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Calvin500 years after

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John Calvin: an overview

Calvin’s Significance for Protestantism 5Focus: Times of Change 7

Calvin’s Theology – Grace and Mystery 9Focus: The Four Essential Doctrines of theReformation 11Focus: Predestination 13

Calvin’s Ethics 15Focus: Calvin and Geneva 17

Calvin and the Church – «Mother of theFaithful» 19Focus: Dispute over the Lord’s Supper 21

Calvin – a Theocrat? 23Focus: The Case of Michael Servetus 25

Calvin – Father of Modernity? 27Focus: Calvin and Capitalism 29Focus: Calvin and Democracy 31

Calvin’s Legacy – Calvinists, Huguenots,Puritans 33

Timelines 36

Contents

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St Peter’s Cathedral, Geneva

John Calvin of France was one of the most influentialtheologians of the Reformation Era and of the EarlyModern Era as a whole. As a second-generationReformer, he built his work upon the tenets of MartinLuther, attempting to implement and further dissem-inate Reformed thought. Whereas Martin Luther’sReformation attracted adherents chiefly in Germanareas, and Zwingli’s Reformation was active inZurich, Berne, and Basel, Calvin exported his move-ment to France, Holland, England, Scotland, Poland,Hungary, and Italy, for a total of 100 000 ReformedChristians by the time of Calvin’s death. And as theEnglish Puritans set sail for the New World, Calvinindirectly influenced the future United States as well(u Calvin’s Legacy, p. 33).

A Humanist and ReformerCalvin was educated, at first, in jurisprudence, butwas widely read and extraordinarily well-versed inthe Bible. He came into contact with Martin Luther’sideas as a student and was greatly inspired by theHumanist movement. Like most Humanists, Calvinwas a student of rhetoric and was a master of elo-quent speech. He was able to make use of all theseabilities to convince the people of Geneva of theideas of the Reformation and to mold Geneva into a shining example of a truly renewed society (u Focus: Calvin and Geneva, p. 17).

Bringing the Reformation into FocusCalvin’s main body of writing, entitled The Institutesof the Christian Religion (Institutio ChristianaeReligionis) was the first piece to provide a compre-hensive explanation of the Protestant faith. Calvinrevised and expanded the Institutes several times,which was later translated into numerous lan-guages. Calvin himself published a French edition inaddition to the original Latin, as it was always hismain aim to spread the Reformation to France, hishome country. The French version also contributedsignificantly to the development of the French lan-guage through its clarity and simplicity of style.

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The Systematic Spread of Reform DoctrineGeneva developed into an important center ofProtestantism, particularly as the result of a streamof religious refugees from France and other coun-tries (u Focus: Calvin and Geneva, p. 17). Calvinalso contributed to the spread of ReformedProtestantism by founding the Geneva Academy,a theological school. Calvin remained in contactwith important Reformers and scholars fromacross Europe, and the entrepreneur Laurent deNormandie, a friend of Calvin, disseminated hissermons and writings throughout France via a net-work of itinerant traders.

A New Branch of ProtestantismCalvin’s agreement with the Zurich ReformerHeinrich Bullinger on a common view of the Lord’sSupper (u Focus: Dispute over the Lord’s Supper,p. 21), provided both a basis for a unified Swissschool of Protestantism and for the Reformedbranch of Protestantism.

Martin Luther(1483–1546)

Heinrich Bullinger(1504–1575)

Huldrych Zwingli(1484–1531)

Guillaume Farel (1489-1565) in conversation with John Calvin© LIFE

Laurent deNormandie (env. 1510–1569)

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The Reformation represented the culmination ofover 200 years of efforts toward reform inChristianity. The Reformation would have beenunthinkable without the invention of the printingpress and was strongly influenced by theHumanists, who were both mobile and enjoyedbroad networks, with the ability to cross culturalboundaries to exchange views in the universal lan-guage of Latin.

200 Years of Reform EffortsAs early as the 12th century, the Waldensians beganto postulate the exclusive authority of the Bible andreject the worship of Mary, the saints, and relics, aswell as the sale of indulgences and the belief in pur-gatory. In the 14th century, the Wycliffians expandedon this, who opposed celibacy and monasticism,while supporting a strict adherence to scripture andthe translation of the Bible into the languages spo-ken by the people. The clerical orders also under-took a wide range of reform efforts, as many saw theideals of their orders’ founders slowly being forgot-ten. The monastic way of life had suffered as theresult of plagues and the Papal schism, and theorders had become less stringent in their practices.This development led, as a response, to the rise ofthe Observationist movement from within theFranciscan Order, which would completely renewthe life of the order, with monks and nuns againupholding the original order rules. Soon, an increas-ing number of other orders began to join this move-ment as well. Martin Luther lived in one suchmonastery himself. It was never the intention ofthese reformers to separate from the RomanCatholic Church; they only sought to work towardits improvement. The Reformation was, however,not able to gain currency in the Roman CatholicChurch, thus leading in the end to the founding ofnew churches.

Humanism and ReformationHumanists also saw a need for the world toimprove its ways, and envisioned a return to theclassical culture of Europe as the answer to theproblems of their time. They developed elaborateliterary and historical methods as a means ofrediscovering these roots, in order, for example, to

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retrace the original form of Roman Law, pointing toits changes and developments. The Reformersalso followed with a search for the true, unadulter-ated roots with regard to the Bible, translating theBible with the courage to interpret it anew.

Well Connected InnovatorsThe Reformers, strongly influenced by the Humanistmovement, were quite familiar with one anotherwithin a strong network that spanned all of Europe.Guillaume Farel (1498–1565), for example, who wasresponsible for persuading Calvin to remain inGeneva (u Focus: Calvin and Geneva, p. 17), was,together with the theologian and all-round scholarJacques Lefèvre d’Etaples, a member of France’sÉcole de Meaux. Lefèvre d’Etaples published aFrench translation of the New Testament and wasvery close to Luther with regard to the doctrine ofjustification. In Florence, where he lived for manyyears, he came to know important Italian Humanists.Not all would-be reformers were, however, willing togo quite as far. When the conservative University ofParis took up strong opposition to Luther, the groupsplit up, with Farel and Lefèvre d’Etaples departingfor Strasbourg, and Farel then continuing on toGeneva, and capping his career as the Reformer ofNeuchâtel.

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God is glorious. For Calvin, God’s glory shonethrough in his creation, in people, and in nature. Itwas a work of art that we should honor with amaze-ment and reverence. As he wrote in the Institutes(I,5,1), «wherever you turn your eyes, there is noportion of the world, however minute, that does notexhibit at least some sparks of beauty.»

Grace, Justification, and SanctificationGod is unconditional love. Communion withChrist gives rise to a double gift for humankind:the grace of justification and the grace of sanctifi-cation. People are received in all of their sinfulnature (justified) and cannot achieve salvationthrough their own works. Each individual be -comes more and more like Christ himself – and isthus sanctified – through faith, acting in accor-dance with the path of Jesus Christ as set forth inthe Bible, and with the help of the Holy Spirit (u Calvin’s Ethics, p. 15).

For by grace you have been saved through faith,and this is not your own doing; it is the gift of God-not the result of works, so that no one may boast.For we are what he has made us, created in ChristJesus for good works, which God preparedbeforehand to be our way of life (Paul in the Epistleto the Ephesians 2:8-10)

Consolation in Uncertain TimesThe Reformation signaled the end of centuries-oldreligious assurances for people, who often alsoeven lost their homes as many were forced to fleein the course of struggles between the new con-fessions. Calvin was both a theologian and a pas-tor, and sought to help the people to find newstrength in their faith. Calvin saw the people asbeing safe in God’s hands; everything derived fromdivine providence, and nothing – not even the bad– happened in the absence of God’s will (u Focus:Predestination, p. 13).

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Central Significance of the Holy Spirit As Jesus Christ sits to the right of God, he medi-ates between God and the people in the guise ofthe Holy Spirit. For Calvin, the Holy Spirit played acentral role in the understanding of God’s word inthe Bible. Calvin believed that one could debateand bring forth evidence for the credibility of scrip-ture as much as one wished – in the end, howev-er, one would simply have to believe. And only theHoly Spirit could bring about this faith:«For as God alone can properly bear witness to hisown words, so these words will not obtain full cred-it in the hearts of men, until they are sealed by theinward testimony of the Spirit» (Institutes I,7,4)

Calvin and the BibleFor Calvin, the Bible was the «key to open theKingdom of God» and a «divine school». In contrastwith Luther, Calvin saw both parts of the Bible asbeing equally inspired by the Holy Spirit, thus accord-ing greater significance to the Old Testament than didthe other Reformers. Calvin interpreted the Bibleusing the most modern methods of his time. Herepudiated the theological speculation that waswidespread at the time, and held fast to the view thatit was an error to search for a deeper, spiritual mean-ing behind the texts of the Bible. While he sought tomaintain the coherence of the word and text, he didinterpret the texts within the historical context of theirdevelopment (u Calvin’s Legacy, p. 33).

Calvin’s own handwriting

(22 December 1559),Calvin Museum

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The Reformation sought to free people from thedoctrinal control of the Roman church hierarchy.The faithful were no longer to attempt to achievejustification and reconciliation with God and therenewal of their lives by attending mass, purchasingindulgences, and carrying out good works. Whilethe great Reformers did not all agree on matters oftheology, worship practice, Christian ethics, andpolitical views, they all agreed that the faithful couldachieve salvation through the four «solas».

1. solus Christus – Christ alone Only Christ serves to save people in sin throughhis works of salvation; other mediators (priests,saints) are thus not necessary.

2. sola gratia – by grace alone God receives people unconditionally (justifies) bygrace alone.

3. sola fide – by faith alone We are received only by God, in whom we place ourfaith, through our complete dedication to him Goodworks and preconditions are not necessary but areinstead satisfied through faith.

4. sola scriptura – by scripture aloneThe Holy Scripture is the sole measure for theproclamation, doctrine, and practice of the church.Only scripture and neither church tradition norhuman intellect can be viewed as having validity.The church must continually hold itself up criticallyto the light of the Bible; as a reformed church it isever in need of reform (ecclesia semper reforman-da) through renewed readings of the Bible.

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The Garden ofDelights,HieronymusBosch (1453-1516) (section)

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God decides ahead of time who is to receive sal-vation through Christ and who is to be lost. Thisdoctrine of «double predestination» is one of thebest known – and most controversial – of Calvin’scontributions, and one of the reasons why manydo not speak well of the Reformer.

An old doctrineThe doctrine of predestination does not derive fromCalvin but hearkens back to Augustine (d. 430)who in turn drew upon Paul’s Epistle to theRomans. Augustine had sought a response to thequestion of why the eyes of some were opened upto the Christian faith, while those of others werenot. Both Luther and Zwingli also grappled with thequestion of predestination. The Lutherans, howev-er, rejected the doctrine of double predestination inthe 1577 Formula of Concord, and Zwingli upheldonly a diluted version of the doctrine.

Election and Economic SuccessThe doctrine of election poses a fundamentalproblem: How is one to be sure to number amongthe elected – and not among the damned? Inresponse to this question, Calvin’s successorsbegan asserting that one could recognize theelected by dint of their economic success (u Calvin’s Legacy, p. 33). This, however, also ledto contempt for the poor, who were seeminglypoor because they were damned by God, whohad thus willed their poverty.

Support for Refugees of FaithSuch disdain for the poor clearly did not corre-spond with the spirit of the Bible, and Calvinindeed interpreted the doctrine of predestinationmuch more positively. Calvin saw election not asbeing reflected in success but in faith, as mirroredin Christ and in non-earthly riches. He sought toprovide assurance to refugees of faith with thedoctrine of predestination with his consolation:«Perseverance! Nothing can happen to you thatGod did not wish as men cannot comprehendGod’s plan. Even suffering, death, and humanweakness in view of torture and persecution allhave hidden meaning.» The doctrine of predesti-

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nation can, however, also be viewed as theexpression of amazement and gratitude for the giftof faith: «I may belong, and that is in no way areflection of my own merit but the will of God!»

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The image of Calvin as a haggard opponent ofearthly pleasures has considerably currency.Calvin was indeed not completely uninvolved inthe development of this reputation, as he did leada vehement moral campaign against sin anddebauchery in Geneva.

Moderate Asceticism In the Institutes, however, Calvin speaks of the useof material things, that «ivory and gold, and riches,are the good creatures of God» and granted byGod for human use. It was indeed nowhere «for-bidden to laugh, or to be full [...] or to be delightedwith music, or to drink wine.» Calvin was of theview that one can enjoy such things, if only inmoderation. People were thus to «suppressimmoderate desire, immoderate profusion, vanity,and arrogance, that they may use the gifts of Godpurely with a pure conscience» (Institutes III,19,9)

Assured Salvation and FreedomThe entire Reformation was characterized by anunderlying paradox. Protestant theology sought torelieve people of their fears and convey a sense ofassured salvation. The people were not required toattain their own salvation over and over throughtheir own actions and indulgences. If, however, thepeople are saved (or damned) anyway, they nolonger have a reason to work any harder. If every-thing lies in God’s hands, people can only becomefatalistic. This was, of course, not in fact Calvin’sidea, for whom a moral life according to God'scommandments was not a matter of force but thenatural consequence of love and trust in a merci-ful God. This was not a question of whether oneshould no longer do anything, but one of the moti-vations involved: People were to do good deedsnot driven by fear, but voluntarily as acts of love.

Law and VirtueOne can summarize Calvin’s entire ethical systemas one based on gratitude. Since God justifiedpeople and granted them a new life, they shouldworship him and uphold his biblical command-ments. They were to act with complete responsi-bility as though everything depended on them,

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even as they knew that everything in fact lay inGod’s hands. They were not to be saved throughtheir deeds but just like trees, the quality of the fruitreflected the nature of the tree.

Responsibility and JusticeGod’s promise of salvation thus leads to humanresponsibility. People are, however, not onlyresponsible for themselves but also for a justsocial and political life. No other Reformer delved,in his sermons, with similar determination intopolitical and economic affairs. Calvin alwaysreferred to the life of Jesus Christ, who was, along-side the law, the standard of just action. This wastrue when Calvin spoke out for the proper use ofthe gifts of creation or for interest rates that thepoor could afford; and was equally true when hefought for the equality of all before the law and forlimitations on despotic rule.

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In 1536, John Calvin arrived in Geneva at a deci-sive point in time: The people of Geneva hadadopted the Reformation but a year earlier andhad driven away the bishop after years of strug-gle, a development that had become possiblethrough a helpful alliance with the SwissConfederation. Geneva thus became an auto no -mous city-republic.

Geneva – Strasbourg - Geneva When the Protestant preacher Guillaume Farelheard that the author of the Institutes was living inGeneva, he did all that could to encourage him tostay. Geneva indeed required a reorganization ofboth its worldly power and its spiritual life. Calvinremained, but a conflict soon ensued with regardto the roles of worldly and church power. AfterCalvin had been driven out of Geneva to spendthree years in Strasbourg, the Geneva Councilbegged him to return. There had been a shift ofpower within the city government and nobody elsewould be able to respond to a pamphlet written byBishop Sadolet urging Geneva to return to theRoman Catholic Church.Until his death in 1564, Calvin did all he could tomold Geneva into a model society of God-fearing,upright people, which, as a shining example,could contribute to the spread of the Reformedfaith. Through sermons, strict church discipline,and new laws, Calvin reformed Geneva’s churchinstitutions and the behavior of its people.

Asylum for Refugees In 1555, a group of Genevans rose up in rebellion,fighting against the strict moral order and the largenumber of outsiders in the city – with refugees offaith at times making up half of the cities. The rebelslost their fight and four of them were executed. Therefugees would not, however, only serve to createdisorder. Wealthy Italian merchants and skilledFrench artisans were also among their numbers,and built up the textile, printing, and clockmakingindustries that would buoy the wealth of the city forgenerations to come. In fewer than three centuries,Geneva rose from being an insignificant provincialtown to an economically booming center of thefastest growing religious movement in Europe.

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Circular watch witheight lobes, begin-ning of the seven-teenth century,movement signedMartin Duboule,Geneva. Dial in silver, on a plate of gilded brass,decorated with finefoliage in which twochildren, a bird anda mask are hidden;created in the styleof ornamentalpainters such asAntoine Jacquard.At the centre of thedial is a view of StPeter’s Cathedral inGeneva. Source:MIH, La Chaux-de-Fonds.

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Ruined Nation or the Perfect School ofChrist?At the end of his life, it would almost seem, how-ever, as if Calvin had begun to despair of theGenevans. Even on his deathbed, Calvin describedthe people of Geneva as a «ruined and unhappynation.» And yet, he had achieved many thingsthere: The number of illegitimate and premaritalbirths fell to the lowest level ever recorded inEurope. Pious visitors were impressed by thebehavior of the city’s people. John Knox, theReformer of Scotland, called this new Geneva the«most perfect school of Christ since the days ofthe apostles.» He added that: «In other places Iconfess Christ to be truly preached; but mannersand religion to be so seriously reformed, I have notyet seen in any other place besides.»

Calvin bids farewell to the Mayor of Geneva, Joseph Hornung, around 1831 © Historical Museum of the Reformation, Geneva

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How did Calvin, the jurist, view the church? On theone hand, he saw it as no more and no less thana device that God used to lead people to Christthrough the proclamation of the Gospel and thesacraments. On the other hand, Calvin was alsoable to show a soft spot for the institution when,for example, referring to the church as the motherof the faithful.

Visible Substance of the Church For Calvin, it was plain to see that, while God wasthe foundation of the church, it would have to bemolded by human hands. This invisible substanceof the church should thus become visible in the lifeof the church; and Calvin was therefore moved toinvest a great amount of energy into its organiza-tion. Over the years, the fourth book of Calvin’sInstitutes would grow considerably, which wasentitled «On the external means or helps by whichGod invites us to fellowship with Christ, and keepsus in it.»

Four ServicesCalvin saw Christ as the head of the church, led byrepresentatives in four different areas of service: pas-tors (pasteurs), teachers (docteurs), deacons(diacres), and presbyters (anciens). It was a particu-larly modern trait of Calvin that he did not simplysubordinate the church to the office of the pastor, asthe numerous tasks at hand required a broad rangeof services. Calvin also made a place for people withno theological education by supporting the office ofthe presbyters, which played an important role in thespiritual guidance of the church. The presbyterswere, alongside the pastors, responsible for churchdiscipline, and for the admonition of church mem-bers whose moral conduct was the cause of publicdisapprobation. This would later give way to churchcouncils and committees (u Focus: Calvin andDemocracy, p. 31).

Engaging all the Senses in WorshipCalvin saw the center of church life to be the gath-ering of those who affirm Christ in their worship.

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LausanneUniversity choir © P. Blotti

For Calvin, this was the place where the churchand its members are built up. «For we must first ofall be incorporated into Christ, that we may beunited to each other.» (CO 49,464 on 1 Cor 10:16)Wor shippers not only heard the words of the ser-mon but also sang the psalms and dwelled in thepresence of Christ when receiving the bread andthe wine. Calvin also saw music as playing a greatrole in worship – which does not exactly fit in withhis image as an opponent of all things sensual.Calvin viewed music as a divine gift that providedpeople with repose and pleasure, moved theirhearts, and set them ablaze in praise of God. TheGenevan Psalter, which features all 150 psalmsset to music, is one of the most important culturaltreasures that Calvin gave to the world.

Ten Oceans for the Unity of the ChurchChurch unity was of great importance to Calvin, ashe expressed when he said that he would crossten oceans if that is what it took to ensure the unityof the church. He was therefore in fact willing totolerate a variety of viewpoints. With regard to thedispute over the real presence of Christ in theLord’s Supper (u Focus: Dispute over the Lord’sSupper, p. 21), he wrote to Bullinger: «Though I amdeeply convinced of a communion with Christ inthe sacrament that is more profound than yourwords can express, we should not therefore wishto cease sharing in the same Christ and being onein him. Perhaps we will at some point be able tojoin in a more complete agreement» (CO 14,314).

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The dispute over the Lord’s Supper was the most sig-nificant point of contention among Reformers. MartinLuther and Huldrych Zwingli of Zurich had differingviews of the Lord’s Supper, a difference that could notbe bridged at the Marburg Colloquy of 1529. Calvinwas concerned by this divide and hoped – in vain – tobe able to use his interpretation to bring about a rec-onciliation of the two sides. While Calvin was in factable to come to an agreement («ConsensusTigurinus») in 1549 with Heinrich Bullinger, a Zwinglisuccessor, this in turn led to a second dispute over theLord’s Supper with the Lutherans in 1552. A new formof Protestant church independent of Lutheranismbegan to take shape in the Reformed church.

How is Christ Present in our Midst?The dispute was carried out with great passion sinceit touched on a cornerstone of the faith: How can oneconceive of the divinity and humanity of Christ? MartinLuther remained closer to the Roman Catholic view inhis interpretation of the Lord’s Supper. He saw a realpresence of Christ in the bread and wine, with com-municants thus actually incorporating Jesus Christinto themselves. For Huldrych Zwingli, by contrast,Jesus Christ did not take on a physical presence in theLord’s Supper because his human nature sat insteadto the right of the Father. In Zwingli’s opinion, the Lord’sSupper was thus only a memorial of the sacrificialdeath of Jesus Christ.

The Zurich ConsensusThe Consensus Tigurinus was a compromise. EvenCalvin was originally convinced that Jesus Christwas not physically present but only present throughthe Holy Spirit in the Lord’s Supper. The compro-mise, however, provided that the Lord’s Supper wasnot simply a memorial meal but that the Holy Spiritbrought the communicants into communion withChrist. This would therefore maintain a portion of thespiritual mystery of the act of communion.

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Institutio Chrisitanae religionis nunc uere demumsuo titulo respondens, Strasbourg: Vuendelinus Rihelius, March 1545

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What was Calvin’s role in the Genevan Republic?Was he in fact the religious tyrant that some havedescribed him to be?

A Separation of PowersThe Protestant churches of the Reformation erafollowed either one of two models of relations withthe state: Either they were so closely tied to thestate that the prince (or the city authorities as inBerne and Zurich) were, for all practical purposes,the heads of the church – or they demonstrativelyrefrained from any connection with the state.Calvin’s position, however, fell between these twoextremes: While he was greatly concerned withthe independence of the church in its own internalaffairs, he did view the state as the protector of the church. The state could thus support the Re formed church in the fulfillment of its mission by protecting the church and fighting heretics(u Focus: The Case of Michael Servetus, p. 25).

That was the theory – but how did Calvin in fact actin Geneva? After the suppression of the 1555 revolt(u Focus: Calvin and Geneva, p. 17) Calvin nolonger needed to fear any further resistance fromwithin the city. And yet, he did not fashion himselfinto a bishop or wield worldly power, but was neverany more than the chairman of the pastors’ coun-cil. Geneva was thus never a theocracy, and whilethe city offices consulted with pastors with regardto matters of importance, they were meticulous inmaintaining their own sphere of authority.

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Michael Servetus, 1551-1553

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The Genevan Reformation would, however, alsohave its victims, including the Spaniard MichaelServetus, who was burned at the stake in 1553.How exactly did this come to pass?

The doctor, geographer, and theologian MichaelServetus (born 1511) challenged the Trinitariandoctrine in several anonymous publications. Fromhis point of view, Jesus Christ was not the eternalson of God, but the word that flows from God. Hetried in vain to convince Calvin and otherReformers of this viewpoint. When he was arrestedin France in 1553, he escaped and fled to Geneva,where he was arrested as well. He requested thathe could appear in a Genevan court, and theworldly court collected advisory reports from Calvinas well as from Zurich and Berne. They all unani-mously supported the death penalty and Servetuswas indeed executed that same year.

One must accept the fact that Calvin played amajor role in Servetus’ death. The informationrevealing Servetus as the author of his writingscame from Geneva, and Servetus’ letters to Calvinwere presented as evidence in court. And it wasCalvin who had Servetus arrested in Geneva in thefirst place. To be fair, one must, however, view thecase within the context of its time. The legal situa-tion was clear – the death penalty was indeedreserved for the denial of the Trinity. Servetuscould have been executed in virtually any city inEurope. Geneva already had a bad reputationthroughout the continent as a safe harbor for themost dangerous heretics, something that troubledthe city government. And Calvin was himself underso much political pressure that he feared that hewould also have to leave town. He saw theReformation as being under a fundamental attackand did everything he could to prevent its demise.

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A Critical Worldliness Many 16th-century people – including Martin Luther– were convinced that the world was soon comingto an end. Calvin, however, did not. Alongside anethical approach that stressed human responsibility,a critical worldliness became a salient characteristicof Reformed Christians. The Calvinist work ethic alsoplayed a major role in making possible the dynamicparticipation of Calvinists in the economic, social,and political spheres of their time. It also explainswhy the Calvinists, even as a minority, were to play adisproportionately large role in the formation of theWestern culture of the Early Modern Era.

Capitalism and DemocracyCalvin wrote quite extensively on both theologicaland worldly topics. And although one can derivestarkly contradictory positions from Calvin’s writings(u Calvin’s Legacy, p. 33), he provided importantimpetus both for the creation of the new capitalisticeconomy (u Focus: Calvin and Capitalism, p. 29)and for the democratic movement that would followlater (u Focus: Calvin and Democracy, p. 31).

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1529 Zwingli and Luther at the Marburg colloquy

Calvin’s chair inGeneva Cathedral

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How significant was Calvin’s contribution to thedevelopment of Capitalism? For a long time, it wascommonly thought that his contribution was in factquite large. This was particularly the result of MaxWeber’s essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spiritof Capitalism (1905/1920). Weber saw theCalvinist mentality as having been particularlyadvantageous for the development of the capital-ist economy. He explained that the Calvinistsplaced particular value on their work since theyhoped to find evidence for their divine election intheir economic success (u Focus: Predestination,p. 13). They did not spend their profits on luxurygoods but reinvested them in their industries andmaintained an expressly simple lifestyle. Chastity,poverty, and obedience – Weber posited that theCalvinists transposed ascetic monastic ideals upontheir worldly lives, and referred to this as «innerworld-ly asceticism».

Puritans, Banks, and InterestSeveral strong arguments, however, make a caseagainst Calvin being a sort of father of Capitalism.For one thing, he himself expressly excluded theidea that one could ascertain one’s level of salvationfrom the amount of one’s wealth (Commentary on 1 Thess 2:9). Weber was not in fact referring toCalvin himself but to 17th-century Puritan sources (u Calvin’s Legacy, p. 33). Certain regions have,moreover, seen the development of a flourishingCapitalist economy, which were not, however, at allinfluenced by Reformed churches. The origins of themodern banking system, so necessary for the capi-talist system, do not, for instance, lie in Calvinism butin northern Italy, a Roman Catholic region.

Calvin did, however, maintain a pragmatic stancewith regard to the charging of interest. DuringCalvin’s time, Geneva’s artisan trades (printing,goldsmithing) and commerce were becomingincreasingly capital-intensive. Merchants and arti-sans were, as a result, beginning to loan money toeach other for interest. The medieval church rejec-ted interest as unchristian and even Luthercondemned the practice. Calvin was in fact one ofthe first theologians to permit moneylending forinterest within a carefully considered framework.

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He, however, in no way supported the profit-orien-ted lending of money, and maintained that thepoor should be lent money without interest. Actualbanks would not be able to develop in Genevauntil the pastors there stopped their efforts towardregulating the financial market in the 17th century.

A Social OrientationWhile the Reformed Protestant work ethic meshedwell with the Capitalist economic system, it alsohad, from the very beginning, the potential for acritical approach to Capitalism. Calvinist socialteachings always focused on the welfare of thesociety at large and not the selfish fortunes of indi-viduals. It was a love of one’s neighbor, and not athirst for profits, that drove the Reformed view ofwork and professional life and the use of moneyand property.

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Now, as it is evident that the law of God which wecall moral, is nothing else than [...] that consciencewhich God has engraven on the minds of men [...].Hence it alone ought to be the aim, the rule, andthe end of all laws. (Institutes IV,20,16)

Calvin was not exactly a champion of democracy.But Calvin’s ideas would pave the long road to thedemocratic way of life, one which he did not trav-el himself, but which others would follow after him.

Right of Resistance What does obedience before God mean forchurch members who were also to be subjects ofa worldly authority? As a church leader in Geneva,Calvin was directly confronted with this question.He came to hold the view that political matters hadto be subordinated to divine laws, although oneindeed needed to submit oneself to the worldlyauthorities – even if they were to become cruel andgreedy. All that one could do was to call upon theLord for help, in whose hand lay the hearts ofkings. At the same time, Calvin had no doubt thatpeople needed to obey God more than any humanauthorities. He therefore allowed for a right toresistance to those whose obedience would con-flict with God’s commandments. He did not, in thisway, call any human authority fully into question,but put them merely into perspective. This wouldindicate that the future idea of a constitutionalstate of equal laws for all was already beginning toshimmer through in Calvin’s mind. It was onlyanother small step to the view that we are all equalbefore the law.

Separation of PowersCalvin also was concerned with the correct usageof power in the organization of the church. He wasdeliberate in the construction of a church leader-ship with a wide range of services and councils,ensuring no individual would be able to obtain aconcentration of power. Since he viewed all peo-ple as sinful by nature, he found it necessary thatthey monitor, criticize, and improve one another.His church order thus reflected a system of gover-nance with checks and balances.

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Calvin – Father of Modernity?

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Conscience and freedom of beliefFor Calvin, one’s conscience was the inner judge ofeach human being. Calvin’s view of the consciencewas, however, not like today’s view based on indi-vidual standards, but instead on the moral laws ofGod. Calvin also demanded freedom of belief forthose who upheld the «true religion», i.e. ReformedProtestantism. To Calvin’s great anger and dismay,Sébastien Castellion, his former co-pastor de -manded freedom of belief for everyone (especiallyin connection with the (u Focus: The Case ofMichael Servetus, p. 25). For Calvin, Castellion’sposition would open the floodgates for all mannerof errant teachings as this would protect those who– from his point of view – had «false» beliefs. Hisemphasis on the conscience and the freedom ofbelief for Reformed Christians nevertheless consti-tuted a critical stance toward human ordinances,allowing for the possible derivation of a right toresist, and in the end supporting ideas of tolerance.

The Garden ofDelights,

HieronymusBosch (1453-

1516) (section)

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«On the one hand, Calvin was the humanist whocriticized the rigid and lifeless dogma of his time,who counseled flexibility and tolerance, and whoargued for an openness to mystery. On the otherhand, he was a man fearful of a chaotic age thatlacked an organizing structure, a conservativewho struggled vigorously to impose order on adisordered world.»

Christopher Elwood

Calvinist OrthodoxyAfter Calvin’s death, Calvinism narrowed more andmore into a closed theological system of thought. Itis questionable whether Calvin would have agreedwith these developments. He always tried to reachpeople’s hearts, while his successors increasinglyresorted to a strictly logical scholastic argumenta-tion, which Calvin had turned his back on. The cor-nerstone of Orthodox Calvinism was laid at the 1618synod in Dordrecht, Holland, with the doctrine ofpredestination taking a central position, and the viewthat people are free to cooperate with God’s gracewas increasingly forgotten.

Liberal and Fundamentalist Theology Calvin’s legacy is contradictory. On the one hand,Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834), the «father ofmodern theology», viewed himself to be a Calvinsuccessor. On the other hand, fundamentalist theo-logical movements have also invoked Calvin,emphasizing the importance of biblical command-ments, just as Calvin did himself. They, however, seethe Holy Scripture as being without error, and there-fore to be emulated in a literal manner.

Huguenots«Huguenots» the derisive term given to FrenchCalvinists, possibly derived from the French wordaignos («confederate»), thus referring to Geneva. Itcould, however, also refer to the Genevan freedomfighter Besançon Hugues, or is possibly a reflectionof the Dutch term Huis Genooten («house com-rades») for Flemish Protestants who came togethersecretly to study the Bible together. 1562 saw the

Calvin’s Legacy – Calvinists, Huguenots, Puritans

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beginning of the French Wars of Religion with theirsad climax in on the St. Bartholomew's Day mas-sacre of Huguenots in Paris and throughout France,and ending with the Edict of Nantes in 1598, whichguarantees the Huguenots the right to religious free-dom. The edict was, however, rescinded in 1685,and it would take nearly another century until LouisXVI would issue his edict of toleration that wouldreintroduce religious liberty.

The PuritansThe Puritans were English Calvinists for whom theAnglican Church was too Roman Catholic and notsufficiently reformed. The Puritans became a strongpolitical power in England for periods of time, butcould not remain in power for very long. ManyPuritans left for the New World in the early 17th cen-tury, chiefly settling in New England. Once there, thePuritans split over time into various denominations(Presbyterians, Congregationalists etc.). The Pu r i -tans made up roughly a third of the settlers in thenew country, but maintained a strong influence onthe development of politics, universities, and thenational self-image of the United States. A sense ofbeing a chosen nation to be an example for theworld, a sober pragmatism, and a widespreadChristian religiosity with a mission to serve the soci-ety at large all reflect Puritan-Calvinist roots.

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Portico of St Peter’s Cathedral, Geneva

1176 Founding of the Waldensian movement (Peter Waldocares for the poor)

1330-1384 John Wyclif – English reformer

1347-1384 Black Death: Plague epidemic in Europe

1368 Observationist movement (Franciscan Order)

1378-1417 Great Schism (competing popes in Rome andAvignon)

1509 Birth of Calvin in Noyon, Picardie

1517 Luther’s 95 Theses in Wittenberg – Reformationbegins

1520 The Edict of Worms condemns Luther’s teachings

1525 Peasants’ War; Baptist movement is founded; Dispute between Erasmus of Rotterdam and Martin Luther over the freedom of the will

1528 Study of law in Orléans

1529 Marburg Colloquy – Luther and Zwingli cannot cometo an agreement on the Lord’s Supper

1530 Augsburg Confession

1531 Death of Huldrych Zwingli in the Second Kappel War

1533 Departure of Calvin from the Roman Catholic Church

1534 Affair of the Placards in France – persecution of Protestants; first wave of refugees

1534 Founding of the Anglican Church (English churchbreaks ties with Rome)

1535 Flight from France; refuge in Basle and Ferrara

1536 Wittenberg Concord (Lutheran); First HelveticConfession of Zwingli

1536 The Institutes of the Christian Religion (InstitutioChristianae Religionis), first edition

1536 First tenure as a pastor in Geneva

1538 Expulsion from Geneva following a dispute with thecity council over the powers of the church and state

Reformation Timeline / Calvin: A Short Timeline

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1538 Pastor of the French refugee congregation inStrasbourg

1540 Marriage to Idelette de Bure

1541 Second period as a pastor in Geneva begins

1541 Ordonnances ecclésiastiques (church order)

1545-1563 Council of Trent

1546 Death of Martin Luther

1546/47 Schmalkaldic War – Defeat of the Protestant princes

1547 Counter-Reformation begins

1548 Renewed persecution of Protestants in France; second wave of refugees

1549 Consensus Tigurinus

1549 Death of Idelette de Bure

1555 Peace of Augsburg to exclusion of Reformedchurches. Princes to choose the religion of their territory (Cuius regio eius religio)

1559 First secret national synod of French Protestants«Confession de Foy» (Confessio Gallicana)

1559 Founding of the Académie, final edition of theInstitutes

1562-1598 Huguenot Wars in France

1564 Death of Calvin after years of illness in Geneva. Inaccordance with his wishes, he is buried withoutgreat ceremony in an unmarked grave in order toavoid a memorial cult

1566 Second Helvetic Confession of Zwingli of Heinrich Bullinger

1572 St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of Huguenots inParis and other French cities

1598 Edict of Nantes – Religious freedom for Huguenots(rescinded in 1685)

1618-1619 Synod of Dordrecht

Pre-reformation period

Period of the Council of Trent

Period of the Huguenot Wars

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John Calvin, Reformers’ Wall, Parc des Bastions, Geneva