Jazz

For other uses, see Jazz (disambiguation).

Jazz is a genre of music that originated in African Amer-ican communities during the late 19th and early 20thcentury. It emerged in many parts of the United Statesin the form of independent popular musical styles, alllinked by the common bonds of African American andEuropean American musical parentage with a perfor-mance orientation.[1] Jazz spans a period of over 100years and encompasses a range of music from ragtimeto the present day, and has proved to be very di-cult to dene. Jazz makes heavy use of improvisation,polyrhythms, syncopation and the swung note,[2] as wellas aspects of European harmony, American popular mu-sic,[3] the brass band tradition, and African musical el-ements such as blue notes and ragtime.[1] The birth ofJazz in the multicultural society of America has led in-tellectuals from around the world to hail Jazz as one ofAmericas original art forms.[4]

As jazz spread around the world, it drew on dierent na-tional, regional, and local musical cultures, giving riseto many distinctive styles. New Orleans jazz began inthe early 1910s, combining earlier brass band marches,French quadrilles, biguine, ragtime and blues with col-lective polyphonic improvisation. In the 1930s, heavilyarranged dance-oriented swing big bands, Kansas Cityjazz, a hard-swinging, bluesy, improvisational style andGypsy jazz (a style that emphasized musette waltzes)were the prominent styles. Bebop emerged in the 1940s,shifting jazz from danceable popular music towards amore challenging musicians music which was played atfaster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation.Cool jazz developed in the end of the 1940s, introducingcalmer, smoother sounds and long, linear melodic lines.The 1950s saw the emergence of free jazz, which ex-plored playing without regular meter, beat and formalstructures, and in the mid-1950s, hard bop, which intro-duced inuences from rhythm and blues, gospel music,and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano playing.Modal jazz developed in the late 1950s, using the mode,or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and im-provisation. Jazz-rock fusion appeared in the late 1960sand early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation with rockrhythms, electric instruments and the highly ampliedstage sound of rock. In the early 1980s, a commercialform of jazz fusion called smooth jazz became success-ful, garnering signicant radio airplay. Other styles andgenres abound today, such as Latin jazz and Afro-Cubanjazz.

Prominent jazz musician Louis Armstrong observed: Atone time theywere calling it levee campmusic, then inmyday it was ragtime. When I got up North I commencedto hear about jazz, Chicago style, Dixieland, swing. Allrenements of what we played in New Orleans... Thereain't nothing new.[5] Or as jazz musician J. J. Johnsonput it in a 1988 interview: Jazz is restless. It won't stayput and it never will.[6]

1 DenitionsJazz has proved to be very dicult to dene, since it en-compasses such a wide range of music spanning a periodof over 100 years, from ragtime to the present day. At-tempts have been made to dene jazz from the perspec-tive of other musical traditions, such as European mu-sic history or African music. But critic Joachim-ErnstBerendt argues that its terms of reference and its deni-tion should be broader,[7] dening jazz as a form of artmusic which originated in the United States through theconfrontation of the Negro with European music[8] andarguing that it diers from European music in that jazzhas a special relationship to time dened as 'swing'", in-volves a spontaneity and vitality of musical production inwhich improvisation plays a role and contains a sonor-ity and manner of phrasing which mirror the individualityof the performing jazz musician.[7]

Double bassist Reggie Workman, saxophone player PharoahSanders, and drummer Idris Muhammad performing in 1978

A broader denition that encompasses all of the radi-cally dierent eras of jazz has been proposed by TravisJackson: it is music that includes qualities such asswing, improvising, group interaction, developing an'individual voice', and being open to dierent musical

1

2 2 ETYMOLOGY

possibilities.[9] Krin Gibbard has provided an overviewof the discussion on denitions, arguing that jazz is aconstruct that, while articial, still is useful to designatea number of musics with enough in common to be un-derstood as part of a coherent tradition.[10] In contrastto the eorts of commentators and enthusiasts of certaintypes of jazz, who have argued for narrower denitionsthat exclude other types, the musicians themselves areoften reluctant to dene the music they play. As DukeEllington, one of jazzs most famous gures, said: Itsall music.[11]

1.1 Importance of improvisationMain article: Jazz improvisation

Although jazz is considered dicult to dene,improvisation is consistently regarded as being oneof its key elements. The centrality of improvisation injazz is attributed to inuential earlier forms of music: theearly blues, a form of folk music which arose in part fromthe work songs and eld hollers of the African-Americanworkers on plantations. These were commonly structuredaround a repetitive call-and-response pattern, but earlyblues was also highly improvisational. European classicalmusic performance is evaluated by its delity to the text,with discretion over interpretation, ornamentation andaccompaniment: the classical performers primary goalis to play a composition as it was written. In contrast, jazzis often characterized as the product of group creativity,interaction, and collaboration, which places varyingdegrees of value on the contributions of composer (ifthere is one) and performers.[12] In jazz, the skilledperformer will interpret a tune in very individual ways,never playing the same composition exactly the sameway twice: depending upon the performers mood andpersonal experience, interactions with other musicians,or even members of the audience, a jazz musician mayalter melodies, harmonies or time signature at will.[13]

The approach to improvisation has developed enormouslyover the history of the music. In early New Orleans andDixieland jazz, performers took turns playing themelody,while others improvised countermelodies. By the swingera, big bands were coming to rely more on arranged mu-sic: arrangements were either written or learned by earand memorized, while individual soloists would impro-vise within these arrangements. Later, in bebop the fo-cus shifted back towards small groups and minimal ar-rangements; the melody would be stated briey at thestart and end of a piece, but the core of the performancewould be the series of improvisations. Later styles suchas modal jazz abandoned the strict notion of a chord pro-gression, allowing the individual musicians to improviseeven more freely within the context of a given scale ormode. In many forms of jazz a soloist is often supportedby a rhythm section who accompany by playing chordsand rhythms that outline the song structure and comple-

ment the soloist.[14] In avant-garde and free jazz idioms,the separation of soloist and band is reduced, and thereis license, or even a requirement, for the abandoning ofchords, scales, and rhythmic meters.

1.2 Debates

Since at least the emergence of bebop, forms of jazz thatare commercially oriented or inuenced by popular musichave been criticized by purists. According to Bruce John-son, there has always been a tension between jazz as acommercial music and an art form.[9] Traditional jazzenthusiasts have dismissed bebop, free jazz, the 1970sjazz fusion era and much else as periods of debasementof the music and betrayals of the tradition. An alterna-tive viewpoint is that jazz is able to absorb and transforminuences from diverse musical styles,[15] and that, byavoiding the creation of 'norms, other newer, avant-gardeforms of jazz will be free to emerge.[9]

To some African Americans, jazz has highlighted theircontribution to American society and helped bring atten-tion to black history and culture, but for others, the musicand term jazz are reminders of an oppressive and racistsociety and restrictions on their artistic visions.[16]

2 Etymology

Albert Gleizes, 1915, Composition pour Jazz, gouache on card-board, mounted on Masonite, 73 x 73 cm, Solomon R. Guggen-heim Museum, New York

Main article: Jazz (word)

The question of the origin of the word jazz has resultedin considerable research, and its history is well docu-mented. The word began [under various spellings] as

3West Coast slang around 1912, the meaning of whichvaried but did not refer to music. The use of the wordin a musical context was documented as early as 1915in the Chicago Daily Tribune.[17] Its rst documented usein a musical context in New Orleans was in a November14, 1916 Times-Picayune article about jas bands.[18]The American Dialect Society named it the Word of theTwentieth Century.

3 RaceAmiri Baraka argues that there is a distinct white jazzmusic genre expressive of whiteness.[19] White jazz mu-sicians appeared in the early 1920s in the MidwesternUnited States, as well as other areas. Bix Beiderbeckewas one of the most prominent white jazz musicians.[20]An inuential style referred to as the Chicago School(or Chicago Style) was developed by white musiciansincluding Bud Freeman, Jimmy McPartland. FrankTeschemacher, Dave Tough, and Eddie Condon. Othersfrom Chicago such as Benny Goodman and Gene Krupabecame leading members of big-band swing during the1930s.[21]

4 Women in jazzWhen thinking of jazz music, women are normally thesingers of genre, however dating back to the early 1920swomen instrumentalists can be found, with the piano be-ing one of the earliest instruments used which allowed fe-male artists a degree of social acceptance.[22] Some wellknown artists of the time consists of Sweet Emma Bar-rett, Mary Lou Williams , Billie Pierce, Jeanette Kimballand Lovie Austin. These women have done a lot for thegenre.When the men got drafted for the war numerous allwomen big band jazz bands took over.[22] However, withthe division of skin color, there was no real band that anyone society listened to. The International Sweethearts ofRhythm was the all women jazz band best known duringthese times. Despite the harsh dress code of women at thetime of strapless dresses and high heeled shoes, womenwere being hired into many of the big league big bandssuch as Woody Herman's and Gerald Wilson.

4.1 Womens Jazz Festival

Dr. Billy Taylor (1921-2010), late Kennedy CenterArtistic Director for Jazz, created this festival dedicatedto the composer and pianistMary-LouWilliams, in honorof her extraordinary talent.[23] The Mary-Lou WilliamsJazz Festival has existed for sixteen years, showcasingwomen of any age or race.

5 HistoryJazz originated in the late 19th to early 20th century asinterpretations of American and European classical mu-sic entwined with African and slave folk songs and theinuences of West African culture.[24] Its compositionand style have changed many times throughout the yearswith each performers personal interpretation and impro-visation, which is also one of the greatest appeals of thegenre.[25]

5.1 Origins5.1.1 Blended African and European music sensi-

bilities

By 1808, the Atlantic slave trade had brought almosthalf a million Africans to the United States. The slavescame largely from West Africa and the greater CongoRiver basin, and brought strong musical traditions withthem.[26] The African traditions primarily made use ofa single-line melody and call-and-response pattern, andthe rhythms had a counter-metric structure and reectedAfrican speech patterns.

Dance in Congo Square in the late 1700s, artists conception byE. W. Kemble from a century later.

In the late 18th-century painting The Old Plantation, African-Americans dance to banjo and percussion.

Lavish festivals featuring African-based dances to drumswere organized on Sundays at Place Congo, or CongoSquare, in New Orleans until 1843.[27] There are histor-ical accounts of other music and dance gatherings else-

4 5 HISTORY

where in the southern United States. Robert Palmer saidof percussive slave music:

Usually such music was associated with an-nual festivals, when the years crop was har-vested and several days were set aside for cel-ebration. As late as 1861, a traveler in NorthCarolina saw dancers dressed in costumes thatincluded horned headdresses and cow tails andheard music provided by a sheepskin-coveredgumbo box, apparently a frame drum; tri-angles and jawbones furnished the auxiliarypercussion. There are quite a few [accounts]from the southeastern states and Louisiana dat-ing from the period 18201850. Some of theearliest [Mississippi] Delta settlers came fromthe vicinity of New Orleans, where drummingwas never actively discouraged for very longand homemade drums were used to accompanypublic dancing until the outbreak of the CivilWar.[28]

Another inuence came from the harmonic style ofhymns of the church, which black slaves had learned andincorporated into their own music as spirituals.[29] Theorigins of the blues are undocumented, though they canbe seen as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. How-ever, as Gerhard Kubik points out, whereas the spiritualsare homophonic, rural blues and early jazz was largelybased on concepts of heterophony.[30]

The blackface Virginia Minstrels in 1843, featuring tambourine,ddle, banjo and bones.

During the early 19th century an increasing number ofblack musicians learned to play European instruments,particularly the violin, which they used to parody Eu-ropean dance music in their own cakewalk dances. Inturn, European-American minstrel show performers inblackface popularized the music internationally, com-bining syncopation with European harmonic accompani-ment. In the mid-1800s the white New Orleans com-poser Louis Moreau Gottschalk adapted slave rhythms

and melodies from Cuba and other Caribbean islands intopiano salon music. New Orleans was the main nexusbetween the Afro-Caribbean and African-American cul-tures.

African rhythmic retention The "Black Codes" out-lawed drumming by slaves, which meant that Africandrumming traditions were not preserved in North Amer-ica, unlike in Cuba, Haiti, and elsewhere in theCaribbean. African-based rhythmic patterns were re-tained in the United States in large part through bodyrhythms such as stomping, clapping, and patting juba.[31]

In the opinion of jazz historian Ernest Borneman, whatpreceded New Orleans jazz before 1890 was Afro-Latinmusic, similar to what was played in the Caribbean atthe time.[32] A three-stroke pattern known in Cuban mu-sic as tresillo is a fundamental rhythmic gure heard inmany dierent slave musics of the Caribbean, as well asthe Afro-Caribbean folk dances performed in New Or-leans Congo Square and Gottschalks compositions (forexample Souvenirs From Havana (1859)). Tresillo isthe most basic and most prevalent duple-pulse rhythmiccell in sub-Saharan African music traditions and the mu-sic of the African Diaspora.[33][34]

Tresillo.[35][36] Play

Tresillo is heard prominently in New Orleans second linemusic and in other forms of popular music from that cityfrom the turn of the 20th century to present.[37] By andlarge the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived injazz ... because they could be adapted more readily toEuropean rhythmic conceptions, the Jazz historian Gun-ther Schuller observed. Some survived, others were dis-carded as the Europeanization progressed.[38]

In the post-Civil War period (after 1865), African Amer-icans were able to obtain surplus military bass drums,snare drums and fes, and an original African-Americandrum and fe music emerged, featuring tresillo and re-lated syncopated rhythmic gures.[39] This was a drum-ming tradition that was distinct from its Caribbean coun-terparts, expressing a uniquely African-American sen-sibility. The snare and bass drummers played synco-pated cross-rhythms, observed the writer Robert Palmer(writer), speculating that this tradition must have datedback to the latter half of the nineteenth century, and itcould have not have developed in the rst place if therehadn't been a reservoir of polyrhythmic sophistication inthe culture it nurtured.[40]

5.2 1890s1910s 5

5.1.2 Spanish tingethe Afro-Cuban rhythmicinuence

African-American music began incorporating Afro-Cuban rhythmic motifs in the 19th century, whenthe habanera (Cuban contradanza) gained internationalpopularity.[41] Musicians from Havana and New Orleanswould take the twice-daily ferry between both cities toperform, and the habanera quickly took root in the mu-sically fertile Crescent City. John Storm Roberts statesthat the musical genre habanera reached the U.S. twentyyears before the rst rag was published.[42] For the morethan quarter-century in which the cakewalk, ragtime,and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the ha-banera was a consistent part of African-American pop-ular music.[43]

Habaneras were widely available as sheet music, andwere the rst written music which was rhythmicallybased on an African motif (1803),[44] From the perspec-tive of African-American music, the habanera rhythm(also known as congo,[45] tango-congo,[46] or tango.[47])can be thought of as a combination of tresillo and thebackbeat.[48] The habanera was the rst of many Cubanmusic genres which enjoyed periods of popularity in theUnited States, and reinforced and inspired the use oftresillo-based rhythms in African-American music.

Habanera rhythm written as a combination of tresillo (bottomnotes) with the backbeat (top note). Play

New Orleans native Louis Moreau Gottschalk's pianopiece Ojos Criollos (Danse Cubaine)" (1860) was inu-enced by the composers studies in Cuba: the habanerarhythm is clearly heard in the left hand.[49] In Gottschalkssymphonic work ANight in the Tropics (1859), the tre-sillo variant cinquillo appears extensively.[50] The gurewas later used by Scott Joplin and other ragtime com-posers.

Cinquillo. Play

Comparing the music of New Orleans with the music ofCuba, Wynton Marsalis observes that tresillo is the NewOrleans clave, a Spanish word meaning 'code' or 'key',as in the key to a puzzle, or mystery.[51] Although techni-cally the pattern is only half a clave, Marsalis makes thepoint that the single-celled gure is the guide-pattern ofNew Orleans music. Jelly Roll Morton called the rhyth-

mic gure the Spanish tinge, and considered it an essentialingredient of jazz.[52]

5.2 1890s1910s

5.2.1 Ragtime

Main article: RagtimeThe abolition of slavery in 1865 led to new opportunities

Scott Joplin in 1903

for the education of freed African Americans. Althoughstrict segregation limited employment opportunities formost blacks, many were able to nd work in entertain-ment. Black musicians were able to provide entertain-ment in dances, minstrel shows, and in vaudeville, duringwhich time many marching bands were formed. Blackpianists played in bars, clubs and brothels, as ragtimedeveloped.[53][54]

Ragtime appeared as sheet music, popularized byAfrican-American musicians such as the entertainerErnest Hogan, whose hit songs appeared in 1895.Two years later, Vess Ossman recorded a medley ofthese songs as a banjo solo known as Rag TimeMedley.[55][56] Also in 1897, the white composerWilliam H. Krell published his "Mississippi Rag" as therst written piano instrumental ragtime piece, and TomTurpin published his "Harlem Rag", the rst rag pub-lished by an African-American.The classically trained pianist Scott Joplin produced his"Original Rags" in 1898, and in 1899 had an internationalhit with "Maple Leaf Rag", a multi-strain ragtime march

6 5 HISTORY

with four parts that feature recurring themes and a bassline with copious seventh chords. Its structure was thebasis for many other rags, and the syncopations in theright hand, especially in the transition between the rstand second strain, were novel at the time.[57]

Excerpt from Maple Leaf Rag by Scott Joplin (1899). Seventhchord resolution. Play . Note that the seventh resolves down byhalf step.

African-based rhythmic patterns such as tresillo and itsvariants, the habanera rhythm and cinquillo, are heardin the ragtime compositions of Joplin, Turpin, and oth-ers. Joplins Solace (1909) is generally considered tobe within the habanera genre:[45][58] both of the pianistshands play in a syncopated fashion, completely abandon-ing any sense of a march rhythm. Ned Sublette postulatesthat the tresillo/habanera rhythm found its way into rag-time and the cakewalk,[59] whilst Roberts suggests thatthe habanera inuence may have been part of what freedblack music from ragtimes European bass.[60]

5.2.2 Blues

Main article: Blues

Play blues scale or pentatonic scale

African genesis Blues is the name given to both amusical form and a music genre,[61] which originated inAfrican-American communities of primarily the "DeepSouth" of the United States at the end of the 19th centuryfrom their spirituals, work songs, eld hollers, shouts andchants and rhymed simple narrative ballads.[62]

The African use of pentatonic scales contributed to thedevelopment of blue notes in blues and jazz.[63] As Kubikexplains:

Many of the rural blues of the Deep Southare stylistically an extension and merger of ba-sically two broad accompanied song-style tra-ditions in the west central Sudanic belt: A strongly Arabic/Islamic song style, asfound for example among the Hausa. Itis characterized by melisma, wavy into-nation, pitch instabilities within a pen-tatonic framework, and a declamatoryvoice.

An ancient west central Sudanic stratumof pentatonic song composition, often as-sociated with simple work rhythms in aregular meter, but with notable o-beataccents (1999: 94).[64]

WC Handy age 19, 1892

W. C. Handy: early published blues W. C. Handybecame intrigued by the folk blues of the Deep Southwhilst traveling through the Mississippi Delta. In thisfolk blues form, the singer would improvise freely withina limited melodic range, sounding like a eld holler,and the guitar accompaniment was slapped rather thanstrummed, like a small drum which responded in synco-pated accents, functioning as another voice.[65] Handyand his band members were formally trained African-American musicians who had not grown up with theblues, yet he was able to adapt the blues to a larger band

5.2 1890s1910s 7

instrument format, and arrange them in a popular musicform.Handy wrote about his adopting of the blues:

The primitive southern Negro, as he sang,was sure to bear down on the third and seventhtone of the scale, slurring between major andminor. Whether in the cotton eld of the Deltaor on the Levee up St. Louis way, it was alwaysthe same. Till then, however, I had never heardthis slur used by a more sophisticated Negro,or by any white man. I tried to convey this ef-fect ... by introducing at thirds and sevenths(now called blue notes) into my song, althoughits prevailing key was major ..., and I carriedthis device into my melody as well.[66]

The publication of his "Memphis Blues" sheet music in1912 introduced the 12-bar blues to the world (althoughGunther Schuller argues that it is not really a blues, butmore like a cakewalk[67]). This composition, as wellas his later "St. Louis Blues" and others, included thehabanera rhythm,[68] and would become jazz standards.Handys music career began in the pre-jazz era, and con-tributed to the codication of jazz through the publicationof some of the rst jazz sheet music.

Within the context of Western harmony The bluesform which is ubiquitous in jazz is characterized by spe-cic chord progressions, of which the twelve-bar bluesprogression is the most common. An important part ofthe sound are the blue notes which, for expressive pur-poses, are sung or played attened, or gradually bent (mi-nor 3rd to major 3rd) in relation to the pitch of the majorscale. The blues were the key that opened up an entirelynew approach to Western harmony, ultimately leading toa high level of harmonic complexity in jazz.

5.2.3 New Orleans

Main article: DixielandThe music of New Orleans had a profound eect on thecreation of early jazz. Many early jazz performers playedin venues throughout the city, such as the brothels andbars of the red-light district around Basin Street, knownas "Storyville".[69] In addition to dance bands, there werenumerous marching bands who played at lavish funer-als (later called jazz funerals), which were arranged bythe African-American and European American commu-nities. The instruments used in marching bands anddance bands became the basic instruments of jazz: brass,reeds tuned in the European 12-tone scale, and drums.Small bands which mixed self-taught and well educatedAfrican-American musicians, many of whom came fromthe funeral-procession tradition of New Orleans, playeda seminal role in the development and dissemination

The Bolden Band around 1905.

of early jazz. These bands travelled throughout Blackcommunities in the Deep South and, from around 1914onwards, Afro-Creole and African-American musiciansplayed in vaudeville shows which took jazz to western andnorthern US cities.[70]

Syncopation The cornetist Buddy Bolden led a bandwho are often mentioned as one of the prime originatorsof the style later to be called jazz. He played in NewOrleans around 18951906, before developing a mentalillness; there are no recordings of him playing. Boldensband is credited with creating the big four, the rst syn-copated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standardon-the-beat march.[71] As the example below shows, thesecond half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm.

Buddy Boldens big four pattern.[72] Play

Afro-Creole pianist Jelly Roll Morton began his career inStoryville. From 1904, he toured with vaudeville showsaround southern cities, also playing in Chicago and NewYork. In 1905 he composed his "Jelly Roll Blues", whichon its publication in 1915 became the rst jazz arrange-ment in print, introducing more musicians to the NewOr-leans style.[73]

Morton considered the tresillo/habanera (which he calledthe Spanish tinge) to be an essential ingredient of jazz.[74]In his own words:

Now in one of my earliest tunes, New Or-leans Blues, you can notice the Spanish tinge.In fact, if you can't manage to put tinges ofSpanish in your tunes, you will never be ableto get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz.[52]

Morton was a crucial innovator in the evolution from theearly jazz form known as ragtime to jazz piano, and could

8 5 HISTORY

Morton published Jelly Roll Blues in 1915, the rst jazz workin print.

Excerpt from Jelly Roll Mortons New Orleans Blues (c. 1902).The left hand plays the tresillo rhythm. The right hand playsvariations on cinquillo. Play

perform pieces in either style; in 1938, Mortonmade a se-ries of recordings for the Library of Congress, in whichhe demonstrated the dierence between the two styles.Mortons solos however were still close to ragtime, andwere not merely improvisations over chord changes as inlater jazz; but his use of the blues was of equal impor-tance.

Bottom: even duple subdivisions of the beat. Top: swungcorrelativecontrasting of duple and triple subdivisions of thebeat. Play straight drum pattern or Play swung pattern

Swing Morton loosened ragtimes rigid rhythmic feel-ing, decreasing its embellishments and employing a swingfeeling.[75] Swing is the most important and enduringAfrican-based rhythmic technique used in jazz. An oftquoted denition of swing by Louis Armstrong is: ifyou don't feel it, you'll never know it.[76] The New Har-vardDictionary ofMusic states that swing is: An intangi-ble rhythmic momentum in jazz ... Swing dees analysis;claims to its presence may inspire arguments. The dic-tionary does nonetheless provide the useful descriptionof triple subdivisions of the beat contrasted with duplesubdivisions:[77] swing superimposes six subdivisions ofthe beat over a basic pulse structure or four subdivisions.This aspect of swing is far more prevalent in African-American music than in Afro-Caribbean music. One as-pect of swing, which is heard in more rhythmically com-plex Diaspora musics, places strokes in-between the tripleand duple-pulse grids.[78]

New Orleans brass bands are a lasting inuence, con-tributing horn players to the world of professional jazzwith the distinct sound of the city whilst helping blackchildren escape poverty. The leader of New OrleansCamelia Brass Band, D'Jalma Ganier, taught Louis Arm-strong to play trumpet; Armstrong would then popular-ize the New Orleans style of trumpet playing, and thenexpand it. Like Jelly Roll Morton, Armstrong is alsocredited with the abandonment of ragtimes stiness infavor of swung notes. Armstrong, perhaps more than anyother musician, codied the rhythmic technique of swingin jazz, and broadened the jazz solo vocabulary.[79]

The Original Dixieland Jass Band made the musicsrst recordings early in 1917, and their "LiveryStable Blues" became the earliest released jazzrecord.[80][81][82][83][84][85][86] That year, numerousother bands made recordings featuring jazz in the titleor band name, but most were ragtime or novelty recordsrather than jazz. In February 1918 during World WarI, James Reese Europe's Hellghters infantry bandtook ragtime to Europe,[87] then on their return recordedDixieland standards including "Darktown StruttersBall".[88]

5.2.4 Other regions

In the northeastern United States, a hot style of play-ing ragtime had developed, notably James Reese Europe'ssymphonic Clef Club orchestra in New York, whichplayed a benet concert at Carnegie Hall in 1912.[88][89]The Baltimore rag style of Eubie Blake inuenced JamesP. Johnson's development of stride piano playing, inwhich the right hand plays the melody, while the left handprovides the rhythm and bassline.[90]

In Ohio and elsewhere in the midwest the major inuencewas ragtime, until about 1919. Around 1912, when thefour-string banjo and saxophone came in, musicians be-gan to improvise the melody line, but the harmony and

5.3 1920s and 1930s 9

rhythm remained unchanged. A contemporary accountstates that blues could only be heard in jazz in the gut-bucket cabarets, which were generally looked down uponby the Black middle-class.[91]

5.3 1920s and 1930s5.3.1 Jazz Age

Main article: Jazz AgeFrom 1920 to 1933 Prohibition in the United States

Trumpeter, bandleader and singer Louis Armstrong was a much-imitated innovator of early jazz.

The King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra photographed in Houston,Texas, January 1921.

banned the sale of alcoholic drinks, resulting in illicitspeakeasies which became lively venues of the JazzAge, hosting popular music including current dancesongs, novelty songs and show tunes.Jazz began to get a reputation as being immoral, andmanymembers of the older generations saw it as threateningthe old cultural values and promoting the new decadentvalues of the Roaring 20s. Professor Henry van Dyke ofPrinceton University wrote: "... it is not music at all. Itsmerely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensualteasing of the strings of physical passion.[92] The media

too began to denigrate jazz. The New York Times usedstories and headlines to pick at jazz: Siberian villagerswere said by the paper to have used jazz to scare o bears,when in fact they had used pots and pans; another storyclaimed that the fatal heart attack of a celebrated conduc-tor was caused by jazz.[92]

From 1919, KidOry's Original Creole Jazz Band ofmusi-cians from New Orleans played in San Francisco and LosAngeles, where in 1922 they became the rst black jazzband of New Orleans origin to make recordings.[93][94]That year also saw the rst recording by Bessie Smith,the most famous of the 1920s blues singers.[95] Chicagomeanwhile was the main center developing the new "HotJazz", where King Oliver joined Bill Johnson. Bix Bei-derbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924.In 1924, Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Hender-son dance band for a year, as featured soloist. The orig-inal New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme vari-ation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Arm-strong was a master of his hometown style, but by thetime he joined Hendersons band, he was already a trail-blazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on ar-rangements and soloists. Armstrongs solos went wellbeyond the theme-improvisation concept, and extempo-rized on chords, rather than melodies. According toSchuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrongs band-mates (including a young Coleman Hawkins), soundedsti, stodgy, with jerky rhythms and a grey undistin-guished tone quality.[96] The following example showsa short excerpt of the straight melody of Mandy, MakeUp Your Mind by George W. Meyer and Arthur John-ston (top), compared with Armstrongs solo improvisa-tions (below) (recorded 1924).[97] (The example approx-imates Armstrongs solo, as it doesn't convey his use ofswing.)

Top: excerpt from the straight melody of Mandy, Make Up YourMind by George W. Meyer & Arthur Johnston. Bottom: corre-sponding solo excerpt by Louis Armstrong (1924).

Armstrongs solos were a signicant factor in making jazza true 20th-century language. After leaving Hendersonsgroup, Armstrong formed his virtuosic Hot Five band,where he popularized scat singing.[98]

Jelly Roll Morton recorded with the New OrleansRhythm Kings in an early mixed-race collaboration, thenin 1926 formed his Red Hot Peppers. There was a largermarket for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras,such as Jean Goldkette's orchestra and Paul Whiteman'sorchestra. In 1924 Whiteman commissioned Gershwin'sRhapsody in Blue, which was premiered by WhitemansOrchestra. By the mid-1920s, Whiteman was the most

10 5 HISTORY

popular bandleader in the U.S. His success was basedon a rhetoric of domestication according to which hehad elevated and rendered valuable a previously inchoatekind of music.[99] Other inuential large ensembles in-cluded Fletcher Hendersons band, Duke Ellingtons band(which opened an inuential residency at the Cotton Clubin 1927) in New York, and Earl Hines' Band in Chicago(who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe there in 1928).All signicantly inuenced the development of big band-style swing jazz.[100] By 1930, the New Orleans-style en-semble was a relic, and jazz belonged to the world.[101]

5.3.2 Swing

Main articles: Swing music and 1930s in jazzThe 1930s belonged to popular swing big bands, in

Benny Goodman (1943)

which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as theband leaders. Key gures in developing the big jazzband included bandleaders and arrangers Count Basie,Cab Calloway, Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey, Duke Elling-ton, Benny Goodman, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines,GlennMiller andArtie Shaw. Although it was a collectivesound, swing also oered individual musicians a chanceto solo and improvise melodic, thematic solos whichcould at times be very complex and important music.Swing was also dance music. It was broadcast on the ra-dio live nightly across America for many years, espe-cially by Earl Hines and his Grand Terrace Cafe Orches-tra broadcasting coast-to-coast from Chicago[102] (wellplaced for live US time-zones).Over time, social strictures regarding racial segregationbegan to relax in America: white bandleaders beganto recruit black musicians and black bandleaders whiteones. In the mid-1930s, Benny Goodman hired pianistTeddy Wilson, vibraphonist Lionel Hampton and gui-tarist Charlie Christian to join small groups. In the 1930s,Kansas City Jazz as exemplied by tenor saxophonistLester Young marked the transition from big bands tothe bebop inuence of the 1940s. An early 1940s styleknown as jumping the blues or jump blues used small

combos, uptempo music and blues chord progressions,drawing on boogie-woogie from the 1930s.

5.3.3 Beginnings of European jazz

As only a limited amount of American jazz records werereleased in Europe, European jazz tracesmany of its rootsto American artists such as James Reese Europe, PaulWhiteman and Lonnie Johnson, who visited Europe dur-ing and after World War I. It was their live performanceswhich inspired European audiences interest in jazz, aswell as the interest in all things American (and thereforeexotic) which accompanied the economic and politicalwoes of Europe during this time.[103] The beginnings ofa distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in thisinterwar period.This distinct style entered full swing in France with theQuintette du Hot Club de France, which began in 1934.Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-American jazz and the symphonic styles in which Frenchmusicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see theinspiration taken from Paul Whiteman, since his stylewas also a fusion of the two.[104] Belgian guitar virtu-oso Django Reinhardt popularized gypsy jazz, a mix of1930s American swing, French dance hall "musette" andEastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; themain instruments are steel stringed guitar, violin, anddouble bass, and solos pass from one player to anotheras the guitar and bass play the role of the rhythm section.Some music researchers hold that it was PhiladelphiasEddie Lang and Joe Venuti who pioneered the guitar-violin partnership typical of the genre,[105] which wasbrought to France after they had been heard live or onOkeh Records in the late 1920s.[106]

5.4 1940s and 1950s

5.4.1 American musicthe inuence of Elling-ton

By the 1940s, Duke Ellingtons music had transcendedthe bounds of swing, bridging jazz and art music in anatural synthesis. Ellington called his music AmericanMusic rather than jazz, and liked to describe those whoimpressed him as beyond category.[107] These includedmany of the musicians who were members of his or-chestra, some of whom are considered among the best injazz in their own right, but it was Ellington who meldedthem into one of the most well-known jazz orchestralunits in the history of jazz. He often composed speci-cally for the style and skills of these individuals, such asJeeps Blues for Johnny Hodges, Concerto for Cootiefor Cootie Williams (which later became "Do NothingTill You Hear from Me" with Bob Russell's lyrics), andTheMooche for Tricky SamNanton and BubberMiley.He also recorded songs written by his bandsmen, such

5.4 1940s and 1950s 11

Duke Ellington at the Hurricane Club (1943)

as Juan Tizol's "Caravan" and "Perdido", which broughtthe "Spanish Tinge" to big-band jazz. Several membersof the orchestra remained with him for several decades.The band reached a creative peak in the early 1940s, whenEllington and a small hand-picked group of his composersand arrangers wrote for an orchestra of distinctive voiceswho displayed tremendous creativity.[108]

5.4.2 Bebop

Main article: BebopSee also: List of bebop musiciansIn the early 1940s, bebop-style performers began to shiftjazz from danceable popular music towards a more chal-lenging musicians music. The most inuential bebopmusicians included saxophonist Charlie Parker, pianistsBud Powell and Thelonious Monk, trumpeters DizzyGillespie and Cliord Brown, and drummer Max Roach.Divorcing itself from dance music, bebop established it-self more as an art form, thus lessening its potential pop-ular and commercial appeal.Composer Gunther Schuller wrote:

... In 1943 I heard the great Earl Hinesband which had Bird in it and all those othergreat musicians. They were playing all the at-ted fth chords and all the modern harmoniesand substitutions and Dizzy Gillespie runs inthe trumpet section work. Two years laterI read that that was 'bop' and the beginningof modern jazz ... but the band never maderecordings.[109]

Thelonious Monk at Mintons Playhouse, 1947, New York City.

Earl Hines 1947

Dizzy Gillespie wrote:

... People talk about the Hines band be-ing 'the incubator of bop' and the leading expo-nents of that music ended up in the Hines band.But people also have the erroneous impressionthat the music was new. It was not. The mu-sic evolved from what went before. It was thesame basic music. The dierence was in howyou got from here to here to here ... naturallyeach age has got its own shit.[110]

12 5 HISTORY

Rhythm Since bebop was meant to be listened to, notdanced to, it could use faster tempos. Drumming shiftedto a more elusive and explosive style, in which the ridecymbal was used to keep time while the snare and bassdrum were used for accents. This led to a highly synco-pated linear rhythmic complexity.[111]

Charlie Parker, Tommy Potter, Miles Davis, Max Roach (Gottlieb06941)

Harmony Bebop musicians employed several har-monic devices which were not previously typical in jazz,engaging in a more abstracted form of chord-based im-provisation. Bebop scales are traditional scales with anadded chromatic passing note;[112] bebop also uses pass-ing chords, substitute chords, and altered chords. Newforms of chromaticism and dissonance were introducedinto jazz, and the dissonant tritone (or atted fth) in-terval became the most important interval of bebop[113]Chord progressions for bebop tunes were often taken di-rectly from popular swing-era songs and reused with anew and more complex melody to form new composi-tions, a practice which was already well-established inearlier jazz, but came to be central to the bebop style.Bebop made use of several relatively common chord pro-gressions, such as blues (at base, I-IV-V, but infusedwith II-V motion) and 'rhythm changes (I-VI-II-V) - thechords to the 1930s pop standard "I Got Rhythm. Latebop also moved towards extended forms that representeda departure from pop and show tunes.The harmonic development in bebop is often traced backto a transcendent moment experienced by Charlie Parker

while performing Cherokee at Clark Monroes UptownHouse, New York, in early 1942:

I'd been getting bored with the stereotypedchanges that were being used, ... and I keptthinking theres bound to be something else. Icould hear it sometimes. I couldn't play it....I was working over 'Cherokee,' and, as I did,I found that by using the higher intervals ofa chord as a melody line and backing themwith appropriately related changes, I could playthe thing I'd been hearing. It came aliveParker.[114]

Gerhard Kubik postulates that the harmonic developmentin bebop sprang from the blues and other African-relatedtonal sensibilities, rather than 20th-century Western artmusic as some have suggested:

Auditory inclinations were the Africanlegacy in [Parkers] life, reconrmed by the ex-perience of the blues tonal system, a soundworld at odds with the Western diatonicchord categories. Bebop musicians eliminatedWestern-style functional harmony in their mu-sic while retaining the strong central tonality ofthe blues as a basis for drawing upon variousAfrican matrices.[115]

Samuel Floyd states that blues were both the bedrock andpropelling force of bebop, bringing about three main de-velopments:

A new harmonic conception, using extended chordstructures that led to unprecedented harmonic andmelodic variety.

A developed and even more highly syncopated, lin-ear rhythmic complexity and a melodic angularityin which the blue note of the fth degree was estab-lished as an important melodic-harmonic device.

The reestablishment of the blues as the musics pri-mary organizing and functional principle.[111]

As Kubik explained:

While for an outside observer, the har-monic innovations in bebop would appear tobe inspired by experiences in Western seri-ous music, from Claude Debussy to ArnoldSchoenberg, such a scheme cannot be sustainedby the evidence from a cognitive approach.Claude Debussy did have some inuence onjazz, for example, on Bix Beiderbecke's pi-ano playing. And it is also true that DukeEllington adopted and reinterpreted some har-monic devices in European contemporary mu-sic. West Coast jazz would run into such debts

5.4 1940s and 1950s 13

as would several forms of cool jazz, but bebophas hardly any such debts in the sense of directborrowings. On the contrary, ideologically, be-bop was a strong statement of rejection of anykind of eclecticism, propelled by a desire to ac-tivate something deeply buried in self. Bebopthen revived tonal-harmonic ideas transmittedthrough the blues and reconstructed and ex-panded others in a basically non-Western har-monic approach. The ultimate signicance ofall this is that the experiments in jazz during the1940s brought back to African-American mu-sic several structural principles and techniquesrooted in African traditions[116]

These divergences from the jazz mainstream of the timeinitially met with a divided, sometimes hostile, responseamong fans and fellow musicians, especially establishedswing players, who bristled at the new harmonic sounds.To hostile critics, bebop seemed to be lled with racing,nervous phrases.[117] But despite the initial friction, bythe 1950s bebop had become an accepted part of the jazzvocabulary.

5.4.3 Afro-Cuban jazz (cu-bop)

Main article: Afro-Cuban jazz

Machito (maracas) and his sister Graciella Grillo (claves)

Machito and Mario Bauza The general consensusamong musicians and musicologists is that the rst origi-nal jazz piece to be overtly based in clave was Tanga(1943), composed by Cuban-born Mario Bauza andrecorded by Machito and his Afro-Cubans in New York

City. Tanga began as a spontaneous descarga (Cubanjam session), with jazz solos superimposed on top.[118]

This was the birth of Afro-Cuban jazz. The use of clavebrought the African timeline, or key pattern, into jazz.Music organized around key patterns convey a two-celled(binary) structure, which is a complex level of Africancross-rhythm.[119] Within the context of jazz however,harmony is the primary referent, not rhythm. The har-monic progression can begin on either side of clave, andthe harmonic one is always understood to be one. Ifthe progression begins on the three-side of clave, it issaid to be in 3-2 clave. If the progression begins on thetwo-side, its in 2-3 clave.[120]

Clave: Spanish for 'code,' or key,' as in the key to a puzzle. Theantecedent half (three-side) consists of tresillo. The consequenthalf consists of two strokes (the two-side). Play

Bobby Sanabria mentions several innovations of Ma-chitos Afro-Cubans, citing them as the rst band: towed big band jazz arranging techniques within an originalcomposition, with jazz oriented soloists utilizing an au-thentic Afro-Cuban based rhythm section in a successfulmanner; to explore modal harmony (a concept exploredmuch later by Miles Davis and Gil Evans) from a jazz ar-ranging perspective; and to overtly explore the conceptof clave conterpoint from an arranging standpoint (theability to weave seamlessly from one side of the clave tothe other without breaking its rhythmic integrity withinthe structure of a musical arrangement). They were alsothe rst band in the United States to publicly utilize theterm Afro-Cuban as the bands moniker, thus identify-ing itself and acknowledging the West African roots ofthe musical form they were playing. It forced New YorkCitys Latino and African-American communities to dealwith their commonWest African musical roots in a directway, whether they wanted to acknowledge it publicly ornot.[121]

Dizzy Gillespie and Chano Pozo It was Mario Bauzwho introduced bebop innovator Dizzy Gillespie to theCuban conga drummer and composer Chano Pozo. Gille-spie and Pozos brief collaboration produced some of themost enduring Afro-Cuban jazz standards. "Manteca"(1947) is the rst jazz standard to be rhythmically basedon clave. According to Gillespie, Pozo composed the lay-ered, contrapuntal guajeos (Afro-Cuban ostinatos) of theA section and the introduction, while Gillespie wrote thebridge. Gillespie recounted: If I'd let it go like [Chano]wanted it, it would have been strickly Afro-Cuban all theway. There wouldn't have been a bridge. I thought I waswriting an eight-bar bridge, but ... I had to keep going andended up writing a sixteen-bar bridge.[122] The bridgegave Manteca a typical jazz harmonic structure, set-

14 5 HISTORY

Dizzy Gillespie, 1955

ting the piece apart from Bauzas modal Tanga of a fewyears earlier.Gillespies collaboration with Pozo brought specicAfrican-based rhythms into bebop. While pushing theboundaries of harmonic improvisation, cu-bop, as it wascalled, also drew more directly from African rhythmicstructures. Jazz arrangements with a Latin A sectionand a swung B section, with all choruses swung duringsolos, became common practice with many Latin tunesof the jazz standard repertoire. This approach can beheard on pre-1980 recordings of Manteca, "A Night inTunisia", Tin Tin Deo, and "On Green Dolphin Street".

African cross-rhythm Cuban percussionist MongoSantamaria rst recorded his composition "Afro Blue"in 1959.[123] Afro Blue was the rst jazz standardbuilt upon a typical African three-against-two (3:2) cross-rhythm, or hemiola.[124] The song begins with the bass re-peatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of 12/8,or 6 cross-beats per 4 main beats6:4 (two cells of 3:2).The following example shows the original ostinato AfroBlue bass line; the slashed noteheads indicate the mainbeats (not bass notes), where you would normally tap yourfoot to keep time.When John Coltrane covered Afro Blue in 1963, heinverted the metric hierarchy, interpreting the tune as a3/4 jazz waltz with duple cross-beats superimposed (2:3).Originally a Bb pentatonic blues, Coltrane expanded theharmonic structure of Afro Blue.

Mongo Santamaria (1969)

Afro Blue bass line, with main beats indicated by slashed note-heads.

Perhaps themost respectedAfro-cuban jazz combo of thelate 1950s was vibraphonist Cal Tjader's band. Tjaderhad Mongo Santamaria, Armando Peraza, and WillieBobo on his early recording dates.

5.4.4 Dixieland revival

Main articles: 1940s in jazz and 1950s in jazz

In the late 1940s there was a revival of "Dixieland" music,harking back to the original contrapuntal New Orleansstyle. This was driven in large part by record companyreissues of early jazz classics by the Oliver, Morton, andArmstrong bands of the 1930s. There were two typesof musicians involved in the revival: the rst group wasmade up of those who had begun their careers playing inthe traditional style and were returning to it (or contin-uing what they had been playing all along), such as BobCrosby's Bobcats, Max Kaminsky, Eddie Condon, andWild Bill Davison.[125] Most of these players were origi-nally Midwesterners, although there were a small numberof New Orleans musicians involved. The second group ofrevivalists consisted of younger musicians, such as thosein the Lu Watters band, Conrad Janis, and Ward Kimballand his Firehouse Five Plus Two Jazz Band. By the late1940s, Louis Armstrongs Allstars band became a lead-

5.4 1940s and 1950s 15

ing ensemble. Through the 1950s and 1960s, Dixielandwas one of the most commercially popular jazz styles inthe US, Europe, and Japan, although critics paid little at-tention to it.[125]

5.4.5 Cool jazz

Main article: Cool jazz

By the end of the 1940s, the nervous energy and tensionof bebop was replaced with a tendency towards calm andsmoothness with the sounds of cool jazz, which favouredlong, linear melodic lines. It emerged in New York City,and dominated jazz in the rst half of the 1950s. Thestarting point was a collection of 1949 and 1950 singlesby a nonet led by Miles Davis, released as the Birth ofthe Cool. Later cool jazz recordings by musicians such asChet Baker, Dave Brubeck, Bill Evans, Gil Evans, StanGetz and the Modern Jazz Quartet usually had a lightersound that avoided the aggressive tempos and harmonicabstraction of bebop.Cool jazz later became strongly identied with the WestCoast jazz scene, but also had a particular resonance inEurope, especially Scandinavia, where gures such asbaritone saxophonist Lars Gullin and pianist Bengt Hall-berg emerged. The theoretical underpinnings of cooljazz were set out by the Chicago pianist Lennie Tristano,and its inuence stretches into such later developments asbossa nova, modal jazz, and even free jazz.

5.4.6 Hard bop

Main article: Hard bop

Hard bop is an extension of bebop (or bop) music whichincorporates inuences from rhythm and blues, gospelmusic and blues, especially in the saxophone and pianoplaying. Hard bop was developed in the mid-1950s, coa-lescing in 1953 and 1954; it developed partly in responseto the vogue for cool jazz in the early 1950s, and par-alleled the rise of rhythm and blues. Miles Davis 1954performance of Walkin'" at the rst Newport Jazz Festi-val announced the style to the jazz world. The quintet ArtBlakey and the Jazz Messengers, fronted by Blakey andfeaturing pianist Horace Silver and trumpeter CliordBrown, were leaders in the hard bopmovement alongwithDavis.

5.4.7 Modal jazz

Main article: Modal jazz

Modal jazz is a development which began in the later1950s which takes the mode, or musical scale, as the ba-sis of musical structure and improvisation. Previously, a

solo was meant to t into a given chord progression, butwith modal jazz the soloist creates a melody using one, ora small number of modes. The emphasis is thus shiftedfrom harmony to melody:[126] Historically, this caused aseismic shift among jazz musicians, away from thinkingvertically (the chord), and towards a more horizontal ap-proach (the scale),[127] explained pianist Mark Levine.The modal theory stems from a work by George Rus-sell. Miles Davis introduced the concept to the greaterjazz world with Kind of Blue (1959), an exploration ofthe possibilities of modal jazz which would become thebest selling jazz album of all time. In contrast to Davisearlier work with hard bop and its complex chord pro-gression and improvisation,[128] the entire Kind of Bluealbum was composed as a series of modal sketches, inwhich each performer was given a set of scales that de-ned the parameters of their improvisation and style.[129]I didn't write out the music for Kind of Blue, but broughtin sketches for what everybody was supposed to play be-cause I wanted a lot of spontaneity,[130] recalled Davis.The track So What has only two chords: D-7 andE7.[131]

Chord changes for So What by Miles Davis (1959).

Other innovators in this style include Jackie McLean,[132]and two of the musicians who had also played on Kind ofBlue: John Coltrane and Bill Evans.By the 1950s, Afro-Cuban jazz had been using modesfor at least a decade, as much of it borrowed from Cubanpopular dance forms which are structured around mul-tiple ostinatos with only a few chords. A case in pointis Mario Bauza's Tanga (1943), the rst Afro-Cubanjazz piece. Machitos Afro-Cubans recorded modal tunesin the 1940s, featuring jazz soloists such as HowardMcGhee, Brew Moore, Charlie Parker and Flip Phillips.However, there is no evidence that Davis or other main-stream jazz musicians were inuenced by the use ofmodes in Afro-Cuban jazz, or other branches of Latinjazz.

5.4.8 Free jazz

Main article: Free jazz

Free jazz, and the related form of avant-garde jazz, brokethrough into an open space of free tonality in whichmeter, beat, and formal symmetry all disappeared, and arange ofWorld music from India, Africa and Arabia weremelded into an intense, even religiously ecstatic or orgias-tic style of playing.[133] While loosely inspired by bebop,free jazz tunes gave players much more latitude; the looseharmony and tempo was deemed controversial when this

16 5 HISTORY

approach was rst developed. The bassist Charles Min-gus is also frequently associated with the avant-garde injazz, although his compositions draw from myriad stylesand genres.

A shot from a 2006 performance by Peter Brtzmann, a key g-ure in European free jazz

The rst major stirrings came in the 1950s, with the earlywork of Ornette Coleman and Cecil Taylor. In the 1960s,exponents included Archie Shepp, Sun Ra, Albert Ayler,Pharaoh Sanders and John Coltrane. In developing hislate style, Coltrane was especially inuenced by the disso-nance ofAylers trio with bassist Gary Peacock and drum-mer Sunny Murray, a rhythm section honed with CecilTaylor as leader. Coltrane championed many youngerfree jazz musicians, notably Archie Shepp), and under hisinuence Impulse! Records became a leading free jazzrecord label.A series of recordings with the Classic Quartet in the rsthalf of 1965 show Coltranes playing becoming increas-ingly abstract, with greater incorporation of devices likemultiphonics, utilization of overtones, and playing in thealtissimo register, as well as amutated return to Coltranessheets of sound. In the studio, he all but abandoned hissoprano to concentrate on the tenor saxophone. In addi-tion, the quartet responded to the leader by playing withincreasing freedom. The groups evolution can be tracedthrough the recordings The John Coltrane Quartet Plays,Living Space and Transition (both June 1965), New Thingat Newport (July 1965), Sun Ship (August 1965) and First

Meditations (September 1965).In June 1965, Coltrane and ten other musicians recordedAscension, a 40-minute long piece that included adven-turous solos by young avant-garde musicians as well asColtrane, and was controversial primarily for the collec-tive improvisation sections that separated the solos. Af-ter recording with the quartet over the next few months,Coltrane invited Pharoah Sanders to join the band inSeptember 1965. While Coltrane used over-blowingfrequently as an emotional exclamation-point, Sanderswould opt to overblow his entire solo, resulting in a con-stant screaming and screeching in the altissimo range ofthe instrument.Free jazz quickly found a foothold in Europe, in part be-cause musicians such as Ayler, Taylor, Steve Lacy andEric Dolphy spent extended periods there. A distinc-tive European contemporary jazz (often incorporating el-ements of free jazz but not limited to it) also ourishedbecause of the emergence of Europeanmusicians (such asJohn Surman, Zbigniew Namyslowski, Albert Mangels-dor, Kenny Wheeler and Mike Westbrook) who wereanxious to develop new approaches reecting their na-tional and regional musical cultures and contexts. Eversince the 1960s, various creative centers of jazz havedeveloped in Europe, such as the creative jazz scene inAmsterdam. Following the work of veteran drummerHan Bennink and pianist Misha Mengelberg, musiciansstarted to explore free music by collectively improvis-ing until a certain form (melody, rhythm, or even famoussong) is found by the band. Jazz critic Kevin Whitheaddocumented the free jazz scene in Amsterdam and someof its main exponents such as the ICP (Instant ComposersPool) orchestra in his book New Dutch Swing. Through-out the 1990s and 2000s, Keith Jarrett has been promi-nent in defending free jazz from criticism by traditional-ists .

5.5 1960s and 1970s

Main articles: 1960s in jazz and 1970s in jazz

5.5.1 Latin jazz

Main article: Latin jazz

Latin jazz is the term used to describe jazz which employsLatin American rhythms, and is generally understood tohave a more specic meaning than simply jazz from LatinAmerica. A more precise term might be Afro-Latin jazz,as the jazz subgenre typically employs rhythms that eitherhave a direct analog in Africa, or exhibit an African rhyth-mic inuence beyond what is ordinarily heard in otherjazz. The two main categories of Latin jazz are Afro-Cuban jazz and Brazilian jazz.

5.5 1960s and 1970s 17

In the 1960s and 1970s many jazz musicians had only abasic understanding of Cuban and Brazilian music, andjazz compositions which used Cuban or Brazilian ele-ments were often referred to as Latin tunes, with nodistinction between a Cuban son montuno and a Brazil-ian bossa nova. Even as late as 2000, in Mark GridleysJazz Styles: History and Analysis, a bossa nova bass line isreferred to as a Latin bass gure.[134] It was not uncom-mon during the 1960s and 1970s to hear a conga play-ing a Cuban tumbao while the drumset and bass played aBrazilian bossa nova pattern. Many jazz standards suchas Manteca, On Green Dolphin Street and Song forMy Father have a Latin A section and a swung Bsection. Typically, the band would only play an even-eighth Latin feel in the A section of the head, and swingthroughout all of the solos. Latin jazz specialists like CalTjader tended to be the exception. For example, on a1959 live Tjader recording of A Night in Tunisia, pi-anist Vince Guaraldi soloed through the entire form overan authentic mambo.[135]

Afro-Cuban jazz Main article: Afro-Cuban jazz

Afro-Cuban jazz often uses Afro-Cuban instrumentssuch as congas, timbales, giro and claves, combined withpiano, double bass, etc. Afro-Cuban jazz began with Ma-chitos Afro-Cubans in the early 1940s, but took o andentered themainstream in the late 1940s when bebopmu-sicians such as Dizzy Gillespie and Billy Taylor beganexperimenting with Cuban rhythms. Mongo Santamariaand Cal Tjader further rened the genre in the late 1950s.Although a great deal of Cuban-based Latin jazz ismodal,Latin jazz is not always modal: it can be as harmonicallyexpansive as post-bop jazz. For example, Tito Puenterecorded an arrangement of Giant Steps done to anAfro-Cuban guaguanc. A Latin jazz piece may momen-tarily contract harmonically, as in the case of a percussionsolo over a one or two-chord piano guajeo.

Guajeos Guajeo is the name for the typical Afro-Cuban ostinato melodies which are commonly used mo-tifs in Latin jazz compositions. They originated in thegenre known as son. Guajeos provide a rhythmic andmelodic framework that may be varied within certain pa-rameters, whilst still maintaining a repetitive - and thusdanceable - structure. Most guajeos are rhythmicallybased on clave (rhythm).Guajeos are one of the most important elements of thevocabulary of Afro-Cuban descarga (jazz-inspired instru-mental jams), providing ameans of tension and resolutionand a sense of forward momentum, within a relativelysimple harmonic structure. The use of multiple, contra-puntal guajeos in Latin jazz facilitates simultaneous col-lective improvisation based on theme variation. In a way,this polyphonic texture is reminiscent of the original NewOrleans style of jazz.

Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance For most of its history,Afro-Cuban jazz had been a matter of superimposingjazz phrasing over Cuban rhythms. But by the end ofthe 1970s a new generation of New York City musicianshad emerged who were uent in both salsa dance musicand jazz, leading to a new level of integration of jazz andCuban rhythms. This era of creativity and vitality is bestrepresented by the Gonzalez brothers Jerry (congas andtrumpet) and Andy (bass).[136] During 1974-1976 theywere members of one of Eddie Palmieri's most experi-mental salsa groups: salsa was the medium, but Palmieriwas stretching the form in new ways. He incorporatedparallel fourths, with McCoy Tyner-type vamps. The in-novations of Palmieri, the Gonzalez brothers and othersled to an Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance in New York City.This occurred in parallel with developments in Cuba[137]The rst Cuban band of this new wave was Irakere. TheirChkere-son (1976) introduced a style of Cubanizedbebop-avored horn lines that departed from the moreangular guajeo-based lines which were typical of Cubanpopular music and Latin jazz up until that time. It wasbased on Charlie Parkers composition Billies Bounce,jumbled together in a way that fused clave and bebop hornlines.[138] In spite of the ambivalence of some band mem-bers towards Irakeres Afro-Cuban folkloric / jazz fusion,their experiments forever changed Cuban jazz: their in-novations are still heard in the high level of harmonicand rhythmic complexity in Cuban jazz, and in the jazzyand complex contemporary form of popular dance musicknown as timba.

Afro-Brazilian jazz Brazilian jazz such as bossa novais derived from samba, with inuences from jazz andother 20th-century classical and popular music styles.Bossa is generally moderately paced, with melodies sungin Portuguese or English, whilst he related term jazz-samba describes an adaptation of street samba into jazz.The bossa nova style was pioneered by Brazilians JooGilberto and Antnio Carlos Jobim, and was made popu-lar by Elizete Cardoso's recording of "Chega de Saudade"on the Cano do Amor Demais LP. Gilbertos initial re-leases, and the 1959 lm Black Orpheus, achieved signif-icant popularity in Latin America; this spread to NorthAmerica via visiting American jazz musicians. The re-sulting recordings by Charlie Byrd and Stan Getz ce-mented bossa novas popularity and led to a worldwideboom, with 1963sGetz/Gilberto, numerous recordings byfamous jazz performers such as Ella Fitzgerald and FrankSinatra, and the eventual entrenchment of the bossa novastyle as a lasting inuence in world music.Brazilian percussionists such as Airto Moreira and NanVasconcelos also inuenced jazz internationally by intro-ducing Afro-Brazilian folkloric instruments and rhythmsinto a wide variety of jazz styles, thus attracting a greateraudience to them.[139][140][141]

18 5 HISTORY

Nan Vasconcelos playing the Afro-Brazilian Berimbau

5.5.2 Post-bop

Main article: Post-bop

Post-bop jazz is a form of small-combo jazz derived fromearlier bop styles. The genres origins lie in seminal workby John Coltrane, Miles Davis, Bill Evans, Charles Min-gus, Wayne Shorter and Herbie Hancock. Generally, theterm post-bop is taken to mean jazz from the mid-sixtiesonwards that assimilates inuences from hard bop, modaljazz, the avant-garde and free jazz, without necessarilybeing immediately identiable as any of the above.Much post-bop was recorded for Blue Note Records. Keyalbums include Speak No Evil by Shorter; The Real Mc-Coy byMcCoy Tyner;Maiden Voyage by Hancock;MilesSmiles by Davis; and Search for the New Land by LeeMorgan (an artist who is not typically associated with thepost-bop genre). Most post-bop artists worked in othergenres as well, with a particularly strong overlap with thelater hard bop.

5.5.3 Soul jazz

Main article: Soul jazz

Soul jazz was a development of hard bop which incor-

porated strong inuences from blues, gospel and rhythmand blues to createmusic for small groups, often the organtrio of Hammond organ, drummer and tenor saxophonist.Unlike hard bop, soul jazz generally emphasized repeti-tive grooves and melodic hooks, and improvisations wereoften less complex than in other jazz styles. It often hada steadier funk style groove, which was dierent fromthe swing rhythms typical of much hard bop.Horace Silver had a large inuence on the soul jazz style,with songs that used funky and often gospel-based pianovamps. Important soul jazz organists included JimmyMcGri, Jimmy Smith and Johnny Hammond Smith,and inuential tenor saxophone players included EddieLockjaw Davis and Stanley Turrentine.

5.5.4 African-inspired

Randy Weston

Themes There was a resurgence of interest in jazz andother forms of African-American cultural expression dur-ing the Black Arts Movement and Black nationalist pe-riod of the 1960s and 1970s. African themes becamepopular, and many new jazz compositions were givenAfrican-related titles: Black Nile (Wayne Shorter),Blue Nile (Alice Coltrane), Obirin African (ArtBlakey), Zambia (Lee Morgan), Appointment inGhana (Jackie McLean), Marabi (Cannonball Adder-ley), Yoruba (Hubert Laws), and many more. PianistRandy Weston's music incorporated African elements,such as in the large-scale suite Uhuru Africa (with the

5.5 1960s and 1970s 19

participation of poet Langston Hughes) and Highlife:Music From the New African Nations. Both Westonand saxophonist Stanley Turrentine covered the NigerianBobby Benson's piece Niger Mambo, which featuresAfro-Caribbean and jazz elements within a West AfricanHighlife style. Some musicians, including PharaohSanders, Hubert Laws and Wayne Shorter, began us-ing African instruments such as kalimbas, bells, beadedgourds and other instruments which were not traditionalto jazz.

Rhythm During this period there was an increased useof the typical African 12/8 cross-rhythmic structure injazz. Herbie Hancocks Succotash on Inventions andDimensions (1963) is an open-ended modal 12/8 impro-vised jam, in which Hancocks pattern of attack-points,rather than the pattern of pitches, is the primary focusof his improvisations, accompanied by Paul Chamberson bass, percussionist Osvaldo Martinez playing a tradi-tional Afro-Cuban cheker part and Willie Bobo playingan Abaku bell pattern on a snare drum with brushes.

Abaku bell pattern played on a snare with brushes by WillieBobo on Herbie Hancocks Succotash (1963).

The rst jazz standard composed by a non-Latino to usean overt African 12/8 cross-rhythm was Wayne Shorters"Footprints" (1967).[142] On the version recorded onMiles Smiles by Miles Davis, the bass switches to a 4/4tresillo gure at 2:20. Footprints is not, however, aLatin jazz tune: African rhythmic structures are accesseddirectly by Ron Carter (bass) and TonyWilliams (drums)via the rhythmic sensibilities of swing. Throughout thepiece, the four beats, whether sounded or not, are main-tained as the temporal referent. In the example below,the main beats are indicated by slashed noteheads, whichdo not indicate bass notes.

Ron Carters two main bass lines for Footprints by WaynerShorter (1967). The main beats are indicated by slashed note-heads.

Pentatonic scales The use of pentatonic scales was an-other trend associated with Africa. The use of penta-

tonic scales in Africa probably goes back thousands ofyears.[143]

McCoy Tyner perfected the use of the pentatonic scalein his solos,[144] and also used parallel fths and fourths,which are common harmonies in West Africa.[145]

Theminor pentatonic scale is often used in blues improvi-sation, and like a blues scale, a minor pentatonic scale canbe played over all of the chords in a blues. The followingpentatonic lick was played over blues changes by JoeHen-derson on Horace Silver's African Queen (1965).[146]

C minor pentatonic phrase played by Joe Henderson on AfricanQueen by Horace Silver (1965).

Jazz pianist, theorist, and educator Mark Levine refersto the scale generated by beginning on the fth step of apentatonic scale as the V pentatonic scale.[147]

C pentatonic scale beginning on the I (C pentatonic), IV (F pen-tatonic), and V (G pentatonic) steps of the scale.

Levine points out that the V pentatonic scale works for allthree chords of the standard II-V-I jazz progression.[148]This is a very common progression, used in pieces suchas Miles Davis Tune Up. The following example showsthe V pentatonic scale over a II-V-I progression.[149]

V pentatonic scale over II-V-I chord progression.

Accordingly, John Coltranes "Giant Steps" (1960), withits 26 chords per 16 bars, can be played using only threepentatonic scales. Coltrane studied Nicolas Slonimsky'sThesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns, which containsmaterial that is virtually identical to portions of GiantSteps.[150] The harmonic complexity of Giant Steps ison the level of the most advanced 20th-century art music.Superimposing the pentatonic scale over Giant Steps isnot merely a matter of harmonic simplication, but alsoa sort of Africanizing of the piece, which provides analternate approach for soloing. Mark Levine observesthat when mixed in with more conventional playing thechanges, pentatonic scales provide structure and a feel-ing of increased space.[151]

20 5 HISTORY

5.5.5 Jazz fusion

Main article: Jazz fusionIn the late 1960s and early 1970s, the hybrid form of

Fusion trumpeter Miles Davis in 1989

jazz-rock fusion was developed by combining jazz im-provisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments andthe highly amplied stage sound of rock musicians suchas Jimi Hendrix and Frank Zappa. Jazz fusion often usesmixed meters, odd time signatures, syncopation, complexchords and harmonies.According to AllMusic:

...until around 1967, the worlds of jazz androck were nearly completely separate. [How-ever, ...] as rock became more creative and itsmusicianship improved, and as some in the jazzworld became bored with hard bop and did notwant to play strictly avant-garde music, the twodierent idioms began to trade ideas and occa-sionally combine forces.[152]

Miles Davis new directions In 1969 Davis fully em-braced the electric instrument approach to jazz with Ina Silent Way, which can be considered his rst fusion al-bum. Composed of two side-long suites edited heavilyby producer Teo Macero, this quiet, static album wouldbe equally inuential upon the development of ambientmusic.As Davis recalls:

The music I was really listening to in 1968was James Brown, the great guitar player JimiHendrix, and a new group who had just comeout with a hit record, "Dance to the Music",Sly and the Family Stone... I wanted to make itmore like rock. When we recorded In a SilentWay I just threw out all the chord sheets andtold everyone to play o of that.[153]

Two contributors to In a Silent Way also joined organistLarry Young to create one of the early acclaimed fusionalbums: Emergency! by The Tony Williams Lifetime.

Psychedelic-jazz

Bitches Brew Davis Bitches Brew (1970) albumwas hismost successful of this era. Although inspired by rock andfunk, Davis fusion creations were original, and broughtabout a new type of avant-garde, electronic, psychedelic-jazz, as far from pop music as any other Davis work.

Herbie Hancock Pianist Herbie Hancock (a Davisalumnus) released four albums in the short-lived (19701973) psychedelic-jazz subgenre: Mwandishi (1972),Crossings (1973) and Sextant (1973). The rhythmic back-ground was a mix of rock, funk, and African-type tex-tures.Musicians who had previously worked with Davis formedthe four most inuential fusion groups: Weather Reportand Mahavishnu Orchestra emerged in 1971, and weresoon followed byReturn to Forever and TheHeadhunters.

Weather Report Weather Report's self-titled elec-tronic and psychedelic Weather Report debut albumcaused a sensation in the jazz world on its arrival in 1971,thanks to the pedigree of the groups members (includ-ing percussionist Airto Moreira), and their unorthodoxapproach to music. The album featured a softer soundthan would be the case in later years (predominantly us-ing acoustic bass with Shorter exclusively playing sopranosaxophone, and with no synthesizers involved), but is stillconsidered a classic of early fusion. It built on the avant-garde experiments which Joe Zawinul and Shorter hadpioneered with Miles Davis on Bitches Brew, includingan avoidance of head-and-chorus composition in favourof continuous rhythm and movement but took the mu-sic further. To emphasise the groups rejection of stan-dard methodology, the album opened with the inscrutableavant-garde atmospheric piece Milky Way, which fea-tured by Shorters extremely muted saxophone inducingvibrations in Zawinuls piano strings while the latter ped-alled the instrument. Down Beat described the album asmusic beyond category, and awarded it Album of theYear in the magazines polls that year.Weather Report's subsequent releases were creative funk-jazz works.[154]

Jazz-rock Although some jazz purists protestedagainst the blend of jazz and rock, many jazz innovatorscrossed over from the contemporary hard bop sceneinto fusion. As well as the electric instruments of rock(such as electric guitar, electric bass, electric piano andsynthesizer keyboards), fusion also used the powerful

5.6 1980s 21

amplication, fuzz pedals, wah-wah pedals and othereects that were used by 1970s-era rock bands. Notableperformers of jazz fusion included Miles Davis, EddieHarris, keyboardists Joe Zawinul, Chick Corea andHerbie Hancock, vibraphonist Gary Burton, drummerTony Williams (drummer), violinist Jean-Luc Ponty,guitarists Larry Coryell, Al Di Meola, John McLaughlinand Frank Zappa, saxophonist Wayne Shorter andbassists Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke. Jazz fusionwas also popular in Japan, where the band Casiopeareleased over thirty fusion albums.In the 21st century, almost all jazz has inuences fromother nations and styles of music, making jazz fusion asmuch a common practice as style.

5.5.6 Jazz-funk

Main article: Jazz-funk

By the mid-1970s the sound known as jazz-funk had de-veloped, characterized by a strong back beat (groove),electried sounds[155] and, often, the presence of elec-tronic analog synthesizers. Jazz-funk also draws in-uences from traditional African music, Afro-Cubanrhythms and Jamaican reggae, notably Kingston ban-dleader Sonny Bradshaw. Another feature is the shift ofemphasis from improvisation to composition: arrange-ments, melody and overall writing became important.The integration of funk, soul and R&B music into jazzresulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is wideand ranges from strong jazz improvisation to soul, funkor disco with jazz arrangements, jazz ris and jazz solos,and sometimes soul vocals.[156]

Early examples are Herbie Hancocks Headhunters bandand Miles Davis On the Corner album, which in 1972began Davis foray into jazz-funk and was, he claimed,an attempt at reconnecting with the young black audi-ence which had largely forsaken jazz for rock and funk.While there is a discernible rock and funk inuence inthe timbres of the instruments employed, other tonal andrhythmic textures, such as the Indian tambora and tablasand Cuban congas and bongos, create a multi-layeredsoundscape. The album was a culmination of sorts of themusique concrte approach that Davis and producer TeoMacero had begun to explore in the late 1960s.

5.5.7 Other trends

Jazz continued to expand and change, inuenced by othertypes of music such as world music, avant garde classicalmusic and rock and pop. Jazz musicians began to impro-vise on unusual instruments, such as the jazz harp (AliceColtrane), the electrically amplied and wah-wah ped-aled jazz violin (Jean-Luc Ponty) and the bagpipes (RufusHarley). Guitarist John McLaughlin's Mahavishnu Or-chestra played a mix of rock and jazz infused with East

Indian inuences. The ECM record label began in Ger-many in the 1970s with artists including Keith Jarrett,Paul Bley, the Pat Metheny Group, Jan Garbarek, RalphTowner, Kenny Wheeler, John Taylor, John Surman andEberhard Weber, establishing a new chamber music aes-thetic which featured mainly acoustic instruments, occa-sionally incorporating elements of world music and folk.

5.6 1980sMain article: 1980s in jazz

In 1987, the United States House of Representatives andSenate passed a bill proposed by Democratic Represen-tative John Conyers, Jr. to dene jazz as a unique formof American music, stating:

... that jazz is hereby designated as arare and valuable national American treasure towhich we should devote our attention, supportand resources to make certain it is preserved,understood and promulgated.

It passed in the House of Representatives on September23, 1987 and in the Senate on November 4, 1987.[157]

5.6.1 Resurgence of traditionalism

Wynton Marsalis

The 1980s saw something of a reaction against the Fusionand Free Jazz that had dominated the 1970s. TrumpeterWynton Marsalis emerged early in the decade, and stroveto create music within what he believed was the tradition,rejecting both fusion and free jazz and creating extensionsof the small and large forms initially pioneered by suchartists as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington, as well asthe hard bop of the 1950s. Whether Marsalis critical andcommercial success was a cause or a symptom of the re-action against Fusion and Free Jazz and the resurgence ofinterest in the kind of jazz pioneered in the 1960s (partic-ularlyModal Jazz and Post-Bop) is debatable; nonetheless

22 5 HISTORY

there were many other manifestations of a resurgence oftraditionalism, even if Fusion and Free Jazz were by nomeans abandoned and continued to develop and evolve.For example, several musicians who had been prominentin the fusion genre during the 1970s began to recordacoustic jazz once more, including Chick Corea andHerbie Hancock. Othermusicians who had experimentedwith electronic instruments in the previous decade hadabandoned them by the 1980s, for example Bill Evans,Joe Henderson and Stan Getz. Even the 1980s music ofMiles Davis, although certainly still fusion, adopted a farmore accessible and recognisably jazz-oriented approachthan his abstract work of the mid-1970s, such as a returnto a theme-and-solos approach.A similar reaction took place against free jazz. Accordingto Ted Gioia:

the very leaders of the avant garde startedto signal a retreat from the core principles ofFree Jazz. Anthony Braxton began recordingstandards over familiar chord changes. CecilTaylor played duets in concert with Mary LouWilliams, and let her set out structured har-monies and familiar jazz vocabulary under hisblistering keyboard attack. And the next gen-eration of progressive players would be evenmore accommodating, moving inside and out-side the changes without thinking twice. Musi-cians such as David Murray or Don Pullen mayhave felt the call of free-form jazz, but theynever forgot all the other ways one could playAfrican-Americanmusic for fun and prot.[158]

Pianist Keith Jarrett whose bands of the 1970s hadplayed only original compositions with prominent freejazz elements established his so-called 'Standards Trio'in 1983, which, although also occasionally exploringcollective improvisation, has primarily performed andrecorded jazz standards. Chick Corea similarly beganexploring jazz standards in the 1980s, having neglectedthem for the 1970s.

5.6.2 Smooth jazz

Main article: smooth jazzIn the early 1980s a commercial form of jazz fusioncalled pop fusion or smooth jazz became successful,garnering signicant radio airplay in "quiet storm" timeslots at radio stations in urban markets across the U.S.This helped to establish or bolster the careers of vocalistsincluding Al Jarreau, Anita Baker, Chaka Khan and Sade,as well as saxophonists including Grover Washington, Jr.,Kenny G, Kirk Whalum, Boney James and David San-born. In general, smooth jazz is downtempo (the mostwidely played tracks are of 90105 beats per minute),and has a leadmelody-playing instrument (saxophone, es-

David Sanborn, 2008

pecially soprano and tenor, and legato electric guitar arepopular).In his Newsweek article The Problem With JazzCriticism,[159] Stanley Crouch considers Miles Davisplaying of fusion to be a turning point that led to smoothjazz. Critic Aaron J. West has countered the often nega-tive perceptions of smooth jazz, stating:

I challenge the prevalent marginalizationand malignment of smooth jazz in the stan-dard jazz narrative. Furthermore, I questionthe assumption that smooth jazz is an unfor-tunate and unwelcomed evolutionary outcomeof the jazz-fusion era. Instead, I argue thatsmooth jazz is a long-lived musical style thatmerits multi-disciplinary analyses of its ori-gins, critical dialogues, performance practice,and reception.[160]

5.6.3 Acid jazz, nu jazz and jazz rap

Acid jazz developed in the UK in the 1980s and 1990s,inuenced by jazz-funk and electronic dance music. Acidjazz often contains various types of electronic composi-tion (sometimes including Sampling (music) or a live DJcutting and scratching), but it is just as likely to be playedlive by musicians, who often showcase jazz interpretationas part of their performance. Jazz-funk musicians such

5.6 1980s 23

as Roy Ayers and Donald Byrd are often credited as theforerunners of acid jazz.[161]

Nu jazz is inuenced by jazz harmony and melodies,and there are usually no improvisational aspects. It canbe very experimental in nature and can vary widely insound and concept. It ranges from the combination oflive instrumentation with the beats of jazz house (as ex-emplied by St Germain, Jazzanova and Fila Brazillia)to more band-based improvised jazz with electronic ele-ments (for example The Cinematic Orchestra, Kobol andthe Norwegian future jazz style pioneered by BuggeWesseltoft, Jaga Jazzist and Nils Petter Molvr).Jazz rap developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, andincorporates jazz inuences into hip hop. In 1988, GangStarr released the debut single Words I Manifest, whichsampled Dizzy Gillespie's 1962 Night in Tunisia, andStetsasonic released Talkin' All That Jazz, which sam-pled Lonnie Liston Smith. Gang Starrs debut LP NoMore Mr. Nice Guy (1989) and their 1990 track JazzThing sampled Charlie Parker and Ramsey Lewis. Thegroups which made up the Native Tongues Posse tendedtowards jazzy releases: these include the Jungle Broth-ers' debut Straight Out the Jungle (1988), and A TribeCalled Quest's Peoples Instinctive Travels and the Pathsof Rhythm (1990) and The Low End Theory (1991). Rapduo Pete Rock & CL Smooth incorporated jazz inu-ences on their 1992 debut Mecca and the Soul Brother.Rapper Guru's Jazzmatazz series began in 1993, usingjazz musicians during the studio recordings.Though jazz rap had achieved little mainstream suc-cess, Miles Davis nal album Doo-Bop (released posthu-mously in 1992) was based around hip hop beats andcollaborations with producer Easy Mo Bee. Davis ex-bandmate Herbie Hancock also absorbed hip-hop inu-ences in the mid-1990s, releasing the album Dis Is DaDrum in 1994.

5.6.4 Punk jazz and jazzcore

The relaxation of orthodoxy which was concurrent withpost-punk in London and New York City led to a newappreciation of jazz. In London, the Pop Group beganto mix free jazz and dub reggae into their brand of punkrock.[162] In New York, No Wave took direct inspirationfrom both free jazz and punk. Examples of this style in-clude Lydia Lunch's Queen of Siam,[163] Gray, the workof James Chance and the Contortions (who mixed Soulwith free jazz and punk)[163] and the Lounge Lizards[163](the rst group to call themselves "punk jazz).John Zorn took note of the emphasis on speed and dis-sonance that was becoming prevalent in punk rock, andincorporated this into free jazz with the release of the Spyvs. Spy album in 1986, a collection of Ornette Colemantunes done in the contemporary thrashcore style.[164] Inthe same year, Sonny Sharrock, Peter Brtzmann, BillLaswell and Ronald Shannon Jackson recorded the rst

John Zorn performing in 2006

album under the name Last Exit (free jazz band), a sim-ilarly aggressive blend of thrash and free jazz.[165] Thesedevelopments are the origins of jazzcore, the fusion offree jazz with hardcore punk.

5.6.5 M-Base

Main article: M-BaseThe M-Base movement started in the 1980s, when aloose collective of young African-American musicians inNew York which included Steve Coleman, Greg Osbyand Gary Thomas developed a complex but grooving[166]sound.In the 1990s most M-Base participants turned to moreconventional music, but Coleman, the most active par-ticipant, continued developing his music in accordancewith the M-Base concept.[167] Colemans audience de-creased, but his music and concepts inuenced manymusicians,[168] both in terms of music technique[169] andof the musics meaning.[170] Hence, M-Base changedfrom a movement of a loose collective of young mu-sicians to a kind of informal Coleman school,[171]

24 7 NOTES

Steve Coleman in Paris, July 2004

with a much advanced but already originally impliedconcept.[172] Steve Coleman's music and M-Base conceptgained recognition as next logical step after CharlieParker, John Coltran and Ornette Coleman.[173]

5.7 1990s2010s

Since the 1990s jazz has been characterised by a plural-ism in which no one style dominates, but rather a widerange of active styles and genres are popular. Individualperformers often play in a variety of styles, sometimes inthe same performance. Pianist Brad Mehldau and powertrio The Bad Plus have explored contemporary rock mu-sic within the context of the traditional jazz acoustic pi-ano trio, recording instrumental jazz versions of songs byrock musicians. The Bad Plus have also incorporated el-ements of free jazz into their music. A rm avant-gardeor free jazz stance has been maintained by some players,such as saxophonists Greg Osby and Charles Gayle, whileothers, such as James Carter, have incorporated free jazzelements into a more traditional framework.On the other side, even a singer like Harry Connick, Jr.(who has ten number-1 US so-called jazz albums)[174] issometimes called a jazz musician, although there are onlya few elements from jazz history in his mainly pop ori-ented music. Other recent vocalists have achieved popu-larity with a mix of traditional jazz and pop/rock forms,such as Diana Krall, Norah Jones, Cassandra Wilson,Kurt Elling and Jamie Cullum.A number o