Decision Engineering

Product Lifecycle Management (Volume 2)

John Stark

The Devil is in the Details

Third Edition

Decision Engineering

Series editor

Rajkumar Roy, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, UK

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/5112

John Stark

Product LifecycleManagement (Volume 2)The Devil is in the Details

Third Edition

123

John StarkJohn Stark AssociatesGenevaSwitzerland

ISSN 1619-5736 ISSN 2197-6589 (electronic)Decision EngineeringISBN 978-3-319-24434-1 ISBN 978-3-319-24436-5 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-24436-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015936161

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Preface

This is the second volume of the third edition of Product Lifecycle Management:Paradigm for 21st Century Product Realisation.

Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) is the business activity of managing, inthe most effective way, a company’s products all the way across their lifecycles;from the very first idea for a product all the way through until it is retired anddisposed of.

In the middle of the twentieth century, between 1945 and 1970, things changedlittle in the world of products. Companies, and their executives and employeesworked out how to succeed in that environment. They had an accepted way ofthinking, a paradigm, about the way products were managed.

Between 1970 and 2015, for various reasons, the product landscape changedrapidly and significantly. Facing so many changes, companies had to change toremain competitive. But change how? What’s the new paradigm for managingproducts in the changed environment? Or, put another way, how should a company,its executives and employees be organised and work in this new environment? And,how should a company transition from the old paradigm to the new paradigm? Or,put another way, what set of actions will a company have to execute to achieve thechange? What will be in the PLM Initiative? This book addresses these questions.

The new PLM paradigm emerged at the beginning of the twenty-first centuryand has been evolving since then. It was described in the first edition of this book,which was published in 2004. The second edition of the book was published in2011. Since then, the paradigm has continued to evolve. There have been morechanges in the technologies, products and the PLM environment. This third editionof the book addresses these changes, technological advances and theever-increasing application of PLM.

As its name implies, Product Lifecycle Management enables companies tomanage their products across their lifecycles; from the earliest idea for a product allthe way through to the end of its life. This is one of the most important activities inany company that develops and supports products.

v

PLM is important because it enables a company to be in control of its productsacross their lifecycle. If a company loses control, the consequences can be serious.If it loses control during product development, the product may be late to marketand exceed the targeted cost. The results of losing control during use of the productmay be a frustration and a lack of satisfaction for the customer, or much worse,injury and death.

PLM addresses the heart of the company, its defining resource, the source of itswealth, its products. That is the role of PLM, which is why PLM is so important.Products define a company. Without its products, a company would not be thesame. There is little in a company more important than its products and the waythey will be developed and used. Without those products, there will be no cus-tomers and no revenues.

PLM is also important because it improves the activity of product development,without which a company will not survive. The source of future revenues for acompany is the creation of new products and services. PLM is the activity thatenables a company to grow revenues by improving innovation, reducingtime-to-market for new products, and providing superb support and new servicesfor existing products.

PLM is also important because it enables a company to reduce product-relatedcosts. Product-related material and energy costs are fixed early in the productdevelopment process. PLM provides the tools and knowledge to minimise them.And PLM helps cut recall, warranty and recycling costs that come later in theproduct’s life.

PLM provides a way to overcome problems with the use and support of existingproducts and with the development of new products. But PLM does not just havethe potential to solve problems in the product lifecycle and in new productdevelopment. It also helps companies seize the many market opportunities for newproducts in the globalised environment of the early twenty-first century.

PLM is not easy to implement. It addresses areas previously considered separate,and managed separately. They include products, product data, business processes,applications, people and organisational structures. And PLM addresses them acrossthe product’s entire lifecycle, from cradle to grave. Most companies have, in theirproduct portfolios, many products at different lifecycle stages. Managing productlifecycles in a global economy is a daunting proposition. PLM provides a frame-work in which all of a company’s products can be managed together across theirlifecycles.

PLM is cross-functional and, in the extended enterprise environment of the earlytwenty-first century, it is often cross-enterprise as well. Product lifecycle partici-pants are often in different time zones, use different applications and work fordifferent companies. The responsibility for the product may change at differentphases of the lifecycle. At different times, it may be with marketing, engineering,product management, manufacturing, finance, marketing, sales and service groupsin different companies. Getting agreement on a common approach among all theseorganisations can be time-consuming. PLM helps get everyone to work togethereffectively.

vi Preface

Implementation of PLM may take a long time. Clarifying and straightening outprocesses, data, organisational issues and applications can be time-consuming.Some of the processes and methodologies to propose, define, manufacture, support,upgrade, retire and recycle the product may not be aligned, or may even not exist.The knowledge about the product may be in different applications. The format inwhich data are created in one application may not correspond to the format in whichit is needed in another application. In spite of these difficulties, companies mustmeet the increasing demands of their customers. They need to rapidly and con-tinually improve their products and services. To achieve this they will turn to PLM.This book helps them understand and implement PLM. As for the previous editions,it draws on the extensive PLM consulting activities and experience of the author.

Preface vii

Contents

1 Product Lifecycle Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 What Is PLM? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2.1 High-Level Objective of PLM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.2.2 Activities of PLM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.2.3 A Joined-up, Holistic Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2.4 Generic Product Lifecycle Phases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2.5 PLM, Managing the Product Across

the Lifecycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.2.6 Managing the Product from Dawn to Dusk . . . . . . . 4

1.3 PLM—With What Resources? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.3.1 The PLM Grid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.3.2 Managing the Ten Components of the PLM Grid. . . 6

1.4 Why PLM? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.4.1 There Is no Alternative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.4.2 The Complex Environment of Products . . . . . . . . . 131.4.3 Horror Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151.4.4 Opportunities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.4.5 Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.5 When PLM?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181.5.1 When Did PLM Emerge? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181.5.2 When Did Companies Get Started with PLM?. . . . . 181.5.3 When Do Companies Start a PLM Initiative? . . . . . 19

1.6 Where PLM? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191.6.1 Where Is PLM Used, in Which Industries? . . . . . . . 191.6.2 Where Is PLM Used, in What Size

of Company?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201.6.3 Where Is PLM Used, for What Type

of Products? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201.6.4 Where Is PLM Used, in What Type

of Company?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

ix

1.6.5 Where Did Companies Start with PLM? . . . . . . . . . 201.6.6 Where Will Companies Continue with PLM? . . . . . 21

1.7 Who PLM? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211.7.1 Top Management Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211.7.2 Everybody in the Company with a Product-Related

Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221.7.3 The PLM Initiative Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1.8 How PLM? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241.8.1 The PLM Initiative. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251.8.2 Different Approach, Different Result . . . . . . . . . . . 261.8.3 The Feasibility Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271.8.4 Understanding the In-Scope Current Situation . . . . . 281.8.5 Developing the Future PLM Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . 301.8.6 Developing the PLM Implementation Strategy

and Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311.8.7 Documenting the PLM Implementation Plan . . . . . . 34

2 Product Lifecycle Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372.1 Product Lifecycle Management (PLM). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372.2 Managing the Product Isn’t Easy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372.3 Loss of Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382.4 Sources of Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402.5 Opportunities of Globalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412.6 The Environment Before PLM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422.7 PLM Paradigm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432.8 PLM Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442.9 Starting the PLM Initiative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3 Complex and Changing Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473.1 Changes and Interconnections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

3.1.1 Interconnections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483.2 Macroeconomic and Geopolitical Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.2.1 Globalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483.2.2 Geopolitical Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503.2.3 New Customer Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513.2.4 The Emergence of Global Products . . . . . . . . . . . . 523.2.5 Shareholder Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523.2.6 Market Mentality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533.2.7 Deregulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543.2.8 Regulation and Compliance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543.2.9 Traceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563.2.10 Education and Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563.2.11 Workforce Age Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573.2.12 Free Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

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3.3 Environmental and Social Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583.3.1 Social and Health Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583.3.2 Environmental and Sustainable Development. . . . . . 593.3.3 Role of Women in Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

3.4 Corporate Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603.4.1 Changing Business Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603.4.2 New Company Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613.4.3 Business Process Reengineering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643.4.4 Corporate Theories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643.4.5 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653.4.6 Low-Cost and Lean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653.4.7 Intellectual Property Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663.4.8 The Aftermarket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

3.5 Technological Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673.5.1 Improved Travel, Transport

and Telecommunications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673.5.2 Revolutionary New Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673.5.3 New IS Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673.5.4 Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

3.6 Product Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703.6.1 Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703.6.2 Mechatronic Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3.7 The Result and the Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

4 Product Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734.1 Product Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734.2 Private Life Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

4.2.1 Washing Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744.2.2 Telephone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744.2.3 Escalator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754.2.4 Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754.2.5 Private/Professional Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

4.3 Professional Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764.4 Public Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

4.4.1 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774.4.2 Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784.4.3 Bridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794.4.4 Aerospace Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794.4.5 Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804.4.6 Financial Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814.4.7 Other Products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4.5 Product Development Is Important . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824.6 Product Development Is Hard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834.7 Pain in Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

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4.8 Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844.9 Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

4.9.1 Challenger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864.9.2 Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874.9.3 SR-111. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874.9.4 Ariane 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884.9.5 Multiple Causes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

4.10 Causes and Measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894.11 Pre-Emptive Measures and PLM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904.12 Current and Future Nightmare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

4.12.1 It’s a Nightmare. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904.13 Global Growing Pains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914.14 No Silver Bullet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

5 Emergence of PLM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955.1 Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955.2 Lifecycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955.3 Changing Views of Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985.4 Emergence of PLM in the 21st Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035.5 A New Paradigm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035.6 Across the Lifecycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045.7 A New Way of Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

5.7.1 Thinking About Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055.7.2 Thinking About the Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055.7.3 Thinking About a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065.7.4 Thinking About an Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065.7.5 Thinking About the Product Development

Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065.7.6 Thinking About Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075.7.7 Thinking About Voices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075.7.8 Thinking About Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075.7.9 Thinking About Customers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075.7.10 Thinking About the Portfolio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085.7.11 Thinking About the Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085.7.12 Thinking About the Product Lifecycle Approach . . . 1085.7.13 Thinking About the Management Role . . . . . . . . . . 1095.7.14 Thinking Profit or Planet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095.7.15 Thinking About Processes, Data, Applications . . . . . 109

6 Opportunities and PLM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1116.1 Opportunities of a Growing Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1116.2 Technology Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1126.3 Smart Product Opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1136.4 Opportunity of Global Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

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6.5 Social and Environmental Opportunities for Products. . . . . . . 1156.6 More Opportunities for Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

6.6.1 Unsolved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1166.6.2 Future Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1166.6.3 Balance of Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176.6.4 Increased Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1186.6.5 Better Managed Product Companies . . . . . . . . . . . . 1186.6.6 Multitude of New Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1196.6.7 More Web-Based Product-Related Services . . . . . . . 1196.6.8 Breakthrough Computer Aided Product

Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206.7 So Much Opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206.8 Response to Opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206.9 From Opportunities to Detailed Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

7 Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1237.1 Product Importance, Range, Instance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

7.1.1 Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1237.1.2 Range of Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1237.1.3 More than the Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1247.1.4 Instance of a Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1247.1.5 Number of Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1247.1.6 Commonality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

7.2 Parts, Ingredients, Components, Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1257.2.1 Range of Parts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1257.2.2 Number of Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1257.2.3 Part and Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

7.3 Identifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1267.3.1 Need for an Identifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1267.3.2 Name, Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1267.3.3 Internal, and Other, Names/Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . 1277.3.4 Serial Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1277.3.5 Significant Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1277.3.6 Product Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1287.3.7 Naming Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1287.3.8 Some Product and Part Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1297.3.9 Product Name and Part Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1297.3.10 Trade Mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

7.4 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1307.4.1 Customer Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1307.4.2 Requirements for Global Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

7.5 From Customer Requirement to Product Specification . . . . . . 131

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7.6 Identification Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1327.6.1 Global Trade Item Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1327.6.2 International Standard Book Number . . . . . . . . . . . 1337.6.3 International Mobile Equipment Identity . . . . . . . . . 1337.6.4 International Standard Music Number . . . . . . . . . . . 1337.6.5 CAS Registry Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

7.7 Unique Identifier, Unique Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1347.8 Traceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1347.9 Communication of Identifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

7.9.1 Type of Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1347.9.2 UPC Barcode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1357.9.3 EAN-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1357.9.4 Two-Dimensional Barcodes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

7.10 Product Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1357.10.1 Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1357.10.2 Advantages of Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1367.10.3 Classification Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

7.11 Versions, Variants, Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1367.11.1 Lifecycle State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1367.11.2 Version, Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1377.11.3 Variant, Option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

7.12 Product Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1377.12.1 Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1377.12.2 Intellectual Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

7.13 Product Structure and Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1387.13.1 Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1387.13.2 Bill of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1397.13.3 Product Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1417.13.4 Product Portfolio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1417.13.5 Product Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

7.14 Description, Definition and Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1427.15 From Customer Requirement to Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . 1437.16 No Product Is an Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1437.17 The Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1447.18 The Way Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

8 Product Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1458.1 Product and Product Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1458.2 Product Data Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1468.3 Product Data Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

8.3.1 Access to Product Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1478.3.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1478.3.3 Archiving of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1488.3.4 Availability of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

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8.3.5 Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1488.3.6 Copies of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1498.3.7 Confidentiality of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1498.3.8 Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1498.3.9 Definition of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1498.3.10 Duplicate and Redundant Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1508.3.11 Exchange of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1518.3.12 File-Based Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1518.3.13 Formal Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1528.3.14 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1528.3.15 Identification and Classification Systems. . . . . . . . . 1528.3.16 Inconsistent Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1528.3.17 Incorrect Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1538.3.18 Informally Annotated Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1538.3.19 Informal Communication of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1538.3.20 Input of Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1538.3.21 Interoperability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1548.3.22 Languages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1548.3.23 Level of Detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1548.3.24 Library of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1548.3.25 Location of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1558.3.26 Long-Life Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1558.3.27 Manuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1568.3.28 Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1568.3.29 Meaning of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1578.3.30 Missing Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1578.3.31 Navigation to Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1578.3.32 Ownership of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1578.3.33 Processing of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1588.3.34 Project Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1588.3.35 Re-invention of Existing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1588.3.36 Relationships Between Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1598.3.37 Representations of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1608.3.38 Rules Deficit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1618.3.39 Searching for Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1628.3.40 Security of Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1628.3.41 Sources of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1638.3.42 Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1638.3.43 Standards for Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1638.3.44 States of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1648.3.45 Structure of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1648.3.46 Tabulated Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1648.3.47 Traceability of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1658.3.48 Training Deficit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

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