedno pridonose ukupnoj funkciji mirisa

[6].Sekret Nasanovljeve lijezde slui kao signal za orijentaciju,koji moe vrlo brzo privui sabiraice na izvor hrane. Istotako, sabiraice koje su imale problema u orijentaciji pripovratku u konicu zastaju na letu, izloe lijezdu i ireferomon [4, 10, 23].Pele esto izlau Nasanovljevu lijezdu prilikom sakupljanjahrane (na cvijetu) ili vode, ali bez lepezanja krilima, tako dairenje feromona nije usmjereno. Na taj nain pomauostalim sakupljaicama u orijentaciji i pronalaenju izvorahrane [10].


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Druga uloga sekreta Nasanovljeve lijezde je u procesurojenja kad ima ulogu okupljanja roja, zajedno s matinimferomonom. Ako pri rojenju pele izgube kontakt s maticom,prve koje je pronau poinju luiti feromon, te se roj vrlobrzo okupi oko matice [23].Schmidt i sur. [22] su koritenjem sintetskih feromona

ustanovili da je za odravanje roja bitnija prisutnostNasanovljevog nego matinog feromona. Kad odvode roj nanovu lokaciju pele izviaice isputaju Nasanovljev feromoni privlae roj u novu nastambu [21].

Feromoni Koschewnikove lijezdeKoschevnikova lijezda oploene matice proizvodi feromonekoji su izrazito privlani radilicama. Nije potvreno da ovajferomon spreava razvoj jajnika u radilica [10]. U oploenematice lijezda degnenerira u dobi od godine dana [4].Koschewnikove lijede u radilica su izvor jakih alarmnihferomona, koji se oslobaaju kad je alac ispruen. Alarmniferomon se nakuplja u naboranoj membrani na bazi alca inastavlja funkcionirati kad je alac otrgnut iz tijela radilice iostao u tijelu rtve. Ovo rezultira da pele nastave napadatimjesto prethodnog uboda. Izopentilacetat (IPA) je bila prvaidentificirana komponenta kao dio alanog feromona. IPAima 20-70 puta jae djelovanje kao alarmni feromon nego 2-HP - produkt mandibularne lijezde radilica. Sadraj IPA jemaksimalan u dobi kad radilice postanu sabiraice ilistraarice. Nije utvreno da matice proizvode IPA. Uzizopentilacetat, u alanom feromonu identificiran je nizestera i alkohola i neto kiselina. Raznolikost komponentiproizvedenih da slue kao alarmni feromon je iz razloga totakva smjesa tvari osigurava due trajanje signala [4, 12].

Feromoni opne (ljuskice) alanog aparataUtvreno je da opna alca izluuje feromone koji dopunjujudjelovanje feromona Koschevnikovih lijezda i osnovna imje namjena alarmiranje. Nije otkrivena lijezda koja proizvodiferomone, ali je utvreno da opna alanog aparata imastrukturu primitivne lijezde [7].

Feromoni tergitnih lijezdaAbdominalne tergitne lijezde matica proizvode feromonekoji slue radilicama kao sredstvo za prepoznavanje matica,koji inhibiraju gradnju matinjaka i razvoj jajnika u radilica.Ovi feromoni se, za razliku od mandibularnih, prenose

direktnim kontaktom radilica s maticom. Sekret tergitnihlijezda u interakciji je sa sekretom mandibularnih lijezdaprivlai trutove i inducira parenje. Trutovi mogu detektiratimandibularne feromone matice na udaljenosti preko 50metara, a feromoni tergitnih lijezda dominiraju naudaljenosti do 30 centimetara [4, 10; 31].

Feromoni tarzalnih lijezda (Footprint pheromon)Matica ostavlja uljasti sekret tarzalnih lijezda po povrinisaa pomou jastuia na stopalu. Ovaj feromon zajedno sferomonima mandibularne lijezde, kad je prisutan na sau,spreava gradnju matinjaka i u prenapuenim konicama.

Za potpunu inhibiciju gradnje matinjaka potrebna jeprisutnost oba feromona, jer niti jedan samostalno nijedovoljno uinkovit [10].Tarzalne lijezde radilica proizvode feromone, koje ostavljajuna ulazu u konicu. Privlanost feromona raste s porastombroja radilica koje ga ostavljaju. Radilice markiraju izvore

hrane ovim feromonima i tako poveavaju privlanost zaostale sabiraice [4].

Feromoni rectuma matica koji odbijaju radilicePrirodna proizvodnja matica u pelinjoj zajednici rezultirarazvojem nekoliko neoploenih matica, od kojih e samojedna ostati matica u matinoj zajenici. Kao posljedica togato se matica pari s vie trutova, u pelinjoj zajeniciuobiajeno ima nekoliko subfamilija od kojih sve imaju istumajku, a svaka potfamilija ima istog oca. Smatra se da pelemogu prepoznati i meu radilicama i meu neoploenimmaticama prave sestre, odnosno polusestre, pa esto dolazido sukoba izmeu potporodica. Poznat je sukob izmeu

matice i matice, ali je utvreno da se u zajednici mogusukobiti matice i radilice, to je jae izraeno ako potiu odrazliitih potporodica [5, 19].Neoploene matice su esto izloene agresivniosti radilicakoje ih napadaju bez vidljivog povoda [2, 3, 19]Neoploene matice su razvile specifian nain obrne.Prilikom sukoba s radilicama, ove matice izluuju velikukoliinu vrlo mirisnog analnog sekreta (fecesa ili exudata)koji vrlo oito smanjuje i smiruje agresivnost radilica teistovremeno uzrokuje iene vlastitog tijela [2, 3, 5, 19, 20].Utvreno je da je glavni sastojak ekskreta, odgovoran za

ovakvo ponaanjeo-aminoacetofenon (o-AAP). Za vrijemeprva 24 sata ivota nakon izlaska iz matinjaka matica jerijetko napadnuta, pa se u tom razdoblju u fecesu ne moeutvrditio-AAP. Radilice prestaju napadati maticu nakon toje matica oploena i u dobi od oko 14 dana, te ona prestajeproizvoditi ovu komponentu.

Feromoni leglaSposobnost socijalnih insekata da identificiraju leglo i jopreciznije spol i razvojni stadij je neophodna za jedinke kojebrinu o leglu.Kemijski signal, mjeavina oko 10 razliitih masnih kiselina iestera utvrena na kutikuli liinki ima dugotrajno (primer

effect) djelovanje na radilice. Mohammedi i sur. [15] suutvrdili da ovaj feromon legla stimulira razvoj drijelnihlijezda pela hraniteljica, dok su Arnold i sur. [1] utvrdili daferomon legla kod radilica inhibira razvoj jajnika i polaganjejaja. No, jednako tako, kemijske signale koje proizvodipelinje leglo je u stanju detektirati grinja Varroa jacobsoni,koja time izaziva znaajne tete u pelinjim zajednicama [11;26].

Feromoni trutovaVeliina trutovskog legla i broj trutova u zajednici upozitivnoj je korelaciji s brojem radilica. Smatra se da matini


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FEROMONI PELA


feromon regulira gradnju trutovskog saa, pa u malimzajednicama nema trutova za razliku od velikih zajednica[10], odnosno da trutovsko leglo proizvodi inhibirajueferomone koji spreavaju daljnje zalijeganje trutovskog leglakad populacija dosegne odreeni broj trutova [18].No, sami trutovi u manidbularnim lijezdama proizvode

feromone koji uvjetuju okupljanje trutova na mjestima kojasu pogodna za parenje [4].

Feromoni voskaU vosku iz kojeg je izgraeno sae mogue je utvrditi itavniz razliitih spojeva. Za dio hlapivih spojeva voska se smatrada potjeu od biljaka s kojih pele sakupljaju hranu. Analizavoska kojeg su proizvele pele hranjene samo eernimsirupom bez mogunosti izlaska na pau ukazao je da samepele mogu sintetizirati dio ovih spojeva. Uloga ovih hlapivihtvari je da stimuliraju i pojaaju nagon za prikupljanje hraneu radilica [3].

UMJESTO ZAKLJUKAIstraivanja feromona su naglaena u posljednje vrijeme, apotaknuta su njihovom moguom primjenom bilo kaoatraktanata ili kao repelentata na poljoprivrednimpovrinama, jer je upotreba feromona u kontroli tetnihinsekata jedan od naina da se smanji primjena insekticida.Prednost je feromona da ne mogu izazvati rezistenciju i nisuopasni za druge ivotinjske vrste.Istraivanja feromona unutar pelinje zajednice namomoguuje da razumijemo razliite oblike ponaanja. No, nesmijemo zaboraviti da med nije najvaniji pelinji proizvodnego je to opraivanje kultiviranog i samoniklog bilja [31].

Sintetski feromoni imaju komercijalnu primjenu uprivlaenju pela na odreene poljoprivredne kulture radiopraivanja, ime znaajno poveavaju atraktivnost biljke zapele.

LITERATURA[1] Arnold, G., Le Conte, Y., Trouiller J., Hervet, H., Chappe

B., Masson C. (1994) Inhibition of Worker HoneybeeOvaries Development by a Mixture of Fatty Acid EstersFrom Larvae. Comptes Rendus de l Academie desSciences Serie III Sciences de la Vie Life Sciences.317 (6) 511-515.

[2] Blum, M. S., Fales, H. M. (1988): EclecticChemiossociality of the Honeybee: A Wealth of

Behaviors, Pheromones and Exocrine Glands. Journalof Chemical Ecology, 14 (11) 2099-2107

[3] Blum, M. S. (1989) The Chemistry and Roles of EusocialInsect Pheromones and Allomones. PhytochemicalEcology: Allelochemicals, Mycotoxins and InsectPheromones and Allomones. C. H. Chou; G. R. Waller,Eds. Institue of Botany, Academia Sinica MonographSeries No. 9. Taipei, ROC 39-47.

[4] Blum, M. S. (1993) Honey Bee Pheromones. In: The Hiveand Honeybee. (Graham, J.M. ed.) Dadant and Sons,Hamilton, Ilinois, 373 400.

[5] Breed, M.D., Stiller, T. M., Blum, M.S., Page, R.E. (1992)Honeybee Nestimate Recognition: Effects of QueenFecal Pheromones. Journal of Chemical Ecology. 18 (9)1633-1640

[6] Cassier, P., Lensky, J. (1994) The Nasanov Gland of theWorkers of the Honeybee (Apis mellifera L):Ultrastructure and Behavioural Function of the

Terpenoid and Protein Components. J. Insect Physiol.40: 577-584

[7] Cassier, P., Tel-Zur, D., Lensky, Y. (1994) The StingSheaths of Honey Bee Workers (Apis mellifera L.):Structure and Alarm Pheromone Secretion. J. InsectPhysiol. 40: 23-32

[8] Collins, A. M., Rinderer, T.E., Daly, H.V., Harbo, J.R.,Pesante D. (1989) Alarm Pheromone Production by TwoHoneybee (Apis mellifera) Types. Journal of ChemicalEcology, Vol. 15, No 6: 1747 1756.

[9] Crailsheim K. (1998) Trophallactic Interactions in theAdult Honebee (Apis mellifera L.). Apidologie 29: 97-112

[10] Free, J. B. (1987) Pheromones of Social Bees. Chapmanand Hall. London

[11] Le Conte, Y., Arnold, G., Trouiller, J., Masson, C.,Chappe, B. (1990) Identification of a Brood Pheromonein Honeybees. Naturwissenschaften 77, 334-336.

[12] Lensky, Y., Cassier, P., Rosa, S., Grandperrin D. (1991)

Induction of Balling in Worker Honeybees (Apismellifera L.) by Stress Pheromone fromKoschewnikow Glands of Queen Bees: Behavioural,Structural and Chemical Study. Comp. Biochem.Physiol 100 (3): 585-594

[13] Lensky, Y., Cassier, P., Telzur, D. (1995) TheSetaceouss Membrane of Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L)

Workers Sting Aparatus Structure and AlarmPheromone Distribution. Journal of Insect Physiology41 (7) 589-595

[14] Loper, G. M., Wolf, W. W., Taylor, O. R. (1993) RadarDetection of Drones Responding to Honeybee QueenPheromone. J. of Chemical Ecology 19 (9) 1929-1938

[15] Mohhamedi A., Crauser. D., Paris A Leconte, Y. (1996)Effect of a Brood Pheromone on Honeybee

Hypopharingeal Glands. Comptes Rendus de lAcademie des Sciences Serie III Sciences de la Vie Life Sciences. 319 (9) 769 772.

[16] Nauman, K. (1991) Grooming behaviors and theranslocation of queen mandibular gland pheromone onworker bees (Apis mellifera L). Apidologie 22: 523-531

[17] Nauman, K., Winston, M.L., Slessor, K.N., Prestwich,G.D., Webster, F. X (1991). Production and transmission

of honey bee queen (Apis mellifera L.) mandibulargland pheromone. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol 29: 321-332

[18] Omholt, S. W. (1988) Drone Production in HoneybeeColonies: Conrolled by a Longlasting InhibitoryPheromone from the Drones, J. theor Biol 134, 309-318

[19] Page, R. E., Post, D. C., Blum, M.S. (1987) A Honey BeePheromone that Repels Workers. Chemical Signals. In:Chemistry and Biology of Social Insects (ur. Eder iRembold) Verlag J. Peperny, Munchen


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[20] Page, R. E., Blum, M. S., Fales, H. M. (1988) o-Aminoacetophenone, a pheromone that repelshoneybees (Apis mellifera L.). Experientia 44: 270-271

[21] Schmidt, J. O. (1994) Attraction of Reproductive HoneyBee Swarms to Artificial Nests by Nasanov Pheromone.J. of Chemical Ecology 20 (5) 1053-1056.

[22] Schmidt, J. O., Slessor, K.N., Winston, M.L. (1993)Roles of Nasanov and Queen Pheromones in Attractionof Honeybee Swarms. Naturwissenschaften 80: 573-575

[23] Snodgras, R. E. (1910) The Anatomy of the Honeybee.Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, DC

[24] Telzur, D., Lensky Y (1995): Bioassay And ApparatusFor Measuing The Stinging Response Of An IsolatedWorker Honey-Bee (Apis mellifera L var. ligustica Spin).Comparative Biochemistry & Physiology A-ComparativePhysiology. 110 (4) 281-288

[25] Tomaec, I. Biologija pela. Nakladni zavod Hrvatske,Zagreb, 1949. pp 94

[26] Trouiller, J., Arnold, G., Le Conte, Y., Masson, C.,

Chappe, B. (1991) Temporal Pheromonal and

Kariomonal Secretion in the Brood of Honeybees.Naturwissenschaften 78, 368-370.

[27] Willis, L.G., Winston, M.L., Slessor K. N. (1990) QueenHoney Bee Mandibular Pheromone Does not AffectWorker Ovary Development. Can. Ent. 122: 1093-1099

[28] Winston, M. L., Slessor, K.N., Willis, L.G., Naumann, K.,Higo, H.A., Wyborn, M.H., Kaminski L. A. (1989) TheInfluence of Queen Mandibular Pheromones on WorkerAttraction to Swarm Clusters and Inhibition of Queen

Rearing in the Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.). InsectesSociaux, Paris, 36: 15-27

[29] Winston, M. L., Higo, H.A., Slessor, K.N. (1990) Effectof Various Dosages of Queen Mandibular GlandPheromone on the Inhibiton of Queen Rearing in theHoney Bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Annals of theEntomological Society of America, 83 (2): 234-238

[30] Winston, M. L., Higo, H. A., Colley, S.J., Pankiw, T.Slessor, K.N. (1991) The Tole of Queen MandibularPheromone and Colony Congestion in Honey Bee (Apis

mellifera L.) Reproductive Swarming (Hymenoptera:Apidae) Journal of Insect Behavior, Vol. 4, No. 5: 649-660.

[31] Winston, M. L., Slessor, K. N. (1992) The Essence ofRoyalty: Honey Bee Queen Pheromone. AmericanScientist, 80: 374-385

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ANALIZA MALIH OBITELJSKIH KOMERCIJALNIH

RIBNJAKA U HRVATSKOJ

THE ANALYSIS OF SMALL FAMILY COMMERCIAL

FISH FARMS IN CROATIA

Tomislav TREER, Roman SAFNER, Ivica ANII

SAETAK

Znaajne ekonomske i politike promjene koje su se u proteklom desetljeu dogodile u Hrvatskojutjecale su i na male obiteljske farme da se mnoge meu njima priklone i ribarstvu. Veina ih jezapoela ovaj posao bez ikakvog znanja i iskustva. Zbog toga smo intervjuirali 13 farmera s ciljem daprikupimo podatke o njihovim farmama, obiteljima i problemima s kojima se suoavaju. Prosjenafarma posjeduje oko 1 ha vodene povrine, ima 4 lana obitelji, a prihod povezan s ribarstvomsudjeluje s oko 70% u ukupnom prihodu. Vlasnik je obrtnik etrdesetih godina, koji prodaje oko 3tone ribe godinje prvenstveno kroz restoran i sportski ribolov, obzirom da se u dananjoj situacijinajtee zarauje samo uzgojem riba. Pri izgradnji ribnjaka, pored pravila ribarske znanosti trebapotivati i ona ureenja krajobraza. Takoer je farmerima potrebno ponuditi bolje kreditne uvjetekako bi lake zapoeli svojim poslom, kao i reducirati mnogobrojne naknade koje prate izgradnjuribnjaka i proizvodnju. Hrvatska poljoprivredna savjetodavna sluba trebala bi se organizirati i ukvalitetnom praenju ovakvih farmi.

KLJUNE RIJEI: obitelj, ribnjak, Hrvatska, sportski ribolov

ABSTRACT

The significant economical and political changes that affected Croatia in last decade influenced theapproach of small family farmers to fisheries as well. Most of them started that job without anyknowledge and experience. That is why 13 farmers were interviewed in order to get the data abouttheir farms, families and problems they face. The average farm has about 1 ha pond area, 4 family

members and income connected with fisheries about 70% of total income. The owner is an artisan inhis forties who sells about three tons of fish per year primarily through restaurant and sport fishing,as in present situation on the fish market it became obvious that persisting only on fish culture is themost difficult way to earn money. In building the ponds the rules of landscape architecture should berespected together with those of fishery science. It would be necessary to offer the farmers betterconditions in bank loans to start their business as well as to reduce many taxes, which they have topay. The Croatian Agricultural Extension Service should be organized better to serve those farmers.

KEYWORDS: family, fish farm, Croatia, sport fishing

e-mail: [email protected]

Zavod za ribarstvo, pelarstvo i specijalnu zoologiju

Agronomski fakultet Sveuilita u Zagrebu, Svetoimunska 25, HR 10000 Zagreb, Hrvatska

Manuscript received January 15, 2000

Accepted for publication February 18, 2000

IZVORNI ZNANSTVENI RAD ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Volume 1 (2000) No.1 (1-8) 9


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THE ANALYSIS OF SMALL FAMILY COMMERCIAL

FISH FARMS IN CROATIA


DETAILED ABSTRACT

This paper deals with the results of our visits to 13 small family commercial fish farms. At each ofthem we interviewed the farmers with the same questionnaire in the first half of 1999. The questionswere divided into several groups giving the answers about the ponds, family, the way of fisherymanaging and the principal problems that the farmers face in their everyday work.

The investigated farms are mainly situated in the northwestern part of Croatia (Fig. 1). All farmshave pond area under or slightly over 1 ha, while only one has 7 ha. Half of the investigated farmshave the salmonid and other half cyprinid water quality. All farms, except one, were built beside theroads and necessary supplies. The necessary equipment on most farms is good.

The basic occupation of the owner is predominantly artisan of different specialization. Half of them

are in their forties years of life, while the range is from 28 to 60. The number of family membersinvolved in the fish farm is usually between 3 and 5. The participation of the income connected withthe fisheries in the whole income of the family ranges from 60-100%.

In present situation on the fish market it became obvious that persisting only on fish culture is themost difficult way to earn money. That is why it is advised to the farmers to combine culture withrestaurant and sport fishing (Fig. 2). In that case the shape of the ponds should be incorporated inthe nature, respecting the rules of landscape architecture. Annual production per farm is between 1,5t and 6 t of cultured fish; while from 0,5 t to 5 t is soled through angling.

The basic problems expressed by almost all farmers are the lack of suitable bank loans that couldhelp them to develop their activities, then high taxes for all the licenses, use the water and veterinaryservice. The lack of quality domestic food is also mentioned, while the lack of continuous extensionservice is also obvious. That is why it would be necessary to organize courses for Croatian Agricultural

Extension Service personnel to serve family fish farmers better and to employ fresh water fisheryexperts.

It is possible to conclude that in the hard times for agriculture and fisheries in the Central Europeanarea small family commercial fish farms could be one of the solutions, but as this type of business isat its beginning it needs much help from the experts as well as from the government.

KEYWORDS: family, fish farm, Croatia, sport fishing

e-mail: [email protected]

Department of Fisheries, Beekeeping and Special Zoology

Faculty of Agriculture University of Zagreb, Svetoimunska 25, HR 10000 Zagreb, CROATIA

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Volume 1 (2000) No.1 (1-7)10


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THE ANALYSIS OF SMALL FAMILY COMMERCIAL FISH FARMS IN CROATIA


INTRODUCTIONAfter the transitional changes the freshwater aquaculture inall Central European region has been passing throughimportant transformations. In most countries the productionhas fallen down to even only one third. Many farms stoppedthe production on big proportion of their ponds. As an

example, the famous FAO sponsored Institute in Szarvasreduced its capacities and stuff to almost one fifth (Treer,1996; Varadi, 1996). These serious problems resulted inconference hold in Budapest in 1996 where the fisheryexperts from the region tried to find the solutions. One ofthe recommendations was to develop sport fisheries whichhas great significance in the developed world (Varadi, 1999).

The similar process has been occurring in Croatia since theeconomic and political changes in 1990. The freshwater fishproduction dropped from 12000 tons to only 4000 tons (Turk,1998). In the same time significant opposite process has beenoccurring in small family aquaculture. While before these

changes Croatia had only one private carp farm and just fewtrout ones in recent years tremendous interest among farmersto create their own farms raised. However, most of themsuffered in the lack of information, not knowing the basicprinciples of how to build and run such farm. Many of thesefarms are therefore made and run voluntarily, so our attemptwas to establish contacts with such farmers, collect the dataabout their farms and to advise them in their further work.

MATERIALS AND METHODSThis paper deals with the results of our visits to 13 smallfamily commercial fish farms. At each of them we interviewedthe farmers with the same questionnaire. The questions weredivided into several groups giving the answers about theponds, family, the way of fishery managing and the principal

problems that the farmers face in their everyday work.The farmers were interviewed in the first half of 1999. Thecontacts with some of the farms were established even beforeand are kept now with all of them, continuously developingthe cooperation with the other farms, too.

RESULTSThe investigated farms are mainly situated in thenorthwestern part of Croatia (Fig. 1). All of them wereformed in nineties or late eighties. All farms have pond areaunder or slightly over 1 ha, while only one has 7 ha. Half ofthe investigated farms have the salmonid and other halfcyprinid water quality. The ponds are filled either from theorigin of the spring, either by the water few kilometers fromit. One farm has only pit water. The depth of the cyprinidponds is usually around 2,5 m or more up to 4 m, while theone of salmonid ponds is around 1 m. The farms were builtbeside the roads and necessary supplies (water, electricity).Only one is about 100 m far from them. The necessaryequipment on most farms is good. The way of guarding the

Figure 1.

The location of investigated farmsin Croatia (numbers indicate the

family names of the owners):

1- Posavec2- Petko3- Vranei4- aravanja5- Krajaevi6- Gran7- Drempeti8- Deko9- Deliimunovi10- Vrabac11- Kundi

12- Bori13- ikota


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ponds if different. The owners live on four farms. Others areguarded by other members of the family (parents, brother),by paid guard, by dogs, only fence or not guarded at all.

The basic occupation of the owner is predominantly artisanof different specialization (two of them are qualified fishworkers). Two owners are retired and one is army officer.

Half of them are in their forties years of life, while the rangeis from 28 to 60. The number of family members involved inthe fish farm is usually between 3 and 5 (exceptionally 2 and6). At the biggest farm all 11 family members are somehowincluded in the jobs connected with it. The participation ofthe income connected with the fisheries in the whole incomeof the family ranges from 60-100%. Three farms are just at

the beginning now, yet without any income and the fourthone earns only 5%.

The way of managing fisheries in most cases is through sportfishing or combining it with aquaculture (Fig. 2). The anglershave to pay the all fish caught depending to weight. Only

three farms are devoted just to fish culture. In that being thecase one farm has the culture connected to the ownrestaurant, another is in the process of foundation, while theonly one that exclusively sells to the market faces theproblems with selling. The restaurants are established at twoof other farms, too.

Annual production per farm is between 1,5 t and 6 t ofcultured fish; while from 0,5 t to 5 t is soled through angling.One of the farms intensively produces rainbow trout inamount of 40 t per year and sells it to the Zagreb market.

Other cultured fish are soled locally, exported to Italy orthrough own restaurant. Some farmers start culture with one-month-old fish, while the others start with pre consumablesize (trout around 140 g, carps nearly 300 g). One farm triesonly with the culture of carp fingerlings that could be soledto bigger farms for further culture. The carp at these farms is

fed with grains and trout with pelleted food as is the practiceon big farms. Besides the common carp the cyprinid farmsusually have grasscarp, bighead, silver carp, pike, Europeancatfish and brown bullhead.

The basic problems expressed by almost all farmers are thelack of suitable bank loans that could help them to developtheir activities, then high taxes for all the licenses, use the

water and veterinary service. The lack of quality domesticfood is also mentioned, while the lack of continuousextension service is also obvious.

There are also some alternative attempts to earn some moneyfor the family from fisheries. One retired soldier cultures the

rainbow trout in cages in the river Cetina in Dalmatia. Heproduces about 2 t of fish annually selling them mostly tosport fishermen who visit the river. In other case the farmerleased the bog and organized commercial sport fishing there.

DISCUSSIONThe significant economical and political changes that affectedCroatia in last decade influenced the approach of smallfamily farmers to fisheries as well. Many of them have beentrying to earn part of their income by building the ponds andkeeping the fish. Most of them started that job without any

Fig. 2: The pond of Gran fish farm


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THE ANALYSIS OF SMALL FAMILY COMMERCIAL FISH FARMS IN CROATIA


knowledge and experience, so facing the problems in buildingthe ponds and keeping the fish in them.

In present situation on the fish market it became obvious thatpersisting only on fish culture is the most difficult way to earnmoney. That is why it is advised to the farmers to combineculture with restaurant and sport fishing. Moreover, only

sport fishing or combination of it with the restaurant in themost cases could be the best solution. In that case the shapeof the ponds should not be rectangular like it is on big farms.It should be incorporated in the nature, respecting the rulesof landscape architecture (Jungwirth et al., 1995).

Almost all the farmers started with this enterprise facedserious money problems. It is very expensive to get all thelicenses, to build the ponds and to buy fish and food. It wouldbe necessary to offer the farmers better conditions in bankloans to start their business. Also, later on the taxes for wateruse and services are too high and should be reduced.

The Croatian Agricultural Extension Service has the branch

for fisheries, but it is not equipped with the skilled personnelin the field. The stuff consists of faculty educatedagriculturists, but they dont have experience in fisheries.That is why it would be necessary to organize courses for

them to serve family fish farmers better and to employ freshwater fishery experts.

It is possible to conclude that in the hard times for agricultureand fisheries in the Central European area small familycommercial fish farms could be one of the solutions, but asthis type of business is at its beginning it needs much help

from the experts as well as from the government.

LITERATUREJungwirth M., Muhar S., Schmutz S. (1995): The effects of

recreated instream and ecotone structures on the fishfauna of an epipotamal river. Hydrobiologia, 303: 195-206

Treer T. (1996): Problemi slatkovodne akvakulture uzemljama u tranziciji (The problems of fresh-wateraquaculture in the countries in transition). Book ofpapers, 24-26, Fish farming days, Osijek in Croatian

Turk M. (1998): Hrvatsko slatkovodno ribarstvo u godini1997. Ribarstvo, 56: 101-113

Varadi L. (1996): Hungary: National report on fish farmingindustry. Handbook of short communications andnational reports, 133-138, Future trends of aquaculturedevelopment in Eastern Europe, Budapest

Varadi L. (1999): Possibilities and limitations of fish farmnigin the Republic of Hungary. Book of abstracts, 12, Fish

farming days, Osijek


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Volume 1 (2000) No.1 (CROATIAN)

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Journal CEA 2000 No.1 (Feromoni Pcela + Mali Obiteljski Ribnjaci)

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