Johnson’s War

1966

No major battles, confined to small firefights throughout country.

Westmoreland unable to implement phase 2 of his plan of attrition. Manpower shortages. Policy of limiting

soldiers to 1 year tours-manpower instability remained throughout war.

1967

Year would begin with 390,000 U.S. soldiers in-country. With other troops from “Third Countries” (South Korea, Australia, and New Zealand), as well as 11 ARVN Divisions.

Westmoreland’s combined campaign plan for 1967 called for ARVN forces to secure and pacify areas under allied control while U.S. forces bore brunt of fighting communists.

Year begins with major operations against V.C. strongholds north of Saigon (Operations Cedar Falls & Junction City).

V.C. learned quickly not to match firepower with the U.S.•If outgunned, they simply melted

away.•Took away attrition factor.

Began retreating across the Cambodian border.

U.S. rules of engagement prevented them from crossing into Cambodia. •Provided PAVN and V.C. the

opportunity to rest, replenish, resupply, and regroup.

Central Highlands (Kontum Province). Fighting raged in triple-canopied forest

(250-300 ft. trees). PAVN forces chose when and where to

attack, U.S. counter-attacked.•Fighting usually savage and losses to

both sides were heavy.

November 1967-U.S. stopped potential invasion at Dak To.•Battle raged for 5 days with heavy

losses (1,400 PAVN : 289 U.S. : 49 ARVN).

•In the end, PAVN forces simply left and disappeared.

Northern Provinces. Marines established bases along the

DMZ and Laotian border to control infiltration along Ho Chi Minh Trail.

Fighting culminated with the battle for Con Thien.•Fierce fighting between Marines

and VC forces, included contribution of massive firepower (artillery, naval gunfire, tactical air strikes, and B-52 bombings).

•PAVN-2,000 KIA:200 U.S. Marines.

Politically in south. June 1965 things seemed to have

stabilized.•Nguyen Cao Ky named prime minister.

February 1966-Ky’s administration began to promise serious reform (little done).

Buddhist uprisings against Ky and the new president Nguyen Van Thieu ended any thought of reform.

•Uprising crushed which solidified the rule of ARVN generals.

By the end of 1967, the war seemed to be stalemated and the U.S. had nearly 500,000 soldiers in Vietnam. NVA strategy-lure U.S. forces into

remote border regions to effect surprise assaults on cities and towns in early 1968.

1968-Year of the Monkey

Last ½ of 1967 was used by VC/PAVN to plan an offensive to gain control of the cities and towns.

Wanted to take advantage of the ceasefire during Tet holiday (lunar new year, most important Vietnamese holiday).

Plan was in response to U.S. buildup. NVA strategy of protracted warfare did

not appear to be working, had sustained severe losses with no strategic or political gains.

U.S. troop levels increasing, anti-war movement seemed to be ineffective, Hanoi being heavily bombed, and there was no negotiated settlement in sight.

Wanted to attack cities in hopes of a general uprising against Saigon and the U.S. Would overthrow the government and

replace with a coalition headed by the NLF.

By the end of 1967, the U.S. had noticed increased traffic on the Ho Chi Minh Trail. Captured prisoners and documents

confirmed an offensive sometime in early 1968.

U.S. assumed an attack along the DMZ.

January 10, intelligence indicated a shift from border regions to Saigon. President Thieu persuaded to keep ½

of forces on duty during holiday.

TET!

January 30, 1968, 2:45 A.M.-offensive began as 84,000 VC/PAVN soldiers attacked Saigon, 36 of 44 provincial capitals, and 64 of 242 district capitals.

Very quickly attacks were stopped and enemy driven back with severe losses throughout the country.

Battle for Hue.

Stiffest fighting took place in the old Imperial capital of Hue.

•Hue had become an open city and had seen little of the war.

Fighting ran from January 31 to March 2, 1968.

VC/PAVN forces held strategic points throughout the city. U.S. Marines and ARVN forces engaged

in bitter street by street fighting. Over 8,000 soldiers on both sides killed

and the city was destroyed.

Communists had time to set up a “provisional government” and had begun implementing revolution. 2,800 to 3,000 people executed, many

brutally (some buried alive).•Government officials, military, police,

priests, teachers, and foreign nationals.

Aftermath of Tet.

U.S. had suffered a psychological blow. Public had been told the enemy was

losing power. V.C. sapper had blown a hole in

embassy wall and entered courtyard.

Tactically-allies had responded quickly and caused the communist a severe defeat. V.C. structure effectively eliminated. Total communist losses-58,000 killed. No where in the south did

“revolutions” rise up, nor were the V.C. welcomed by the people of South Vietnam.

ARVN forces had fought relatively well.

V.C. so decimated, war changed in 1968 from a guerilla to conventional war between allies and PAVN.

Westmoreland saw an end to the war, wanted more troops to counterattack and mop up to victory. Great Paradox-

Victory encased in psychological defeat. U.S. public and government unwilling to win the war.

Battle of Khe Sanh

Battle against the Marines along the DMZ was to be the final phase of the “General Uprising”. Became known as America’s “Dien Bien

Phu”. NVA siege began January 20, 1968

(6,000 allied troops vs. 30-40,000 PAVN).

1st time PAVN forces used armor in South Vietnam (Soviet T-76 tanks).

Heavy artillery and bombing took toll on PAVN, who began to withdraw March 11. Khe Sanh relieved by combined

Marine/Air Cavalry force (Operation Pegasus).

Over 1600 PAVN and 200 Marines KIA in 77 day siege.

Post-Tet Politics Even though a tactical victory, government

integrity dealt a psychological blow. Johnson was unable to convince the public

that the end was near. Military advisors told Johnson it was time to

widen the war to a conclusion. Wanted to escalate from limited to full war. Wanted to send 200,000 troops to Vietnam

to conclude that war, plus maintain U.S. commitments elsewhere in the world.

•Would require calling up reserve and guard units to ensure manpower commitments.

Johnson shocked Faced opposition and disillusionment of

war. Would require a tax increase and

mobilization of the U.S. Would cut into domestic program. Was an election year.

New Secretary of Defense, Clark Clifford, saw the war as hopeless.

After a tour of Asia, he no longer believed in the ‘Domino Theory”.

Recommended a gradual pull-out.

Anti-war Democrats rising in political stature. Eugene McCarthy had

a strong showing in New Hampshire.

Robert Kennedy entering the race.

Johnson gave a speech on March 31 with a decision. Offered negotiations and announced

an unconditional bombing halt as a gesture.

Decided to only send 13,500 additional troops.

U.S. would focus on expanding and improving the military capabilities of South Vietnam.

He would not run for re-election.

Anti-war Movement

Movement started out of a sense of political activism. Social radicals, traditional pacifists,

women, students, many Blacks, and left wing intellectuals.

Began at universities with teach-ins. Started with little political significance.

Began to organize at the local level. Early 60’s-Ban the Bomb Marches, Civil

Rights, etc. 60’s was an affluent time for most but

there was an incredible increase in racial tensions.

Some saw the movement as a cultural rebellion from society. Began politicalization of movement.

1966-Senator J.W. Fulbright (Chair of Senate Foreign Relations Committee) called for scholars to teach about the war.

Movement meant people believed war was not in the best national interest. Some believed it could lead to WW III.

Media showed movement led by long-haired hippies. Typical opponent was older, Black or

Jewish, female, and not well educated. College educated male supported war

stronger and longer than any other group.

As war escalated, so did protests. By mid-1967, movement began to work

politically. Eugene McCarthy, Robert Kennedy and

Martin Luther King, Jr. McCarthy challenged Johnson in New

Hampshire primary (March ’68), helped by Tet.

Robert Kennedy announced candidacy. Also by mid-1967, some factions became

more militant.

By summer of 1968, movement began to split along those factions and indecision of what to do. Tet had brought people to the

movement but by May of ’68 cohesion began to disappear.

Election of 1968. Movement shocked by the

assassination of Robert Kennedy, led to the nomination of Humphrey (war candidate).

Movement disrupted the Democratic Convention in Chicago.

Movement stifled by the Republicans.•Not sure what to think of Nixon, had

little to say, “What would he do?”.

Fall of 1969-movement began to pick up again. October 15th-National Moratorium Day. November 15th-Large

demonstrations at Washington, D.C. and San Francisco.

Began to divide again in the winter of 69-70.

April 1970-Invasion of Cambodia. Revitalized movement temporarily. May 4th-Kent State (4 killed, 9 injured).

Impact of Movement Contained the war, limited the way U.S.

fought by questioning American foreign policy.

Sustained and lengthened the war by that containment.

May 14th-Jackson State in Mississippi (2 killed).

After Kent State, movement fractured beyond repair and died out.

Reaction Question: Gardens of Stone

Douglas MacArthur is reputed to have said, “No one hates war more than a soldier.” How is this portrayed in the movie Gardens of Stone, and how did the anti-war movement perceive the attitudes of soldiers?