Job Aid for the Instructional Design Process following the - UMdrive

Job Aid for the Instructional Design Process

following the Morrison, Ross, and Kemp Model

Linda Sadler

IDT 7071/8071 November 28, 2006

Instructional Problems

Learner Characteristics

Task Analysis

Instructional Objectives

Content Sequencing

Instructional Strategies

Development of Instruction

Evaluation Instruments

Designing the Message

RevisionPlanning

Formative EvaluationProject Management

LINDA SADLER – JOB AIDS FALL 2006 – PAGE 2

A RECIPE FOR AN INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT

Begin with a problem properly defined through a needs analysis Add sufficient information about the learners Understand the context for the instruction and its benefits Gather details of the content from the subject-matter expert Establish measurable objectives with corresponding measurement

instruments Mix well with some knowledge of instructional design Sprinkle with insight, intuition, and an ability to write Bake in the oven of corporate or institutional demands without

getting burned Top with whipped cream … just because everything tastes better

with whipped cream!


INTRODUCTION

Morrison, Ross, and Kemp (2004) have developed a model for instructional design that proposes nine elements. These nine elements are arranged in an oval pattern rather than a linear pattern to emphasize that these “steps” are not ordered in a definitive sequence. Rather, they are suggested as components to be considered in a real-world setting where instruction is potentially needed. Not all components will be applicable to every situation. As time and resources permit, the instructional designer will have to integrate the particular elements that inform decisions that address the learners involved, the objectives to be met, the strategies for instruction, and the means of evaluating the results to ensure effective instruction. This model integrates theories of learning and instruction to offer a reliable but flexible strategy for designing instruction. At the top of the oval is “Identifying the Need for Instruction,” which purports to analyze whether the need is truly an instructional need. These job aids take up most, but not all, of the nine elements. And Learner Analysis has been subdivided into Learner Analysis and Contextual Analysis (although Morrison, Ross, and Kemp treat both of these items in their Learner Analysis chapter). The following terms will be useful in understanding the various roles involved in the instructional design process.

Instructional designer—a professional who is trained in instructional design processes who will be responsible for developing appropriate instruction.

Instructor—the person who will deliver the instruction to the intended audience. Subject-matter expert (SME)—a professional who is knowledgeable about the content to be conveyed through the instructional unit. Evaluator—the person who will be responsible for verifying whether the intended audience benefits from the instruction. This role may overlap with the instructional designer or the instructor.

These job aids serve as reminders of the basic components of one model for designing effective instruction. Throughout these job aids, many of the topic headings will mimic the structure of the chapters in Morrison, Ross, and Kemp’s detailed work on instructional design. Their arrangement is logical, sequential, and builds on prior principles.

Morrison, Ross, and Kemp


IDENTIFYING THE NEED FOR INSTRUCTION

Definition

“Identifying the need for instruction” is an effort to understand a problem and to decide whether that problem can be solved through instruction. Not all performance problems indicate that people don’t know how to do their jobs; sometimes poor performance is a result of motivation, compensation, long hours, or personal circumstances.

Function

This is typically the first effort in the instructional design process. The purpose of this element is to determine the nature of the existing or potential problem and to find out whether instruction will remedy the problem. Here are some examples of common situations that require instruction:

• Employees have low productivity or are making excessive errors • A new process, procedure, technology, or equipment may require training • Expansion of a company creates a need for additional qualified, trained personnel

Types of Needs

Morrison, Ross, and Kemp identify six types of needs. 1. Normative needs—A normative need is created when performance is compared

with a “norm,” a national standard. In the business setting, performance can be compared on safety, service, sales, salaries, incentives, etc. Data on expected performance measures might be acquired from professional organizations, trade groups, or governmental agencies. Normative data are not always available. Process: Define the “norm” Collect data Compare.

2. Comparative needs—Comparative needs measure performance by comparing data to that of a peer rather than a national standard. Perhaps you are comparing performance across several regions of a company, comparing to another company that has a similar product or purpose. Caution: Avoid just trying to “keep up with the Joneses.” Process: Choose areas to compare Collect data Compare

3. Felt needs—A felt need is a desire to improve your performance or skills. Caution: Distinguish between desires to improve performance and other “wants” that an employee might have (desire to move, to travel, etc.).

4. Expressed needs—These are voiced needs, that is, felt needs that are stated (in suggestion boxes, as waiting lists for classes). The employee has taken action to have the need met (i.e., enrolled in classes, stated on employee performance evaluations). Caution: Ask yourself whether the expressed needs will lead to improved performance on the job?

5. Anticipated or future needs—Anticipated needs are prompted by upcoming, planned changes (policies, procedures, equipment, technology) that require

Instructional Problems


training so the transition will be smooth. Identify both training needs and possible problem areas (i.e., training for maintenance, troubleshooting, and repair).

6. Critical incident needs—These needs represent serious problems that may never be realized but require readiness (floods, earthquakes, hazardous materials). These are strategic plans that you hope you never need to use.

Methods for Identifying Needs

Needs Assessment According to Morrison, Ross, and Kemp (2004), a needs assessment is “a tool for identifying the problem and then selecting an appropriate intervention” (p. 32). If the problem is not clearly identified, the solution may fail to remedy the situation by attending only to the “symptoms.” A need is defined as the difference between the expected performance and the actual performance. When performance fails to meet expectations, there is potential a need for instruction to improve performance. There are four phases to conducting a needs assessment.

1. Planning—In this first phase, the instructional designer defines the group of people that will be affected, decide which members of that group will participate in the analysis, decide how to collect the data (i.e., interviews, questionnaires, focus groups), and develop data collection instruments if needed.

2. Collecting data—The second phase is to collect the data. Be sure that the participants accurately reflect the whole group of people that are to be represented (i.e., separate regions, levels of employees, different skill levels). Consider how many participants should be included. Calculate the amount of time and resources that will be required to conduct the data collection.

3. Analyzing the data—Summarize and organize the data using percentages, graphs, or charts. Prioritize the results. For example, if a needs assessment is done to identify problems noted by employees and managers, you could prioritize the order to address the needs by determining (1) which need is most critical for safety or productivity, (2) which problem is reported by the most people, or (3) which problem will have the greatest impact on company resources.

4. Compiling a final report—Write a report of your findings. Identify why you conducted the needs assessment, what process you used, the results, and your recommendations.

Goal Analysis A goal analysis may be used as an alternative to a needs assessment. A goal analysis can also be used to follow-up on a needs assessment. While the needs assessment seeks to identify the various types of needs, a goal analysis begins when a need is presented. The instructional designer assumes that the need is real and proceeds to find a solution. Morrison, Ross, and Kemp identify six steps of a goal analysis:

1. Identify an aim—Work with a few experts who are familiar with the problem to identify one or more aims connected with resolving the need. An aim is an overall


goal that you wish to accomplish to resolve the need. This is like establishing objectives; the aims establish a sense of direction.

2. Set goals—Brainstorm to list specific goals that lead to the fulfillment of that aim. Work with the participants to generate a freestyle list of goals. Include all their suggestions initially.

3. Refine goals—Review the list of goals. Clean up the list by deleting duplicate goals or merging similar goals.

4. Rank goals—Determine an order of priority for the goals. The goals can be ranked by their impact on job performance, the impact if they are not done, or frequency (often or rarely).

5. Refine goals again—Match the goals up to the actual performance. This step “verifies” the need and checks the listed goals against the existing performance of the task. Does the list of goals uncover a performance problem? Are the goals related to the actual tasks to be accomplished on the job? Eliminate goals that are not really part of this task or area of responsibility.

6. Make a final ranking—Review the remaining goals to create a final ranking. This list can now be used to plan the training.

A Quick Contrast

Needs Assessment Goal Analysis Explores to identify the needs Begins when a need is expressed Collects data from a target audience Collects input from a small,

knowledgeable group More time and resource intensive Requires less time and resources Needs more justification More practical for the time/money

Performance Assessment This is a third tool used to identify instructional problems. Instructional designers are often asked to develop a training program to fix a particular problem. First, be sure instruction will solve the problem. Eliminate other potential root problems as the true source of the problem. Here are some common reasons for performance problems:

• knowledge or skills (don’t know how to use a piece of equipment) • motivation or incentive (not returning unused parts to the correct bin) • environmental factors (inadequate lighting, carpal tunnel from computer use) • management factors (inadequate directions, confrontational management style) • interpersonal relations (work group rivalry, unharmonious worker relations)

Mixed Methods Approach

Three methods have been outlined: needs assessment, goal analysis, and performance assessment. Often more than one method may be required to identify and verify that training is the correct response for an identified need. It may take a combination of methods to determine the types of needs and the root causes for those needs. Judgment must be exercised by the instructional designer to accurately assess the situation before proceeding to create or modify instructional material.


LEARNER ANALYSIS

Definition

A learner analysis is conducted to get to know the people you are preparing the instruction for. It reveals characteristics that have an impact on the way you design the instruction and whether the instruction will be effective.

Function

Effective instruction takes the learners’ skills, abilities, and readiness into consideration. Information about the learner is gathered through observations, interviews, records, or pretesting in order to develop materials that best suit the particular group of learners that will receive the instruction. Do the learners have specific characteristics that limit the scope of the instruction or that open up additional opportunities? Effective instruction also considers the setting where the learning will take place. In designing an instructional unit, what facilities, technology, equipment are available to the designer/instructor to enhance the unit? What basic requirements must be met in choosing the setting for the instruction?

Types of Learner Characteristics

Morrison, Ross, and Kemp recommend three general types of learner characteristics that should be considered in designing a unit of instruction.

1. General characteristics—These broad characteristics define the learner group’s demographic uniqueness. The age, gender, educational, ethnic, and work experience features are summarized in percentages or categories.

2. Entry competencies—Specify the prerequisite skills the learners will need in order to benefit from the instruction. Entry competencies prescribe the most basic requirements the learners must have: computer skills, reading levels, specific knowledge. Prerequisite skills must be clearly outlined at the beginning of the unit so learners will know whether they are ready for the unit.

3. Learning styles—Learning styles are theoretical understandings about how people best learn new information. While group instruction may not be able to attend to individual learning styles, a designer who understands the various ways that people process new information will offer an assortment of instructional and application/practice methods meet the learners’ distinctive needs.

Academic Information

Academic information may be the most informative characteristic of the learners. Specific records may not be available concerning their academic grades, test scores, and such because of confidentiality constraints. Interviews, surveys, or pretests with the participants or interviews with the manager or the subject-matter expert can provide an

Learner Characteristics


overview of the learners’ academic background. It is not really necessary to know exact scores, grades, or number of years of schooling; more importantly, the designer needs a general understanding in order to develop materials that are appropriate to the group’s abilities.

Personal and Social Characteristics

Personal characteristics include the individuals’ age, motivation, attitude, expectations, experience, talents, and ability to work. These characteristics may define learners who are resistant or hesitant or, conversely, learners who are highly motivated and enthusiastic. The design of the instruction should take into consideration the learners’ readiness and willingness to learn the material. These characteristics may also dictate the type of communication, appearance, tone, and activities used in the design of the materials.

Characteristics of Nonconventional Learners

Special consideration may be required for learners that have unique needs. Activities may require modification. Additional instruction or practice may be required to accommodate learners with different backgrounds or with special needs. One caution is to avoid stereotyping. While some “typical” characteristics may inform the decisions about the activities, writing, and design of the instruction, avoid offensive assumptions by learning as much as possible about the specific needs of the learners who will be using the unit.

1. Culturally diverse learners—Some or all of the learners in the group may have different cultural backgrounds or language barriers that will need to be considered. Cultural differences may dictate how learners perceive their role in the process or workplace or their means of communicating or participating in the training. Images used in the design layout should be sensitive to the cultural differences. Some recommended strategies when working with culturally diverse learners include working closely with others rather than independently, developing language skills through the instruction, situating the learning in real life context to develop meaning, and engaging the learners in conversation throughout the learning.

2. Learners with disabilities—Disabled individuals include those with physical limitations or with learning disabilities, including hearing, vision, or speech. Observation, interviews, or testing can reveal limitations that need special consideration.

3. Adult learners—The educational system is increasingly accommodating returning adult students. The work setting must be prepared to train individuals of varying age/maturity levels. Some important considerations about adult learners is that they are generally highly motivated, they like more structure, they may be less flexible, they are more independent and self-motivated, they appreciate a knowledgeable instructor, they are more time conscious, and they expect the learning effort to have clear benefits.

Use the learner analysis as a way to come to know your learners so that the instruction will be aware of both the potential limitations and exciting opportunities.


CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS

Definition

The “context” for learning includes a number of factors that may have an impact on the delivery of the instruction. A contextual analysis examines these factors, including the physical location and schedule for the instruction, the learners’ attitudes about and motivation for the new content, and how to create a receptive environment for the new or enhanced skills or knowledge.

Function

Learning does not take place in isolation. The purpose of a contextual analysis is to examine the delivery aspects of the unit: how to create an environment that is physically and intellectually ready to promote learning. Thus, examining context has multiple implications.

Types of Context

Morrison, Ross, and Kemp identify three types of context that should be considered by the instructional designer.

1. Orienting context—emphasizes what the learner brings to the instruction (prior knowledge, prerequisite skills, attitude/motivation about the learning). An effective preinstructional strategy may help to motivate hesitant participants. Consider the learners’ goals for participating in the instruction; consider what the learner expects to gain from the instruction; consider whether the learner is accountable for the knowledge gained. The design of the instruction should take into account the learners’ goals, expectations, and accountability in the types of activities, the level of active engagement in dialogue, and the types of pre- and posttesting to ensure competency.

2. Instructional context—What resources will the instructor need to deliver the unit? What resources will participants need? What location or time constraints need to be considered in developing the schedule for the instruction? Some issues that Morrison, Ross, and Kemp (p. 67) consider in the instructional context are lighting, noise, temperature, seating, accommodations (lodging), equipment, and transportation. The unit design must take into account the impact and the ability to manipulate or control these environmental considerations.

3. Transfer context—How will the instruction be applied by the learners after the course is completed? Will the learners return to an environment that is supportive and uses the new skills on a regular basis? That is, will there be a use for the new skills?

Learner Characteristics:

Context


INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

Definition

Instructional objectives lay out what the learner will be able to do as a result of the instruction. Objectives also indicate how the learning will be measured.

Function

Objectives help to support the instruction through three functions: (1) assist the designer in choosing activities that promote effective learning; (2) establish a foundation for evaluating learning; (3) cue the participants about what they will be learning in the unit.

Three Domains

There are many different kinds of skills that can be taught, with varying levels of difficulty. Objectives can be classified into three major types of skill domains: cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. Instruction combines skills from all three domains. Cognitive Domain The cognitive domain has skills that have to do with acquiring information. These skills ask the learner to define, list, describe, or explain. Bloom developed a taxonomy (hierarchy) of cognitive skills that categorizes skills by the level of intellectual difficulty: Instruction should require the learner to do more than just recall facts. Find ways to have the learner achieve higher levels of intellectual activity.

Cognitive Levels

Description Examples

Knowledge Asks the learner to recall specific information that was taught. Relies on memorization.

Define... List the three… Who was… When did…

Comprehension Requires the learner to show some degree of understanding beyond just reciting facts.

Describe the difference… Explain why… Paraphrase… Summarize…

Application Asks the learner to apply a rule or principle.

Sketch a diagram of… Assemble…

Analysis Requires the learner to dissect an idea into parts and explain the relationships; examines the details of a whole

Explain what happens when…

Tell how this relates to… Synthesis The learner puts ideas together to form a

new idea; combines separate ideas What would happen if… Determine the impact of…

Evaluation Asks the learner to make a judgment; choose a direction

Which is better… Decide which to use…

Instructional Objectives


Psychomotor Domain Psychomotor skills are physical skills. They require dexterity, stamina, or coordination. Instruction should be sensitive to the learner’s ability to perform the task (consider limitations due to the developmental level or possible handicap). Physical skills include gross motor skills (involving large muscles, such as running, throwing a ball, picking up a heavy box) and fine motor skills (requiring detailed, precise manipulation or coordination, such as typing, playing a piano, drawing). Skills can require the learner to imitate an action they see performed (stack blocks) or manipulate materials to perform an action (change a headlight). Some skills require more precision to be accomplished effectively (hitting a tennis ball) and the most difficult skills involve a measure of decision making to know when or why to perform an action (using a backhand stroke in a tennis game). Affective Domain Affective skills are more difficult to measure because they reflect attitudes or beliefs. Teaching learners to appreciate art, value resourcefulness, or respect authority can be difficult to write into measurable objectives. Skills in the affective domain include receiving (listening to, become aware of), responding (answer, approve, reply), valuing (accept), organizing (ordering the importance, categorizing), and incorporating (taking on a value or belief as a way of life).

Developing Instructional Objectives

Writing the objectives requires sufficient knowledge of the content of the instruction. Objectives may be written early in the design process to establish the sense of direction, or the objectives may be written following the task analysis, when the designer is more familiar with the specific content. Throughout the design process, however, objectives may be refined. The objectives should be in line with the goals analysis and the task analysis. Writing Objectives There are basically two types of objectives: behavioral and cognitive. Behavioral objectives use action verbs to state what the learner will actually learn to do (identify, compare, describe) followed by the content of the action verb (what they are to identify, compare, describe). The objective can also include the required level of achievement (some measure of the accuracy that tells how well, how fast, to what degree: percentage, time limit, minimum standard). Finally, the objective contains the setting or circumstances for the action (based on…, given a list of…). Note that the purpose of the objective is not to state what the learner is to do as the learning activity (watch a movie, read a chapter). The purpose of the objective is to state what the learner will be able to do as a result of the learning activity. In contrast to behavioral objectives, cognitive objectives broadly indicate a type of cognitive skill (understand, evaluate, interpret) and then specify the content (what the learner will understand, evaluate, or interpret). Cognitive objectives require the learner to perform more complex skills, involving higher levels of learning. They state general


outcomes that can be exhibited through specific behaviors. They are broader than the specific single-task behavioral objectives. Writing objectives for psychomotor skills requires the same parts: action verb, object of that action, a specified level of achievement, and the conditions for performing the action. The time element in a psychomotor skill may be either a measure of successful achievement (complete a task in 10 minutes) or may be a criterion for the task itself. Writing objectives in the affective domain can be difficult. How do you measure appreciation, an attitude, or a feeling? The achievement of affective objectives may be assumed from other behaviors that relate to the objective. “To develop an appreciation for environmental preservation” may be exhibited when a student voluntarily cleans up litter or chooses to recycle. The actions reflect the growing appreciation for environmental responsibility. Observable behaviors that indicate success are called “approach tendencies” and behaviors that indicate that the attitude or appreciation has not been accomplished are called “avoidance tendencies. Affective objectives state the general behavior and then use related observable behaviors to indicate whether or not the general behavior has been met. The advantage of understanding the domains of skills and their various levels is to avoid overemphasizing low-level skills to the exclusion of higher-level thought and learning.

Other Classification Models

Classifications other than cognitive, affective, or psychomotor have been developed to organize objectives based on the level of difficulty or the type of teaching strategy they indicate. Mager and Beach Mager and Beach (1967) developed a model for classifying objectives and ranking them by difficulty. They group objectives as (1) speech performance (learner is required to speak—answer phones, greet guests), (2) manipulation (learner uses psychomotor skills—operate machinery, key data), (3) recall (learner uses rote memorization—listing the types of screwdrivers), (4) discrimination (requires the learner to distinguish between objects or events), and (5) problem solving (learner has to decide what to do). Within each of these classifications, objectives are ranked as easy, moderately difficult, difficult, or very difficult to perform. Expanded Performance-Content Matrix A second model, the expanded performance-content matrix, classifies objectives according to teaching strategy they prescribe. This model uses six categories to classify objectives.

1. Fact—information memorized for recall; statement that links two items. 2. Concept—categories we use to organize the world (fruit), where each category

has various types (apple, orange) 3. Principles and rules—express relationships between concepts


4. Procedure—specific steps to follow 5. Interpersonal skills—verbal and nonverbal interaction 6. Attitude—includes objectives that seek to develop awareness or change attitudes

Once objectives are classified into the six categories above, they are further classified as

1. Recall—memorization 2. Application—use or apply

The expanded performance-content matrix assists the designer in selecting appropriate instructional strategies (discussed in the section on instructional strategies).


TEST ITEMS

Definition

Test items help to measure whether the learner has met the objective—and to what degree.

Function

Test, or evaluation, instruments use a variety of methods to measure acquired knowledge, successful performance, or cultivated attitudes or values. It may be difficult to test some objectives because the behavior is difficult to observe. However, there are ample techniques for assessing learning, and the designer needs to choose a test measure that yields a valid appraisal. Test items should be directly aligned with the objectives set forth for the instruction. The learner who has the benefit of understanding the objectives as part of the preinstructional strategy can anticipate the expectations to be met during testing.

Testing Knowledge

Multiple methods can be designed to measure the acquisition of knowledge, although some measures are more capable of measuring higher levels of skills (synthesis, evaluation). Two major categories of test measures for knowledge are objective tests and constructed response tests. Objective Tests Objective tests are highly structured and have “correct” answers. Some types of objective tests include multiple-choice, true-false, and matching. These forms of evaluation are easy to grade and are fair in that there is one right answer that will be the same for all test-takers. Each method has distinct advantages and disadvantages as well as recommendations for how to write effective questions. Multiple Choice Questions This form of test item poses a question or a statement “stem” that requires the student to select a response from one of several choices given. The student simply marks which choice best answers the question or completes the statement. They can be used to test knowledge recall, comprehension, application, or analysis, but are more limited for synthesis or evaluation. Some considerations in writing multiple-choice test items is that questions and possible responses should be tied to an instructional objective, relatively short, and clearly written without being tricky or misleading. The “right” answer should not be obvious because of the way it is written, or because most right answers are in a particular position (i.e., “a”). Try to phrase the questions positively (what is instead of what is not) and avoid using always, never, all of the above, and some of the above.

Evaluation Instruments


A disadvantage of using multiple choice questions is that you may be measuring recognition instead of recall. If the distracters (the other choices) are not realistic, the student can easily spot the right answer just because they recognize it. True-False Items This method provides the learner with a series of statements that he or she must determine to be true (correct) or false (incorrect). These statements are easy to write and even easier to grade. But the chances of guessing are increased; a student with no knowledge whatsoever still has a 50/50 chance of being right. Test items are limited to knowledge recall and comprehension primarily. When writing True-False items, remember that the statement has to be completely true or completely false. Matching Items Matching items provide two columns and entries in the two columns must be matched together according to their relationship (matching the state name with the state capital). Matching items can cover a lot of material efficiently. It is recommended to have either (1) more choices in the second column than they have in the first column or (2) let choices in the second column be used more than once with items in the first column to avoid a one-to-one correspondence. Matching questions are easy to grade, have one right answer, and are efficient to take. Just be sure that the right answer is the only right answer possible. A matching test will not be valid if the learner could explain why more than one response could be matched to an item. Constructed-Response Tests Constructed-response tests require test-takers to write a response, whether the response requires one word, a sentence, a paragraph, or a short essay. These test items can be used to test all levels of Bloom’s taxonomy. However, they are more difficult to grade because they are less objective. The grader will have to be careful to hold each test-taker to the same standard. Short-Answer Items Students answer questions by filling in the blank to complete a statement or writing a short response. If these questions are properly written, the missing word or the response will have one correct choice. While this testing method is efficient, it is limited to recalling facts (knowledge), comprehension, and application. Essay Questions While these are able to test higher levels of learning, they are by far the most difficult to grade objectively. Writing style, grammar/punctuation, and even penmanship can influence the grader and the resultant grade may reflect more than the actual content level. Be specific in advance about what will be counted in the grading: Do you plan to count off for spelling/typos? poor organization? Essay questions are easier to construct than they are to grade. But they allow learners to express themselves in writing, which promotes the highly valued skill of written communication. Because it takes time to construct an essay response, the number of questions has to be limited, which means that you have to be selective about which objectives to test with essay questions.


Problem-Solving Questions These questions can be difficult to grade if the question has more than one correct response or more than one solution. As with essay questions, be specific about the grading criteria and standards. You can allow partial credit for parts of the response that were correct, even if the final outcome or solution is wrong.

Testing Skills and Behavior

Testing skills and behavior can be accomplished by measuring successful completion of a task or procedure. The instructional objective should establish the criterion for successful accomplishment. Along with instruction, the learners should have sufficient opportunities to practice the new skill with feedback from the instructor. The testing then should take the same form as that used during practice. You can evaluate a process (examining the steps throughout the task) or just the final product. Indicate in advance what criteria will be used during your evaluation and the value of each of the criteria as part of the overall grade. Direct Testing Some skills or behaviors can be tested by direct observation of a demonstration (typing test, operating equipment). It is necessary to consider the time and resources that will be required for testing skills (equipment, supplies, facility, etc.). Be sure that the conditions for testing the skill do not compromise valid measurement (excessive noise, faulty equipment, poor lighting). Analysis of Naturally Occurring Results Some behaviors can be evaluated as a result of activities that occur in real contexts (attendance, sales records, achievement scores). You do not have to develop a measurement instrument for these because records are already maintained. The difficulty with this form of testing is determining whether success is related to your instruction. A second disadvantage is making sure that the results are not influenced by extraneous factors (sales may be increased, but only because it is nearing Christmas, not because your instruction taught them to be a better salesman). Ratings of Performance Checklists and rating scales can be useful in evaluating a performance or a product. Preestablished criteria are ultimately included in a rating scale to be marked as done or not done or on a descriptive scale to indicate the degree of completion or level of achievement. Rubrics A rubric is uses a grid of descriptive phrases that can be used to evaluate features of a completed product. The descriptive phrases can be difficult to write to reflect clearly delineated level of accomplishment.


Anecdotal Records Performance can be evaluated using an open-ended description. Based on Preestablished guidelines, the evaluator writes what was done and how well ands suggests possible ways to improve performance. This is the most flexible form of evaluation. Observations can be recorded with photos, video, tape recorder, or notes. Portfolios Portfolios are excellent for representing improvement over time or accomplishment across several skills. The learner’s work is assembled into a portfolio to exhibit samples of the learner’s abilities.

Attitudes

Attitudes are difficult to measure because they cannot be measured directly. However, attitudes can be inferred through behaviors (an attitude about environmental concern can be inferred through a person’s participation in recycling and efforts to reduce litter on the school grounds). Two Uses of Attitude Assessment Attitude assessment can be important if the instructor wants to get feedback from the participants following an instructional unit or to detect changes in attitudes as a result of an instructional unit. Assessment can occur through observation with anecdotal notes or through direct inquiry using questionnaires or surveys, or one-on-one or in small groups through interviews, where participants are free to discuss their opinions openly.


TASK ANALYSIS

Definition

A “task analysis” dissects the content of the instruction into its component procedures, concepts, and steps.

Function

The “task analysis” is an essential element in the development of effective instruction. Once the need has been established, the designer uses a task analysis to define the content of the instruction through input from the subject-matter expert. The designer and SME analyze the content to break it down into the fundamental parts. This process allows the designer to see the content from the learners’ perspective.

Task Analysis

Though the task analysis itself can be conducted in a variety of formats, the content for the analysis most often comes from a subject-matter expert (SME). The SME is an individual who has thorough knowledge of the task, procedure, or policy that is at the root of the problem identified in the needs analysis. The SME should be prompted to provide an accurate, sequential description of the procedures and concepts that need to be included in the content of the instructional unit. In spite of the SME’s extensive knowledge of the content, the SME may not be able to design instruction to convey that knowledge. That is where the instructional designer plays a role: taking the extensive, detailed content and creating effective, appropriate instructional material.

Three Techniques

Topic Analysis To conduct a topic analysis, the designer works with the SME to prepare a detailed outline that is used as a framework for the instruction. This is helpful because the designer may not be familiar with the content. The outline reveals the facts, procedures, and concepts that must be included in the instruction. Morrison, Ross, and Kemp classify six categories of content structure. These categories are used to settle on an appropriate instructional strategy.

1. Facts—Facts are pieces of information such as names, definitions, descriptions, places, dates. Facts are learned through memorization and require simple recall. Participants may have to learn facts (terms, parts) as part of the new content or skill.

2. Concepts—Concepts categorize ideas. Concepts can be either concrete (concept of fruit to categorize apples and bananas) or abstract (concept of safety or loyalty).

Task Analysis


3. Principles and Rules—Principles and rules explain the relationship between concepts (principle of supply and demand).

4. Procedures—Procedures include steps that are followed to perform a task (steps to save a file on a computer).

5. Interpersonal skills—Interpersonal skills include both verbal and nonverbal means of communicating with others (interviewing skills, conflict resolution skills, leadership skills).

6. Attitudes—Attitudes are “predispositions to behavior.” Part of instruction may require participants to develop proper attitudes about company resources, attendance, confidentiality of personnel records, etc.

The topic analysis should be detailed enough to meet the needs of the learners. The learner analysis and the SME’s input will help determine the level of detail. Novice learners will need more basic details than learners who already have a working knowledge of the topics. Procedural Analysis Rather than a focus on the topic in an instructional unit, a procedural analysis examines the procedures—the observable tasks—that make up the instructional unit, recording the specific steps that are required. Morrison, Ross, and Kemp (p. 85) recommend that you walk through the procedures with the SME asking the following questions:

1. What does the learner do? (identify the physical and mental actions for the learner)

2. What does the learner need to know to do this step? 3. What cues (tactile, smell, visual, etc.) inform the learner that there is a problem,

the step is done, or a different step is needed? Once the procedures have been identified and recorded, additional information (facts, concepts, rules) needs to be added to fill out the instruction. Often the procedural analysis has a natural, linear organization, dictated by the sequence of the procedures to be performed. Morrison, Ross, and Kemp (p. 88) provide a checklist for conducting a procedural analysis:

• Are the relevant cues and feedback identified for each step of the procedure • Does the analysis identify the generally acceptable procedure rather than the

personal preferences of the SME? • Are the decision steps identified? (places where the learner has to make a decision) • Are all steps accurately described? • Are critical steps that could result in personal injury, equipment damage, or other

loss identified? A “talk-aloud protocol” is a method for gathering all of the appropriate steps and cues. Ask the SME to talk out loud as he or she goes through the step, describing each step and identifying the visual cues that are followed.


Critical Incident Method A third method, critical incident, is effective with more abstract processes that involve attitudes or interpersonal skills, such as conducting an effective interview or resolving conflict. These less structured processes have many correct ways they can be accomplished. So the critical incident method gathers input from several individuals and then compiles guidelines based on the similar components. Critical incident method examines successful and nonsuccessful incidences to determine what makes some successful.

Conducting a Task Analysis

Every analysis will differ based on the situation, the SME, and the problem. Some guidelines are useful. Being Your Own SME When you are your own SME you have the advantage of being familiar with the content. But a potential disadvantage is that you might overlook important steps because of your own familiarity. It is important to test the instruction with a usability study or with another expert on the subject. Techniques for Gathering Data Literature research—Reading existing background material helps you prepare to meet with the SME, but it is not recommended as a substitute for working with an expert on the subject. Interviewing an SME—An interview with an SME is the most recommended method for gathering content. Determine the best location for meeting with the SME: in his or her office to allow access to data, files, or support materials; at the job site to allow for demonstration of the skills or procedures that are required. Developer modeling—This step is taken after the content has been initially gathered. It is a method for double-checking the designer’s interpretation with the SME for accuracy. Missing steps can be identified or misleading instructions can be modified. The instruction is still a work in progress that needs to be checked. Record keeping—Keep detailed records of the meetings with the SME, writing down notes about the content. A camera will be useful for taking pictures that will supplement the instruction.

• Identify an SME who is familiar with the content. • Contact the SME to discuss the problem. • Decide where it would be best to meet to discuss the content (office, on site). • Ask about any special preparation you need before meeting (to avoid delays). • Let the SME know what type of material you need (examples, photos, case

studies). • Be prepared for note and photo taking at the meeting. • Respect the SME’s time by being adequately prepared (summary of the problem

and description of the learners, ask pertinent questions, clarify understanding).


SEQUENCING

Definition

Sequencing takes into consideration the nature of the content to determine the order of instruction.

Function

The objectives and the task analysis may begin to suggest a way to sequence the flow of the instructional unit. The SME may have had another way of ordering the presentation of content to the designer. The task itself may dictate a sequence. Prerequisite skills may dictate that some skills be taught before others. This section on sequencing discusses several alternatives to consider.

Posner and Strike’s Sequencing Scheme

Posner and Strike describe three methods of sequencing: learner related, world related, and concept related. They recommend that a unit may need to begin by considering the needs and characteristics of the learner. However, after the initial introduction, the content of the unit may be presented in a better fashion using the world-related or concept-related methods. Often these three will be intertwined throughout a unit of instruction. Learning-Related Sequencing This method of sequencing focuses considers the content from the perspective of the learner. What does the learner need to know first? What strategies will make the learner feel at ease? Motivated? Is the learner developmentally mature enough for the content? Five concepts comprise this method.

1. Identifiable prerequisites—begin with the prerequisite skills that will be needed to accomplish the more complex tasks.

2. Familiarity—begin with familiar material before teaching unknown material 3. Difficulty—begin with easy material before moving to difficult material 4. Interest—begin with the material that is the most motivating or interesting to the

learner to engage the learner 5. Development—make sure the learner is developmentally prepared for the task

World-Related Sequencing This method of sequencing presents content in categories or ways that are found in the real world. But there is still flexibility that must consider the needs of the audience. If you are teaching about a car, a mechanic may want you to go through the various mechanical systems. You could begin describing a new car from the front to the back, from the outside to the inside. This method describes three ordering strategies.

Content Sequencing


1. Spatial—left to right, top to bottom, front to back (i.e., teach the layout of the monitor in Microsoft Word by starting at the top left corner).

2. Temporal—related to time; first, second, third; fastest to slowest (i.e., describe the steps in a procedure in the order they must be performed; teach a history unit in the order that it occurred; teach FedEx options based on what is fastest to what is slowest).

3. Physical—according to physical characteristics: shape, size, color (i.e., types of wine, types of rocks).

Concept-Related Sequencing Concepts help us organize our world and ideas. Concept-related sequencing structures the flow of the content around concepts. Posner and Strike suggest four strategies.

1. Class relations—teach the general concept (computer function) before teaching the component parts (CPU, mouse, keyboard).

2. Propositional relations—begin by giving examples, then teach the proposition (drop light and heavy objects before teaching about gravity).

3. Sophistication—start with concrete concepts before moving to abstract concepts (teach mean, median, and mode before teaching analysis of variance).

4. Logical prerequisite—teach prerequisite concepts first (teach the concept of a mean before the concept of standard deviation).

The three sequencing strategies may be combined in a unit of instruction. Choose the sequencing strategy based on the learner and the content for the particular project.

The Elaboration Theory Sequencing Model

A second model for determining the sequence of tasks for instruction is the elaboration theory. Elaboration theory focuses on the level of expertise that will be expected of the learner. The theory presents two strategies.

1. Content expertise sequencing—used if the learner is expected to become an expert in the content. This strategy organizes the content on a hierarchy of concepts (superordinate, coordinate, and subordinate relationships) or by a theoretical elaboration sequence (teaching the concepts in the way that a researcher might have arrived at the theory).

2. Task expertise—teach a series of tasks beginning with the most simple, ending with the more elaborate or complex (teaching a teenager how to fill out a check before teaching how to balance a bank statement).

From Objectives to Sequencing

The task analysis provided a detailed look at the content of the unit. The expanded performance-content matrix classified objectives by types of content (fact, concept, principles and rules, procedure, interpersonal, or attitude). Now you can take each objective and determine the best sequence for instruction. The content may require combining a variety of methods.


INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

Definition

Instructional strategies are guidelines for determining how the content will be taught. This is done by matching appropriate teaching tactics with the type of content being taught. These strategies are not hard-and-fast rules; they are heuristics (guidelines) that are flexible.

Function

Instruction can be designed in many different ways: for individual or group use, for delivery as a lecture or a self-paced unit; paper based or utilizing high-end technology. The resources, time, and audience all contribute to the decisions about the delivery strategy. Instructional strategy defines how the instruction is developed to ensure that the objectives can be met.

Designing an Instructional Strategy

According to research, learning takes place as the learner associates new information with information that is already known (generative learning). Well-designed instruction promotes these associations. Four strategies are recommended to help learners accommodate the new information in ways that are meaningful. These four strategies are outlined in the following table, along with a brief description and suggested learning strategies.

Strategy Description Associated Learning Strategies Recall Learning information that is

memorized and recalled as definitions, lists, etc.

• repetition • rehearsal • review • mnemonics (memory devices)

Integration Transforming new information into new forms (makes it easier to remember)

• paraphrasing (describing in your own words)

• generating questions • generating examples

Organizational Identifying key ideas or concepts; categorizes new information and interrelating it with existing knowledge

• outlining • categorizing

Elaboration Adding learners’ ideas to the new information; expand or say more about the information

• develop mental images • draw diagrams • sentence elaborations

Instructional Strategies


Prescriptions for Instructional Strategies

First, classify each instructional objective into the type of content (fact, concept, principle, procedure, interpersonal, skill, or attitude). Indicate whether the learner will recall or apply the new content. Each content /performance type has guidelines (or prescriptions) for instruction that have been entered into an expanded performance-content matrix that incorporates the four learning strategies: recall, integration, organization, and elaboration. Most prescriptions have two parts:

1. Initial presentation strategy—How will you introduce the content? (definitions, examples, steps)

2. Generative strategy—How will the learner deepen the level of understanding the new content (model, pictures, narrative)? How will the new content be connected to prior knowledge content?

Performance Content

Recall Application Fact Initial presentation:

Concrete facts: Allow experience with the objects associated with the fact. Abstract facts: Use concrete objects that represent the fact or use pictures or diagrams. Generative strategies: • Rehearsal-practice (saying,

spelling, writing) • Mnemonics (words or phrases to

aid recall) • Elaborative interrogation (gets

the learner to explain the fact; elaborate on the topic)

Facts have no “application”; they simply require methods to aid in

recall.

Concept Initial presentation: • Give the concept name • Define the concept • Give an example to introduce

the concept • Give additional examples to

refine the understanding of the concept

Generative strategies: • Rehearsal-practice • Mnemonics • Elaborative interrogation

Initial presentation: • Give the concept name • Define the concept • Give an example to introduce

the concept • Give additional examples to

refine the understanding of the concept

Generative strategies: Integration • Let the learners find/list new

examples • Distinguish examples and

nonexamples


Organization • Analyze key ideas (identify

characteristics of the concept) • Categorize objects or examples

(compare samples) • Cognitive mapping

Principle or rule Two general approaches: Rule-example begins with a statement of the rule followed by examples Rule-example begins with examples and then gives a statement of the rule

Initial presentation: • Provide an example or

demonstration of the rule Generative strategies: • Rehearsal-practice • Mnemonics • Elaborative interrogation

Initial presentation: • Provide an example or

demonstration of the rule

Generative strategies: Integration • Paraphrase the rule • Generate examples

Organizational • Identify key components • Compare the rule to similar

rules Elaborative • Develop a diagram • Tell why the rule works

Procedure Learner lists the steps or describes the procedure Cognitive procedures (problem-solving, i.e., math problems): Initial presentation: • Demonstrate the procedure • Provide an example

Generative strategies: • Rehearsal-practice • Mnemonics • Elaborative interrogation

Psychomotor procedures: Initial presentation: • Demonstrate the procedure

(video, pictures, live) • Verbalize the steps • Provide an example

Generative strategies: • Rehearsal-practice • Describe steps • Mnemonics

Learner demonstrates the procedure Cognitive procedures Initial presentation: • Demonstrate the procedure • Provide an example

Generative strategies: • Rehearsal-practice

Integration • Paraphrase procedure

Elaborative • Embellish the procedure

Psychomotor procedures: Initial presentation: • Demonstrate the procedure

(video, pictures, live) • Verbalize the steps • Provide an example

Generative strategies: • Rehearsal-practice • Develop mental images



Elaborative • Embellish procedure


Elaborative • Embellish procedure

Interpersonal Initial presentation: • Demonstrate the model (role

playing or video)


Four steps 1. Present model (video, role

playing, narrative); identify key features

2. Develop verbal model (paraphrase or cognitive map)

3. Mental rehearsal (discuss examples or case studies)

4. Practice (role playing)

Attitude Initial presentation: • Demonstrate the model (role

playing or video)


Four steps 1. Present model (video, role

playing, narrative); identify key features

2. Develop verbal model (paraphrase or cognitive map)

3. Mental rehearsal (discuss examples or case studies)

4. Practice (role playing)


PREINSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

Definition

A preinstructional strategy sets the stage for the instruction or a segment of the instruction. It is designed to prepare the learner by awakening what the learner already knows.

Function

There are four preinstructional strategies outlined by Morrison, Ross, and Kemp (pp. 174-178). The designer will choose a preinstructional strategy to serve one of the following purposes: to motivate the learner, to establish goals for the learning, to give an overview of the task, or to provide a conceptual framework.

Preinstructional Strategies

Preinstructional strategies are included in “designing the message” to provide approaches to introducing the content. The remainder of the chapter on designing the message (including formatting, cues, and pictures) will not be covered here. Pretests In this setting, a pretest is not used to measure the learners’ prior knowledge on the content. It is not a quiz. A pretest as a preinstructional strategy poses a series of questions that the learner does not actually answer. However, the questions serve to motivate the learner to keep reading to see how the questions will be answered. Generally, the questions point out key ideas that will be addressed. The Morrison, Ross, and Kemp text models this strategy by posing questions at the beginning of each chapter. A few guidelines are given for writing the questions.

1. Keep the questions short. 2. Use open-ended questions. 3. Distribute the questions across the various objectives.

Objectives Oddly, Morrison, Ross, and Kemp teach about using objectives as a Preinstructional strategy, but they also reflect a bit of doubt about this option, suggesting that the use of objectives may not be as effective. Basically, the objectives state what the learner should be able to do after completing the unit. Like, pretests the objectives reflect the various key elements of the unit. Here are a few guidelines for writing the preinstructional guidelines.

1. Emphasize what the learner will be able to do, rather than the standard or the conditions.


2. Keep the list short; some objectives may incorporate more than one key element. 3. Use language that is familiar and comfortable for the learner; avoid stuffy, formal

language that could be intimidating. 4. Use objectives with shorter units; longer units may contain too much information

to represent in a short list of objectives. Overviews An overview is much like a traditional introduction. It is a narrative-style discussion that is fairly short and that can be written in a variety of ways. Its comfortable, laid-back style does not push enumerated items that the learner feels pressured to memorize. It just helps give a sense of direction about the upcoming instruction. The overview can

1. present a short summary of the content, 2. provide a scenario or problem that this content will address, or 3. explain the benefits of the content to the learner.

Advance Organizers An advance organizer is similar to an overview because it has a narrative-style format. However, the advance organizer is written at a conceptual level. It shows how this new information will fit into the learners’ conceptual scheme. A comparative organizer tells how this concept is similar to one that is familiar. It might tell, for example, how this new procedure is like a well-known procedure. An expository organizer awakens the knowledge the learner already has but it explains the concept that is important to the new information rather than comparing the concept to another concept that is familiar. When writing advance organizers,

1. use general, familiar terms to talk about the ideas, 2. include the whole content topic, not just focus on one part of it, 3. use an expository organizer for concepts that are not familiar to the learner, and 4. use comparison organizers for concepts that are already familiar.

Choosing a Preinstructional Strategy

When choosing which type of strategy to use to draw in the learner, consider what was revealed in the learner analysis. The choice should be appropriate for the particular group of people who will be using the instruction. For example, questions may be useful with college students who have to be able to use learned information to answer questions on a final exam. A scenario may be a good choice for an employee who is learning a new skill for the workplace, if it lets the learner ponder how he or she would react in that situation on the job. An advance organizer could be useful for highly abstract instruction because it helps to create a conceptual framework for the new information. And an overview is just plain good work for average learners because it “chats” about what the learner will be doing in the unit.

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