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Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 1
Language, Reading, and Spelling: The Interplay
Lori Josephson, M.A.Monica Gordon Pershey, Ed.D., CCC-SLP
Presented at the Annual Symposium of the Northern Ohio Branch of the International Dyslexia Association
March 2, 2007
Cleveland, OH
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 2
Oral Language:Connection to Academics
Oral Language Forms the Underpinnings for the “Essential Components of Reading Instruction”:
– Phonemic Awareness– Phonics– Vocabulary Development– Reading Fluency (Oral & Silent)– Reading Comprehension Strategies
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 3
Oral Language:Connection to Academics
Development of Written Language Skills:– Spelling– Writing to the Audience– Sentence Structure (Syntax/Grammar)– Retrieval of Oral Vocabulary– Sequencing (Phonemes, Words, Ideas)– Organization of Thought– Active Working Memory: Remembering
What You’ve Written and What You Still Want to Write
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 4
Oral Language:Connection to Academics
Content Area Instruction– The Language of Mathematics
VocabularySyntaxMultiple Meanings
– Social Studies/ScienceVocabularyAbstract ThinkingPrecise Observation/ MeasurementDrawing Conclusions
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 5
Oral Language: Three Systems
Semantics = “Content”- Making Meaning- Vocabulary- Specialized Lexicon- Concept Development- Breadth, Depth, and Connections- Contextual Usage and Analysis
of Words- Structural Analysis of Words
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 6
Oral Language: Three Systems
Syntax = “Form”- Phonology: Phonemes, Syllables, Intonation, Stress, Pauses- Content Words: Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs- Function Words: Preposition, Conjunction, Auxiliary Verb, Article, Pronouns- Morphology: Affixes, Inflection, Contractions - Word Order: Clauses, Sentence Types, Question Words, Negation
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 7
Oral Language: Three Systems
Pragmatics = “Use” = In Context- Message Function: Intent and Purpose (To Inform, To Question, To Joke, To Form Attachment)- Message Cohesion: Successive Utterances Follow Logically, Maintain a Topic, Change a Topic, Lead Up to a Point, Sequence- Discourse: A Text (A Passage, A Book, An Advertisement, A Conversation, A Movie); A Genre
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 8
Oral Language: Three Systems
LinguisticClarityMeet the Informational
Needs of the Listener
Logical SequenceEconomyExpressivitySelf-MonitoringExecutive Function
Social/Cultural/Gender/Age/Setting/InterlocutorsCooperationTurn-TakingPolitenessStatus/RoleTopic SelectionNonverbal LanguageSelf-MonitoringExecutive Function
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 9
Oral Language: Three Systems
Pragmatic skill is judged by criteria of social validity - success in a social field
Listener evaluations are dependent upon culturally conditioned values that dictate credibility: wealth, appearance, physical fitness
Linguistic/cognitive competence may or may not predict social competence
Social competence may mask linguistic/cognitive deficits
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 10
Oral Language: Three Systems
Bloom, L. Pediatrics 1998;102:e1272
Copyright ©1998 American Academy of Pediatrics
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 11
Form Articulation/Auditory Discrimination Phonological Processing/Phonemic Awareness
– Manipulation Affects Reading/Spelling (Blending, Segmenting, Elision, Substitution)
– Phonological Memory Affects Retrieval (Spelling)
Receptive/Expressive Production Errors - Phonological Neighbors
Syntax (Function Words, Prepositions) Active Working Memory - Metalinguistic Long Term Memory
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 12
Components of Language and Academic Instruction - Form
Reading Readiness - Development of Phonological Awareness, Memory, Rapid Naming Ability
Reading Decoding/Spelling – Word and Sentence Level
Oral Reading Fluency Written Sentence Construction Math Formulae Sequencing of Steps in Math Calculation
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 13
Meet Matthew
Presented in Spring of Kindergarten History of Speech; Brothers
Need(ed) Intervention Poor Articulation - /k/, /g/, /l/, /r/ Poor Discrimination - k/g, f/th/v Overall Intelligibility Poor Poor Oral Language Affected Development of
Rhyming, Phonological Awareness, Sound/Symbol Relationships, Development of Sight Word Vocabulary
CTOPP (age 6): Average Phonological Awareness and Rapid Naming; Below Average Phonological Memory
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 14
Meet Matthew
DIBELS: Steady Growth Throughout 1st GradeNonsense Word Fluency: 22 (fall), 52
(winter), 94 (spring) - At BenchmarkOral Reading Fluency: 21wpm (winter);
55wpm (spring); 59wpm (fall 2nd grade) - At Benchmark
Retell Fluency: 15 (winter); 30 (spring); 15 (fall 2nd grade) - Variable
Difficulty Using Correct Syntax at Times; Irregular Past Tense Shaky: ‘Tooken Out’ for ‘Taken Out’
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 15
Meet Matthew
Results of Intervention Have Been FABULOUS!!!Articulation Correct Except /r/ Medial Decoding/Encoding VERY Good for
What Has Been Taught: 3, 4, 5 Sound Words; Suffixes s, es, er, est, ed, ing; Schwa; Nasals; Rules of Syllabication Using Closed Syllable Words
Fluency is At and Above Benchmark At Times, Difficulty Pronouncing
Multisyllable Words: Magnifying
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 16
Meet John Presented In 1st Grade: History of Speech/Language Issues; Family
History of Delayed Language/Speech– Poor Intelligibility– Poor Sound Discrimination– Poor Visual-motor Skills (Handwriting/
Motor Planning Problems)
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 17
Meet John
– Average Reading: Sound/Symbol Relationships (When
Discriminated Appropriately); Poor APPLICATION of these Skills for
Decoding Nonsense Words and Encoding;
Slow to Learn Nonphonetic Sight Words for Spelling- Poor Spelling: Phonetic Speller Based
Upon Faulty Articulations: ‘Wif’ for ‘With’
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 18
Meet John
Early Intervention: 1st and 2nd Grades– Improvement In Articulation and Intelligibility– Attended Speech Therapy - Work on
Articulation and Intelligibility, Pronunciation of Multisyllabic Words
– Impulsive Work Style: Reads Many Words Per Minute with Many Errors (Omissions of Suffix Endings/ Function Words)
– Improvement in Decoding and Encoding; Syllabication Skills- Grade Level Work
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 19
Meet John
Continued Remediation: 3rd-4th Grades– Released From Speech Therapy - 4th
Grade– Continued Improvement in All Areas– Able to Blend/Segment Sounds in up
to 6 Sound Words- Impulsive Work Style Continues to Interfere with Spelling Mastery (Sound Omissions/ Substitutions)
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 20
Meet John
Continued Remediation:– Knowledge of Syllable Types:
Closed, Open, Vowel-consonant-e, Consonant-le
– Knowledge of Rules of Syllabication– Knowledge of Basic Latin Suffixes – Improvement in Sight Word Vocabulary
for Spelling– Continued Difficulty Pronouncing
Multisyllabic Words: ‘Twists’
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 21
Meet John
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 22
Meet John
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 23
Meet John
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 24
Less Developed Oral Language Results in Persistent, Consistent Decoding Errors - Grade 5 Selection
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 25
Content
Vocabulary - One of the Best Predictors of School Success– Overall Lexicon (Academic)– Word Retrieval– Phonological Neighbors (Malapropisms)– Multiple Meanings– Antonyms/Synonyms
Overall Productivity– Spoken Language– Written Language
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 26
Content
Morphology – Affixes– Root/Combined Forms Study– Word Derivatives
Grammar/Word Function Semantic Neighbors –
Precision of Usage
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 27
Components of Language and Academic Instruction - Content
Vocabulary Meaning in All Subject Areas (Alternate Meanings, Synonyms)
Comprehension of Complex Text in Any Content Area
Comprehension of Discourse (Spoken/Written), Subject Specific or for Social Purposes
Ability to Read to Learn Vs. Read for Pleasure
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 28
Components of Language and Academic Instruction - Content
Understanding Figurative Language, Metaphors, Similes
Critical Thinking Using the Vocabulary of Instruction/Vocabulary Internalized for Discourse
Understanding the Language of Math and the Ability to Explain Solutions to Math Problems
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 29
Revisit with John
Oral Syntax has had a BIG Affect on Reading/Written Language Skills
Use of Prepositions: For/So– “I Went to the Bank for I
Could Get Money.”– Remediation Required
Oral/Written Modeling Over a Long Period of Time
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 30
Revisit with John
Omission of ‘Function Words’/Suffix Endings While Reading Orally
Ability to Create Sentences with Correct Usage Given Target Words with 1 and 2 Suffix Endings orDerivatives: Carelessly, Actively, Gracefully
“He is all the time lately.” “He destructiveness knocked the building over.”
Difficulty with Homophones, Multiple Meanings, Idioms
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 31
More children….
Phonological Neighbors:– Russell (grade 4): Budge/budget
– Alex (grade 8): Instigate/imitate
– Rachel (grade 7): anecdote/antidote
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 32
Meet Kendra
Presented in Grade 6Vocabulary/Productivity/Grammar:
- Overall Productivity In Oral Language Domain - Wordy Written Language- Poor Syntax/Low Vocabulary Level- Poor Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary due to Both Low Overall Language Skills and Reduced Reading Experience- Deficits in Word Retrieval- Poor Recognition of Patterns Affects Morphology (Affixes, Roots)- Poor Imagery- DISCONNECT Between Oral Language - Grammar - Written Language
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 33
Meet Kendra
In chapter 5 Jonas and his family talk about the dream that they had that night. JonasÕs dream was a little awkward, his parents told Jonas that it was the being of Stirrings. Stirrings begins in a dream. I think Stirrings means when a boy starts to like a girl or the other way around. Jonas has to start taking pills through his whole adult hood. Everyone has to do the same when it happens to them. In chapter 6 there is a ceremony and everyone turns a year older at the same time. When they turn a year older they get a gift. Lily is turning 9 and is getting a bicycle. Jonas is turning 12 and is getting to get a job. In chapter 5 Jonas and his family discuss the dreams they all had the previous night. It was awkward for Jonas to talk about his dream since it dealt with adolescent feelings; his parents told Jonas that it was the beginning of Stirrings. JonasÕs mother explained that Stirrings begin in a dream, and all children his age have them. I think Stirrings refers to the romantic feelings that boys and girls have toward each other. His mother goes on to explain that Jonas must take pills through his whole adulthood in order to diminish Stirrings altogether. This society requires everyone his age to take pills to eliminate Stirrings. Chapter 6 involves a ceremony when everyone turns a year older at the same time (simultaneously). When the children in the community turn a year older, they receive a gift, which is the same depending on the childÕs age. All eight year olds, such as Lily, receive a jacket with smaller buttons down the front showing her independence. Jonas, like the other twelve year olds, receives a job Assignment.
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 34
Meet Amanda
TOWL Grade Equivalent 4.4
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 35
Meet Andrew
Presented in Kindergarten- ‘Over-Focusing’- Slow to Follow Directions- Attentional Difficulties- Difficulty with Transitions- Mild Anxiety Issues- “Loses Track of Time”- Relatively Weak Handwriting Skills- ‘Phonics’ Deemed Intact
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 36
Meet Andrew
Assessment Results:– Sound/Symbol Relationships Intact; Poor
APPLICATION for Decoding/Encoding– Difficulty Recognizing and Spelling
Nonphonetic Sight Words; Both Affecting Fluency
– Underlying Difficulty with Language:Days of the Week, Months of the Year,
Seasons, HolidaysAddress, Telephone NumberOverall Weak Vocabulary
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 37
Meet Andrew
Andrew’s ‘Disconnected’ Language SkillsCREVT Scores:
Receptive Vocabulary 37th Percentile Expressive Vocabulary 19th Percentile
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 38
Meet Andrew
Receptive Errors
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 39
Meet Andrew
Expressive Errors:– ‘dog’ - “goes outside and pees”– ‘oven’ - “it’s hot”– ‘lemon’ - “put it in drinks”
Ongoing Difficulties with Categorizing/Naming, Synonyms, Antonyms, Multiple Meanings, Analogies– Naming Parts of a Car - “motor, door, air thing,
drivers plate (license)”– “Car : drive as toy : Lego” – Baseball Unit - Naming - “bat, mitt, ball,” prompt
“helmet, mask”; Multiple Meanings “park, fly, catch”– “Baseball : sport as cake : eat”
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 40
Meet Andrew
Andrew’s Handwriting/Process SpeedSlow Process Speed - Beery VMI - 55th Percentile
Summer 2006 Winter 2007
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 41
Use
Pragmatics Affect Fluency and Comprehension
Ability to Participate in Discourse - Written Language
Ability to Socially Interact Appropriately
World Knowledge
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 42
Components of Language and Academic Instruction-Pragmatics
Understanding the Implicit Meaning As Well As Explicit Meaning in Literature and in Content Area Reading
Understanding Humor Understanding Hidden Motivations of
Characters in Literature, Leaders in History, Etc.
Understanding Applications of Math Instruction in Everyday Life
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 43
More children….
Kendra and Gabe:– Retellings Low Level in Terms of
Production– Retelling Begins with the Final
Sentence Read (Typically a Detail); No Main Idea
Andrew (Grade 1): – Poor Eye Contact, Inattentive ADD,
Affective Issues– Over-Focused on Details
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 44
Meet Matt
Presented in Grade 2: - Poor Decoding/Encoding - Comprehension Intact - Poor Handwriting
Grade 5: Good Response to Tutorial - Fluency and Decoding Intact- Began to Experience Breakdown in Comprehension as Sentence Length and Text Complexity Increased (Appositives, Compound Sentences)- ‘Word-caller’- Written Language Mechanical, Wordy
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 45
Meet Matt
Cave Paintings In the Cave of Lascaux, there are many cave painting of animals made by cave men. I think the cave men must have been very intelligent to think of how to make different colors out of different berries. I think they had to be interested in drawing to take the time to draw those cave paintings when they probably had better things they could do like hunt for food. I think they may have drawn these cave paintings because they wanted to show other people that they lived here in the cave. Also, they may have wanted to keep learning about different ways they could have drawn on the cave walls. I think they tried to keep history by drawing these pictures and they did a good job. In the Cave of Lascaux, many cave painting exist of animals made by homosapiens. I think the cave men displayed intelligence by thinking of how to make different color paints out of berries. In addition, they appeared to have an interest in drawing and to take the time to draw the cave paintings when they probably had better things to do such as search for food. I believe they drew these cave paintings because they wanted to show others that they lived here in the cave. Their paintings depict various animals in existence at that time. Also, they experimented with different ways to draw on the cave walls using rocks and berries. They attempted to record history by drawing these detailed, well-done pictures on cave walls.
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 46
Meet Chris
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 47
Implications for Instruction
Task Analysis for Instruction:STRUCTURED----------------SPONTANEOUS
Oral Language Production in a Structured Situation
Oral Language Production in a Spontaneous Situation
Written Language Production in a Structured Situation
Written Language Production in a Spontaneous Situation
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 48
Implications for Instruction
Provide Interactive Lessons:– Lecture Format is Often Too Fatiguing
for LD Students Speak Slowly:
– Normal Rate: 130-250 Words Per Minute (Emerick & Haynes 1986)
– Oral Reading Rate: 130-140 WPM Recommended
– Delivery of Verbal Information at <200 WPM Recommended
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 49
Implications for Instruction
Directly Teach Vocabulary in EVERY Subject Area!
Anticipate Student Needs! Don’t Assume Anything!
– Consistently Review (Flash Cards, Game Format)
– Teach Parts of Speech (Word Function)
– Review Multiple Meanings as Necessary
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 50
Implications for Instruction
- Have Students Repeat Words - Students Use Words in Orally
Generated Sentences- Avoid Assignments/Class Work
Involving Predominantly Copying – Require More Active Learning
Assessment:– Don’t Count Spelling Errors
on Non-spelling Tests– Oral Assessments– Vary Test Formatting
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 51
Teaching Strategies for Errors in Form
– Provide Opportunities to Practice– Ask Clarification Questions:
Do You Mean ____ Or ____?“If I Understand Correctly, You Said ___”
– Paraphrase the Response:“So You’re Saying…”
– “I’m Having Trouble Understanding”– Ask Another Student to Reverbalize– Analogy Between Handwriting Legibility
and Speech Articulation
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 52
Teaching Strategies for Errors in Form
Errors In Production:
– Provide Validation Rather Than “That’s Wrong”….That’s Very Close” Instead
– Present ‘Sound-Symbol’ Cues
– Use Gestural and/or Semantic Cues
– Use Synonyms/Antonyms as Applicable
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 53
Teaching Strategies for Errors in Form
Syntax Errors:– Simple Sentences - Complex Sentences -
Compound Sentences
– Use of Templates to Practice Correct Word Order (Structured Speech, Spontaneous Speech, Structured Writing, Spontaneous Writing)
– Gradual Elimination of the Templates
– Provide Lists of Starter Words for Adverb Phrases: A ‘Menu’
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 54
Teaching Strategies for Errors in Content
Typical Receptive and Production Errors:– Omission of Suffix Endings– Confusion of Suffix Endings– Omission of ‘Function Words’– Subject-verb Agreement– Confusion of Subject-Object Pronouns– Use of Participles– Irregular Past Tense– Pluralization– Comparative/Superlative Adjectives
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 55
Teaching Strategies for Errors in Content
Disconnect Between Receptive Language and Production
Grammar Instruction Fluency Drills - Highlight Element You
Are Trying To Remediate Provide Practice With Oral Sentence
Production/Written Sentence Production
Provide Lists Of Verb Conjugations Provide Lists Of Subject/Object
Pronouns
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 56
Teaching Strategies for Errors in Content
Fluency Drills - Highlight the Element You are Trying to Remediate
Provide Practice with Oral Sentence Production/Written Sentence Production
Provide Lists of Verb Conjugations Provide Lists of Subject/Object Pronouns Flash Cards - Matching Suffix to Word
Function Direct Instruction on Word Derivatives Provide Lists of Adjectives (Menu)
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 57
Teaching Strategies for Errors in Content
Multisensory Grammar Instruction:
Project Read Framing Your Thoughts www.projectread.com
Neuhaus Multisensory Grammar www.neuhaus.com
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 58
Teaching Strategies for Errors in Content for Older Students
Directly Teach Sentence Combining: – Use of ‘And’- Compound Subject, Predicate– Use of ‘And’ ‘But’ ‘So’ - Compound
Sentences– Use of Correlative Conjunctions:
‘Neither/Nor’; ‘Not Only/But Also’; ‘Either/Or’; ‘Whether/Or’
– Use of Connectives (Transition Words/ Phrases)
– Adjective Placement Prior to Noun– Break Apart Combined Sentences into their
Component Parts
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 59
Teaching Strategies for Errors in Content for Older Students
Directly Teach Elimination of Passive Voice– Use Active Verb Instead– Introduce Use of Appositive
Use Commonly Confused Words by William W. Gentile, Sr. www.walch.com
MODEL, MODEL, MODEL!!!
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 60
Strategies to Teach Vocabulary Look IN the word, AROUND the word
– Affixes– Identification of the Part of Speech/
Function of word– Identification of Roots/Combined Forms– Use Context
Create a Semantic Map– Antonyms/Synonyms– Definition– Examples– Multiple Meanings– Linguistic Structure
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 61
Strategies to Teach Vocabulary
Oral/Written Sentence Formulation with Illustration
Collins CoBuild Dictionary www.collins.co.uk Vanilla Vocabulary www.ganderpublications.com
Roget’s Super Thesaurus by Marc McCutcheon (Writer’s Digest Books)
Getting Into Words by Shira Lubliner www.brookespublishing.com
Directly teach homophones, homographs, heteronyms (2 pronunciations - read/readAccent changes - conduct, object)
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 62
Strategies to Teach Idioms andFigurative Language
What Are We Talking About??– Hyperbole – Idiom– Metaphor– Onomatopoeia– Personification– Simile– Slang– Proverb– Dialect– Figures Of Speech: Allegory, Irony,
Euphemisms
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 63
Strategies to Teach Idioms andFigurative Language
Use Literature/Other Media Formats:– Prose/Poetry– Advertisements, Newspapers
Direct Instruction/Multiple Exposures Illustrations Dictionary of Idioms by Marvin Terban
www.scholastic.com Figurative Language: A Comprehensive
Program by Kathleen A. Gorman-Gard (Thinking Publications)
Webster’s New World American Idioms Handbook by Gail Brenner (Wiley Publishing)
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 64
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 65
Teaching Strategies for Errors in Use
Improving Discourse - Written Language:– Practice in Maintenance of Discourse on
Topic - Use of Discourse Connectors, Transitions, Terminators
– Practice in Oral Summarizing - Identification of Main Idea and Supporting Details, Use of Discourse Connectors (Use of Template)
– Practice Providing Descriptive Information (Use of Template)
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 66
Teaching Strategies for Errors in Use
- Practice in expressing:Comparisons/ContrastsExplaining a ProcessDescribing Cause/EffectOpinions
- Eliminate Open-Ended Questioning, Provide Multiple Choice Responses, Cueing, Brainstorming, Modeling
Josephson & Gordon Pershey (2007) 67
Questions and Discussion