Japanese people

The Japanese people (⽇本⼈ Nihonjin,Nipponjin) are an ethnic group native toJapan.*[20]*[21]*[22]*[23]*[24] Japanese make up98.5% of the total population of their country.*[25]Worldwide, approximately 130 million people are ofJapanese descent; of these, approximately 127 millionare residents of Japan. People of Japanese ancestry wholive in other countries are referred to as nikkeijin (⽇系⼈). The term ethnic Japanese may also be used in somecontexts to refer to a locus of ethnic groups including theYamato, Ainu, and Ryukyuan people.

1 Language

Main article: Japanese language

The Japanese language is a Japonic language that istreated as a language isolate; it is also related to theRyukyuan languages, and both are sometimes suggestedto be part of the proposed Altaic language family. TheJapanese language has a tripartite writing system usingHiragana, Katakana, and Kanji. Domestic Japanese peo-ple use primarily Japanese for daily interaction. The adultliteracy rate in Japan exceeds 99%.*[26]

2 Religion

Main article: Religion in Japan

Japanese religion has traditionally been syncretic innature, combining elements of Buddhism and Shinto.Shinto, a polytheistic religion with no book of religiouscanon, is Japan's native religion. Shinto was one ofthe traditional grounds for the right to the throne ofthe Japanese imperial family, and was codified as thestate religion in 1868 (State Shinto was abolished by theAmerican occupation in 1945). Mahayana Buddhismcame to Japan in the sixth century and evolved into manydifferent sects. Today the largest form of Buddhismamong Japanese people is the Jōdo Shinshū sect foundedby Shinran.Most Japanese people (84% to 96%)*[27]*[28]*[29] pro-fess to believe in both Shinto and Buddhism. TheJapanese people's religion functions mostly as a founda-tion for mythology, traditions, and neighborhood activi-ties, rather than as the single source of moral guidelines

for one's life.

3 Literature

Main article: Japanese literatureCertain genres of writing originated in and are often as-

Bisque doll of Momotarō,a character from Japanese literature and folklore.

sociated with Japanese society. These include the haiku,tanka, and I Novel, although modern writers generallyavoid these writing styles. Historically, many works havesought to capture or codify traditional Japanese culturalvalues and aesthetics. Some of the most famous of theseinclude Murasaki Shikibu's The Tale of Genji (1021),about Heian court culture; Miyamoto Musashi's TheBook of Five Rings (1645), concerning military strategy;Matsuo Bashō's Oku no Hosomichi (1691), a travelogue;and Jun'ichirō Tanizaki's essay "In Praise of Shadows"(1933), which contrasts Eastern and Western cultures.Following the opening of Japan to the West in 1854,some works of this style were written in English by na-tives of Japan; they include Bushido: The Soul of Japanby Nitobe Inazo (1900), concerning samurai ethics, and

1

2 5 THEORIES OF ORIGINS

The Book of Tea by Okakura Kakuzo (1906), which dealswith the philosophical implications of the Japanese teaceremony. Western observers have often attempted toevaluate Japanese society as well, to varying degrees ofsuccess; one of the most well-known and controversialworks resulting from this is Ruth Benedict's The Chrysan-themum and the Sword (1946).Twentieth-century Japanese writers recorded changes inJapanese society through their works. Some of the mostnotable authors included Natsume Sōseki, Jun'ichirōTanizaki, Osamu Dazai, Yasunari Kawabata, FumikoEnchi, Yukio Mishima, and Ryōtarō Shiba. In contem-porary Japan, popular authors such as Ryū Murakami,Haruki Murakami, and Banana Yoshimoto are highly re-garded.

4 Arts

Main articles: Japanese art and Japanese architectureDecorative arts in Japan date back to prehistoric times.

The print Red Fuji from Hokusai's series, Thirty-six Views ofMount Fuji.

Jōmon pottery includes examples with elaborate orna-mentation. In the Yayoi period, artisans produced mir-rors, spears, and ceremonial bells known as dōtaku. Laterburial mounds, or kofun, preserve characteristic clayhaniwa, as well as wall paintings.Beginning in the Nara period, painting, calligraphy, andsculpture flourished under strong Confucian and Buddhistinfluences from China. Among the architectural achieve-ments of this period are the Hōryū-ji and the Yakushi-ji, two Buddhist temples in Nara Prefecture. After thecessation of official relations with the Tang Dynasty inthe ninth century, Japanese art and architecture gradu-ally became less influenced by China. Extravagant artand clothing was commissioned by nobles to decoratetheir court, and although the aristocracy was quite limitedin size and power, many of these pieces are still extant.After the Todai-ji was attacked and burned during theGempei War, a special office of restoration was founded,and the Todai-ji became an important artistic center. Theleading masters of the time were Unkei and Kaikei.

Painting advanced in the Muromachi period in the formof ink and painting under the influence of Zen Buddhismas practiced by such masters as Sesshū Tōyō. Zen Bud-dhist tenets were also elaborated into the tea ceremonyduring the Sengoku period. During the Edo period, thepolychrome painting screens of the Kano school weremade influential thanks to their powerful patrons (in-cluding the Tokugawas). Popular artists created ukiyo-e,woodblock prints for sale to commoners in the flourish-ing cities. Pottery such as Imari ware was highly valuedas far away as Europe.In theater, Noh is a traditional, spare dramatic form thatdeveloped in tandem with kyōgen farce. In stark contrastto the restrained refinement of noh, kabuki, an“explo-sion of color,”uses every possible stage trick for dramaticeffect. Plays include sensational events such as suicides,and many such works were performed in both kabuki andbunraku puppet theaters.Since theMeiji Restoration, Japan has absorbed elementsof Western culture. Its modern decorative, practical, andperforming arts works span a spectrum ranging from thetraditions of Japan to purely Western modes. Products ofpopular culture, including J-pop, manga, and anime havefound audiences around the world.

5 Theories of origins

An Ainu man, circa 1930

Arai Hakuseki, who knew in the 18th century that therewere stone tools in Japan, suggested that there was

5.1 Origin of Jōmon and Yayoi 3

Shukushin in ancient Japan, and then Philipp Franz vonSiebold claimed that indigenous Japanese was Ainu peo-ple.*[30] Iha Fuyū suggested that Japanese and Ryukyuanpeople have the same ethnic origin, based on his 1906 re-search of the Ryukyuan languages.*[31] In the Taishō pe-riod, Torii Ryūzō claimed that Yamato people used Yayoipottery and Ainu used Jōmon pottery.*[30]

A photograph of a Japanese samurai taken by Felice Beato in1867

A common origin of Japanese has been proposed by anumber of scholars since Arai Hakuseki first broughtup the theory and Fujii Sadamoto, a pioneer of modernarcheology in Japan, also treated the issue in 1781.*[32]But after the end of World War II, Kotondo Hasebe andHisashi Suzuki claimed that the origin of Japanese peo-ple was not the newcomers in the Yayoi period (300 BCE– 300 CE) but the people in the Jōmon period.*[33]However, Kazuro Hanihara announced a new racialadmixture theory in 1984.*[33] Hanihara also an-nounced the theory “dual structure model”in Englishin 1991.*[34] According to Hanihara, modern Japaneselineages began with Jōmon people, who moved into theJapanese archipelago during Paleolithic times from theirhomeland in southeast Asia. Hanihara believed that therewas a second wave of immigrants, from northeast Asia toJapan from the Yayoi period. Following a population ex-pansion in Neolithic times, these newcomers then foundtheir way to the Japanese archipelago sometime duringthe Yayoi period. As a result, miscegenation was rifein the island regions of Kyūshū, Shikoku, and Honshū,

but did not prevail in the outlying islands of Okinawa andHokkaidō, and the Ryukyuan and Ainu people continuedto dominate here. Mark J. Hudson claimed that the mainethnic image of Japanese people was biologically and lin-guistically formed from 400 BCE to 1,200 CE.*[33]Masatoshi Nei opposed the“dual structuremodel”and al-leged that the genetic distance data show that the Japanesepeople originated in northeast Asia, moving to Japan per-haps more than thirty thousand years ago.*[35]On the other hand, research in October 2009 by theNational Museum of Nature and Science et al. concludedthat the Minatogawa Man, who was found in Okinawaand was regarded as evidence that Jōmon people came toJapan via the southern route, had a slender face unlike theJōmon.*[36] Hiroto Takamiya of the Sapporo Universitysuggested that the people of Kyushu immigrated to Oki-nawa between the 10th and 12th centuries CE.*[37]A 2011 study by Sean Lee and Toshikazu Hasegawa*[38]reported that a common origin of Japonic languages hadoriginated around 2,182 years before present.*[39]

5.1 Origin of Jōmon and Yayoi

Glacier cover in Japan at the height of the last glaciation about20,000 years ago

Currently, the most well-regarded theory is that present-day Japanese are descendants of both the indigenous Jō-mon people and the immigrant Yayoi people. The ori-gins of the Jōmon and Yayoi people have often been asubject of dispute, and a recent Japanese publisher*[40]has divided the potential routes of the people living onthe Japanese archipelago as follows:

• Aboriginals that have been living in Japan for more

4 6 HISTORY

than 10,000 years. (Without geographic distinction,which means, the group of people living in islandsfrom Hokkaido to Okinawa may all be consideredto be Aboriginals in this case.)

• Immigrants from the northern route (北⽅ルート in Japanese) including the people from theKorean Peninsula, Mainland China, Sakhalin Island,Mongolia, and Siberia.

• Immigrants from the southern route (南⽅ルートin Japanese) including the people from the PacificIslands, Southeast Asia, and in some context, India.

However, a clear consensus has not beenreached.*[41]*[42]*[43]*[44]*[45]*[46]*[47]*[48]*[49]*[50]*[51]

6 History

See also: History of Japan

6.1 Paleolithic era

Archaeological evidence indicates that Stone Age peoplelived in the Japanese archipelago during the Paleolithicperiod between 39,000 and 21,000 years ago.*[52]*[53]Japan was then connected to mainland Asia by at leastone land bridge, and nomadic hunter-gatherers crossed toJapan from East Asia, Siberia, and possibly Kamchatka.Flint tools and bony implements of this era have been ex-cavated in Japan.*[54]

6.2 Jōmon people

Some of the world's oldest known pottery pieces weredeveloped by the Jōmon people in the Upper Paleolithicperiod, 14th millennium BC. The name,“Jōmon”(縄⽂ Jōmon), which means “cord-impressed pattern”,comes from the characteristic markings found on thepottery. The Jōmon people were Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, though at least one middle to late Jōmon site(Minami Mizote (南溝⼿), ca. 1200–1000 BC) had aprimitive rice-growing agriculture. They relied primar-ily on fish for protein. It is believed that the Jōmon hadvery likely migrated from North Asia or Central Asia andbecame the Ainu of today. Research suggests that theAinu retain a certain degree of uniqueness in their geneticmake-up, while having some affinities with other regionalpopulations in Japan as well as the Nivkhs of the RussianFar East.A new study released in 2013 by Kanzawa-KiriyamaHideaki shows that the Jomon are genetically closerto Papuans and Melanesians, populations located in

Shakōki-dogū ( 器 ) (1000–400 BC), “goggle-eyedtype”figurine. Tokyo National Museum, Japan.

Oceania.*[55] The author also suggested that the Jomonhave significant Denisovan admixture, which is alsofound among Papuans, Melanesians and some Negritoethnic groups in the Philippines.*[55] The study sug-gests that the Ainu and Ryukyuan populations of Japanretained much of their Jomon ancestry, however theAinu received gene flow from neighboring populationssuch as Nivkhs and the Ryukyuans received genetic in-put from the Yayoi. In the principal component anal-ysis, the Jomon were genetically close to Cambodiansand were genetically more similar to Melanesians andPapuans when compared to other East Eurasians.*[55]The study conducted by Kanzawa-Kiriyama Hideaki(2013) suggests that the Jomon had a southern Asianorigin, having genetic similarity to Melanesians andPapuans.*[55] The Ainu likely have admixture fromnorthern populations due to their geographical locationand historical evidence of interactions with surroundingpopulations.*[55] Therefore, it is unlikely that the Ainuhad a single origin and there is lack of evidence that theAinu originated in northeastern Asia.

6.3 Yayoi people

Around 400–300 BC, the Yayoi people began to enterthe Japanese islands, intermingling with the Jōmon. TheYayoi brought wet-rice farming and advanced bronze andiron technology to Japan. Although the islands were al-

7.2 Mitochondrial DNA 5

ready abundant with resources for hunting and dry-ricefarming, Yayoi farmers created more productive wet-ricepaddy field systems. This allowed the communities tosupport larger populations and spread over time, in turnbecoming the basis for more advanced institutions andheralding the new civilization of the succeeding Kofunperiod.The estimated population in the late Jōmon period wasabout one hundred thousand, compared to about threemillion by the Nara period. Taking the growth rates ofhunting and agricultural societies into account, it is cal-culated that about one and half million immigrants movedto Japan in the period.

7 Genetics

7.1 Y-chromosome DNA

See also: Y-DNA haplogroups by populations of Eastand Southeast Asia

An early study of human Y-DNA variation published in1999 included a sample of 118 Japanese males, amongwhom haplogroup DE-YAP(xE-SRY4064) was found tobe predominant (47%). Other haplogroups detected inthis sample include haplogroup K-M9(xN1c-Tat, M2a-SRY9138, P-DYS257) (46%), haplogroup C-M130(5%), haplogroup P-DYS257(xQ1a3a1-DYS199, R1a1-SRY10831) (2%), and haplogroup BT-SRY10831(xC-RPS4Y711, K-M9, DE-YAP) (1%).*[56]

The movements of human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups

A 2004, Y-DNA study by Tajima et al. reported that theAinu mainly belong to haplogroup D (87.5%).*[57]A 2005 study byMichael F. Hammer reports genetic sim-ilarities between the Japanese and several other Asianpopulations, which shows that the common Y-DNAhaplogroups of Japanese are D-P37.1 (34.7%), O-P31(31.7%), O-M122 (20.1%), C-M8 (5.4%), C-M217(3.1%), NO (2.3%) and N (1.5%).*[58] The patrilinesbelonging to D-P37.1 are found in all Japanese groups,but are more frequently found in Ainu (75.0%) and Ok-inawa (55.6%) and are less frequently found in Shikoku(25.7%) and Kyushu (26.4%).*[58] Haplogroup O andC-M8 are not found in Ainu, and C-M217 is not found

in Okinawa.*[58] Haplogroup N is detected in sam-ples of central Japanese, but is not found in Ainu andOkinawa.*[58] This study, and others, report that Y-chromosome patrilines crossed from the Asian main-land into the Japanese archipelago, and continue tomake up a large proportion of the Japanese male lin-eage.*[59] If focusing haplogroup O-P31 in those re-searches, the patrilines derived from its subclade O-SRY465 are frequently found in both Japanese (mean32%,*[60] with frequency in various samples rangingfrom 26%*[61]*[62] to 36%*[63]) and Koreans (mean30%,*[64] with frequency in various samples rangingfrom 19%*[61]*[65] to 40%*[63]). According to the re-search, these patrilines have undergone extensive geneticadmixture with the Jōmon period populations previouslyestablished in Japan.*[58]Hammer estimated in 2005 that D-P37.1 and C-M8emerged around 19,400 and 14,500 years ago respec-tively and those patrilines are referred to as descendantsof indigenous people in Jōmon period.*[58] Accordingto a 2008 study by Shi et al., however, if focusing hap-logroup D, Andamanese and Tibetan people divergedfrom the original haplogroup D around from 66,400 to51,600 years ago, and the Japanese subclade emergedaround 37,700 years ago.*[66] The study suggested thatthose patrilines belonging to haplogroup D are possiblythe first modern human groups in East Asia based on theOut of Africa theory because their ancestor haplogroupDE is found in African people in Nigeria along with Ti-betan in East Asia.*[66]A 2007 study by Nonaka et al. reported that Japanesemales in the Kantō region, which includes the GreaterTokyo Area and is the most densely populated re-gion of Japan, mainly belong to haplogroup D-M55(48%), haplogroup O2b (31%), haplogroup O3 (15%),or haplogroup C-M130 (4%).*[67]A 2010 study by Matsukusa et al. about the peoples inthe Sakishima Islands reported that a part of the peoplesin Miyako Island and Ishigaki Island also show the marksof YAP+ (53% and 26% respectively), being clearly dif-ferent from Taiwanese aborigines.*[68]

7.2 Mitochondrial DNA

A 2002 study by Kivisild et al. reported that Japanesepeople descended from indigenous Jōmon people maybelong to human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup M'ssubclades̶M7a and M7b2.*[69] The matrilines of hap-logroup M7 are especially common among Ryukyuans,while the matrilines of haplogroup Y1 among Ainu havebeen interpreted to suggest Eastern Siberian (Okhotsk)immigration to Japan.*[69] Although the study reportedthat those M7 matrilines seem to emerge in up to 18,000years ago, the study also pointed out that their settlementsmay have occurred over 30,000 years ago if there was apopulation bottleneck in Japan.*[69]

6 7 GENETICS

In another study, ancient DNA recovered from 16 Jomonskeletons excavated from Funadomari site, Hokkaido,Japan was analyzed to elucidate the genealogy of the earlysettlers of the Japanese archipelago. Both the controland coding regions of their mitochondrial DNA were an-alyzed in detail, and 14 mtDNAs could be securely as-signed to relevant haplogroups. Haplogroups D1a, M7a,and N9b were observed in these individuals, and N9b wasby far the most predominant. The fact that haplogroupsN9b and M7a were observed in Hokkaido Jomons boreout the hypothesis that these haplogroups are the (pre-) Jomon contribution to the modern Japanese mtDNApool.*[70] In another study of ancient DNA published bythe same authors in 2011, both the control and coding re-gions of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) recovered fromJomon skeletons excavated from the northernmost islandof Japan, Hokkaido, were analyzed in detail, and 54mtD-NAs were confidently assigned to relevant haplogroups.Haplogroups N9b, D4h2, G1b, and M7a were observedin these individuals, with N9b being the predominantone.*[71] Studies published in 2004 and 2007 show thecombined frequency ofM7a andN9b to be at least 28% inOkinawans (7/50 M7a1, 6/50 M7a(xM7a1), 1/50 N9b),17.6% in Ainus (8/51M7a(xM7a1), 1/51 N9b), and 10%to 17% in mainstream Japanese.*[72]*[73]After a 2004 study by Tanaka et al. showed thatJapanese belongs to various human mitochondrial DNAhaplogroups̶A, B, C, D, F, G, M, N and Z, a 2008 studyby Bilal et al. estimated that haplogroup D4a is related tolongevity among Japanese people.*[74]According to an analysis of the 1000 Genome Project'ssample of Japanese from the Tokyo metropolitan area,the mtDNA haplogroups found among modern Japaneseinclude D (42/118 = 35.6%, including 39/118 = 33.1%D4 and 3/118 = 2.5%D5), B (16/118 = 13.6%, including11/118 = 9.3% B4 and 5/118 = 4.2% B5), M7 (12/118= 10.2%), G (12/118 = 10.2%), N9 (10/118 = 8.5%), F(9/118 = 7.6%), A (8/118 = 6.8%), Z (4/118 = 3.4%),M9 (3/118 = 2.5%), and M8 (2/118 = 1.7%).*[75] Inanother study, the mtDNA of a sample of 100 mod-ern Japanese individuals from Miyazaki Prefecture ofeastern Kyushu was tested and assigned to the follow-ing haplogroups: 30% D (25/100 D4, 5/100 D5), 22%M7 (15/100 M7a1, 5/100 M7b2, 2/100 M7a(xM7a1)),12% A (4/100 A4, 4/100 A5, 4/100 A(xA4, A5)), 9%B (3/100 B4b1a1, 2/100 B4a, 2/100 B4(xB4a, B4b1),2/100 B5b), 6% F, 6%G, 6%N9, 2%M*, 2%M8(xCZ),1% C, 1%M9a, 1%M10, 1%M11, and 1% Other.*[73]A 2008 study by Nohira et al. reported that Japaneseand Koreans shared various haplotypes of haplogroupD4.*[76] However, Haplogroup D4 is found at very lowfrequently in Korean (2,3%) therefore there was an exis-tence of Japanese immigration in Korea peninsula for aperiod of a time.

7.3 Single-nucleotide polymorphism

A 1996 study by Yoshiyuki Okano (Japanese: 岡野滋⾏) et al. of the Department of Pediatrics, Osaka CityUniversity Medical School, said that Japanese peopledescend from a Northern Mongoloid population fromthe Baikal area and said the presence of PKU mutationR413P in Northern China as well as Japan showed theeffect of the founder effect or genetic drift.*[77]A 2008 study about genome-wide single-nucleotide poly-morphisms (SNPs) by Yamaguchi-Kabata et al. reportedthat the most significant difference between Ryukyuanand Japanese outside Okinawa is the different frequen-cies of the T allele of rs3827760 in the human EDARgene.*[78]A 2008 study about genome-wide SNPs of East Asiansby Chao Tian et al. reported that Japanese, Koreans andHan Chinese are far from southeast Asians, and Japaneseis related to Koreans who are related to Han Chinese, butJapanese is relatively far from Han Chinese if comparedto Koreans.*[79]However in another large genome-wide association studyof East Asian populations,*[80] it was both found thatthe Japanese are closer to Han Chinese, but the Koreansare relatively far away from Han Chinese if compared toJapanese. This study also included Native Americans,Vietnamese, Cambodians, Europeans and Africans. Itwas also found in the same paper that, going by IdentityBy State (a more accurate indicator of genetic similar-ity and distance compared to Fixation Index) results, theJapanese are more related to the Vietnamese when com-pared to the Mongolians and Koreans. The Koreans andMongolians were found to be the least genetically relatedto the Vietnamese. The Japanese were also more similarby IBS to the Mongolians than the Koreans were. How-ever further studies need to be conducted to infer aboutrelationships between the Jomon Japanese and their ge-netic relationships to other East Asian ethnic groups tobetter understand the origins of the Japanese people.A new study released in 2013 by Kanzawa-KiriyamaHideaki shows that the Jomon population are geneti-cally closer to Papuans and Melanesians, populations lo-cated in Oceania.*[55] The author also demonstratedthat the Jomon have significant Denisovan admixture,which is also found among Papuans, Melanesians andsome Negrito ethnic groups in the Philippines.*[55] Thestudy suggests that the Ainu and Ryukyuan populationsof Japan retained much of their Jomon ancestry, how-ever the Ainu received gene flow from neighboring pop-ulations such as Nivkhs and the Ryukyuans received ge-netic input from the Yayoi. In the principal componentanalysis, the Jomon were genetically close to Cambodiansand were genetically more similar to Melanesians andPapuans when compared to other East Eurasians.*[55]Therefore the Japanese people may have significantamounts of Melanesian-like or Papuan-like ancestry in

7

their genomes.The study conducted by Kanzawa-Kiriyama Hideaki(2013) suggests that the Jomon had a southern Asianorigin, having genetic similarity to Melanesians andPapuans.*[55] The Ainu likely have admixture fromnorthern populations due to their geographical locationand historical evidence of interactions with surroundingpopulations.*[55] Therefore, it is unlikely that the Ainuhad a single origin and there is lack of evidence that theAinu originated in northeastern Asia.

8 Colonialism

See also: Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity SphereDuring the Japanese colonial period of 1895 to 1945,

Location of Imperial Japan

the phrase “Japanese people”was used to refer notonly to residents of the Japanese archipelago, but alsoto people from colonies who held Japanese citizenship,such as Taiwanese people and Korean people. The offi-cial term used to refer to ethnic Japanese during this pe-riod was“inland people”(内地⼈ naichijin). Such lin-guistic distinctions facilitated forced assimilation of col-onized ethnic identities into a single Imperial Japaneseidentity.*[81]After the end of World War II, many Nivkh people andOrok people from southern Sakhalin, who held Japanesecitizenship in Karafuto Prefecture, were forced to repatri-ate to Hokkaidō by the Soviet Union as a part of Japanesepeople. On the other hand, many Sakhalin Koreans whohad held Japanese citizenship until the end of the warwere left stateless by the Soviet occupation.*[82]

9 Citizenship

Article 10 of the Constitution of Japan defines the termJapanese based on the Japanese Nationality.*[83] Indeed,Japan accepts a steady flow of 15,000 new Japanese cit-izens by naturalization (帰化) per year.*[84] The con-cept of the ethnic groups by the Japanese statistics isdifferent from the ethnicity census of North Americanor some Western European statistics. For example, theUnited Kingdom Census asks ethnic or racial backgroundwhich composites the population of the United King-

dom, regardless of their nationalities.*[85] The JapaneseStatistics Bureau, however, does not have this question.Since the Japanese population census asks the people'snationality rather than their ethnic background, natu-ralized Japanese citizens and Japanese nationals withmulti-ethnic background are considered to be ethnicallyJapanese in the population census of Japan. Thus, in spiteof the widespread belief that Japan is ethnically homo-geneous, it is probably more accurate to describe it as amultiethnic society.*[86]As a result, the word kei (系, can be translated roughlyas lineage or origin) is used when the Japanese citizendescribe their origin of ancestors other than the Japanesearchipelago. For example, Tanya Ishii, a former Japanesemember to the Japanese Diet referred herself as a“Rus-sian Japanese”(ロシア系⽇本⼈ Roshiakeinihonjin),since she had Russian roots from her maternal lineage.

10 Diaspora

See also: Japanese diasporaThe term nikkeijin (⽇系⼈) is used to refer to Japanese

The Japantown Peace Plaza during the Northern CaliforniaCherry Blossom Festival.

people who emigrated from Japan and their descendants.Emigration from Japan was recorded as early as the 12thcentury to the Philippines and Borneo,*[87] but did notbecome a mass phenomenon until the Meiji Era, whenJapanese began to go to the Philippines, United States,Canada, Peru, Colombia, Brazil, and Argentina. Therewas also significant emigration to the territories of theEmpire of Japan during the colonial period; however,most such emigrants repatriated to Japan after the endof World War II in Asia.*[88]According to the Association of Nikkei and JapaneseAbroad, there are about 2.5 million nikkeijin livingin their adopted countries. The largest of these for-eign communities are in the Brazilian states of SãoPaulo and Paraná.*[89] There are also significant cohe-sive Japanese communities in the Philippines,*[90] East

8 12 REFERENCES

Malaysia, Peru, Buenos Aires, Córdoba and Misiones inArgentina, and the U.S states of Hawaii, California, andWashington. There is also a small group of Japanese de-scendants living in Caribbean countries such as Cuba andthe Dominican Republic, where hundreds of these immi-grants were brought in by Rafael L. Trujillo in the 1930s.Separately, the number of Japanese citizens living abroadis over one million according to the Ministry of ForeignAffairs.

11 See also• Ethnic issues in Japan

• Foreign-born Japanese

• Japantown

• List of Japanese people

• Nihonjinron

• Demographics of Japan

• Ainu people• Azumi (people), an ancient group of peopleswho inhabited parts of northern Kyūshū

• Burakumin• Dekasegi• Ryukyuan people• Yamato people• Emishi, a group of people who lived in thenortheastern Tōhoku region of Japan.

12 References[1]

[2] American FactFinder - Results

[3] http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/toko/tokei/hojin/11/pdfs/1.pdf

[4] Japan news, commentary, culture, sports | The JapanTimes. Search.japantimes.co.jp. Retrieved on 2013-08-24.

[5] Adachi, Nobuko (2006-05-30).“Japanese diasporas: Un-sung pasts, conflicting presents, and uncertain futures”.ISBN 978-0-415-77035-4.

[6] 2011 National Household Survey: Data tables | Eth-nic Origin (264), Single and Multiple Ethnic Origin Re-sponses (3), Generation Status (4), Age Groups (10) andSex (3) for the ...

[7] MOFA: Japan-Peru Relations

[8] http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/toko/tokei/hojin/10/pdfs/1.pdf

[9] 外務省: 英国（グレートブリテン及び北アイルランド連合王国）基礎データ

[10] MOFA: Japan-Argentine Relations

[11] Tourism New Caledonia | Prepare your trip in New Cale-donia

[12] MOFA: Japan-Singapore Relations

[13] http://www.mra.fm/pdfs/nr_los_FromFSMAmbassador.pdf

[14] MOFA: Japan-Mexico Relations

[15] ボリビア⽇系協会連合会（FENABOJA）

[16] Pacific Islands President, Bainbridge Lawmakers FindCommon Ground » Kitsap Sun

[17] “World Factbook: Japan”. CIA. Retrieved 15 January2011.

[18] Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (15September 2006).“International Religious Freedom Re-port 2006”. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 4 De-cember 2007.

[19] Asia Society - Shinto

[20] “Japanese ethnicity”. Encyclopædia Britannica.

[21] “Japan. B. Ethnic Groups”. Encarta.

[22] "⼈類学的にはモンゴロイドの⼀。⽪膚は⻩⾊、虹彩は⿊褐⾊、⽑髪は⿊⾊で直⽑。⾔語は⽇本語。"("⽇本⼈". Kōjien. Iwanami.)

[23] "⼈類学上は，旧⽯器時代あるいは縄⽂時代以来，現在の北海道〜沖縄諸島（南⻄諸島）に住んだ集団を祖先にもつ⼈ 。々" (" ⽇本⼈". マイペディア.平凡社.)

[24] "⽇本⺠族という意味で、⽂化を基準に⼈間を分類したときのグループである。また、⽂化のなかで⾔語はとくに重要なので、⽇本⺠族は⽇本語を⺟語としてもちいる⼈々とほぼ考えてよい。" ("⽇本⼈". ン ルタ. Microsoft.)

[25] CIA World Factbook Retrieved on 11 June 2012.

[26] United States CIA factbook. Accessed 2007-01-15.

[27] The World Factbook

[28] Japan

[29] Buddhists in the world: Das Who is Who der Buddhisten

[30] Imamura, Keiji (2000).“Archaeological Research of theJomon Period in the 21st Century”. The University Mu-seum, The University of Tokyo. Retrieved December 29,2010.

[31] 伊波普猷の卒論発⾒思想⾻格鮮明に (in Japanese).Ryūkyū Shimpō. July 25, 2010. Retrieved March 7,2011.

[32] Roy A. Miller, The Japanese Language. Tokyo: CharlesE. Tuttle. 1967, pp. 61-62

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[36] Watanabe, Nobuyuki (October 1, 2009). 旧⽯器時代の「港川１号」、顔ほっそり縄⽂⼈と差. Asahi.com (inJapanese). Asahi Shimbun. Retrieved March 9, 2011.

[37] Nakamura, Shunsuke (April 16, 2010). 沖縄⼈のルーツを探る. Asahi.com (in Japanese). Asahi Shimbun. p.2. Retrieved March 9, 2011.

[38] Hasegawa Laboratory/ College of Arts and Sciences at theUniversity of Tokyo

[39] Lee, Sean; Hasegawa, Toshikazu (2011). “Bayesianphylogenetic analysis supports an agricultural ori-gin of Japonic languages”. Royal Society.doi:10.1098/rspb.2011.0518. Retrieved May 6,2011.

[40] {{from the book, 2009, Japanese published by Heidansha."⽇本⼈". マイペディア. 平凡社. Original sentence:旧⽯器時代または縄⽂時代以来、現在の北海道から琉球諸島までの地域に住んだ集団を祖先に持つ。シベリア、樺太、朝鮮半島などを経由する北⽅ルート、南⻄諸島などを経由する南⽅ルートなど複数の渡来経路が考えられる}}

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13 External links• C3-M217, FTDNA [DNA project]

• CIA The World Fact Book 2006

• The Association of Nikkei & Japanese Abroad

• Discover Nikkei- Information on Japanese emi-grants and their descendants

• Jun-Nissei Literature and Culture in Brazil

• The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan

• The National Museum of Japanese History

• Japanese society and culture

• Dekasegi and their issues living in Japan (Por-tuguese) (Japanese)

12 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

14.1 Text

• Japanese people Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20people?oldid=646892559 Contributors: Zundark, Malcolm Farmer,Ed Poor, Shii, Olivier, Leandrod, Patrick, Sannse, TakuyaMurata, Ahoerstemeier, Nanshu, Hermeneus, Kaihsu, Smack, Keizo Ibata, Em-perorbma, Timwi, WhisperToMe, Ishu, Maximus Rex, Morwen, K1Bond007, Lumos3, KeithH, Steeev, Gidonb, A-research, ExplodingBoy, Aphaia, MSGJ, Zigger, Henry Flower, Zhen Lin, Macrakis, Wiki Wikardo, Wmahan, Neilc, Gadfium, Mackeriv, Andycjp, Alexf,Zeimusu, Antandrus, The Singing Badger, Beland, Kusunose, Jossi, Billposer, Ary29, Gscshoyru, Nickptar, Neutrality, Poo-T, Fg2, Co-henTheBavarian, Bright888, Naus, Adashiel, Shotwell, Zro, Mike Rosoft, D6, Freakofnurture, Miborovsky, Venu62, Corruptresearcher,Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Wikiacc, FWBOarticle, Triskaideka, Paul August, Zscout370, Bletch, Kwamikagami, Shanes, Roy-Boy, Bendono, Coolcaesar, Ce garcon, Bobo192, Ypacaraí, J44xm, Smalljim, Foobaz, Kappa, Rockhopper10r, Apostrophe, Vanisheduser 19794758563875, Holdek, Danski14, Alansohn, Feigenbaum, Leonhart, Calton, Pion, Hu, Wtmitchell, *Kat*, AngryParsley, Rain-bowOfLight, CloudNine, BlastOButter42, Jguk, SteinbDJ, LordAmeth, Red dwarf, Y0u, Wind6b2, Bacteria, Boothy443, Kelly Martin,Woohookitty, MiaowMiaow, Bbatsell, Macaddct1984, Prashanthns, Tokek, Stevey7788, BD2412,Wachholder0, FreplySpang, Island, Lex-ico, Sjakkalle, Behemoth, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Erebus555, Tombseye, Tangotango, Tawker, SMC, HappyCamper, DoubleBlue, Sango123,Ninuor, CalJW, A scientist, DannyWilde, Nivix, Flowerparty, RexNL, Valermos, Kanthoney, Alphachimp, Bmicomp, Tedder, Le Anh-Huy, Chobot, Hall Monitor, Monkeyfeet, Kafziel, Saintjust, Tznkai, RussBot, Netscott, SpuriousQ, Manop, Wimt, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf,Welsh, Snkcube, Lexicon, DAJF, CaliforniaAliBaba, Dahveed323, PM Poon, Sir Edgar, TheMadBaron, Јованвб, E Wing, Pb30, DarkTichondrias, DoriSmith, Ryoske, Allens, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, Appleby, Vanka5, Hardscarf, SmackBot, Nihonjoe, 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Borderlands Psyco, T0300987j, Pizza22222, Taddah, Proudtobequaytay, Japanlove102, 999trollz and Anonymous:695

14.2 Images 13

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• File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Canada.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Origi-nal artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Ecuador.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Flag_of_Ecuador.svg License: Public domainContributors: http://www.presidencia.gob.ec/pdf/Simbolos-Patrios.pdf Original artist: President of the Republic of Ecuador, Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_Federated_States_of_Micronesia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Flag_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: ? Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/chi/r_flag/index.html Original artist: Tao Ho

• File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Law: s:id:Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 (http://badanbahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/lamanbahasa/sites/default/files/UU_2009_24.pdf) Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe

• File:Flag_of_Italy.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: Create based on the Malaysian Government Website (archive version)Original artist: SKopp, Zscout370 and Ranking Update

• File:Flag_of_Mexico.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg License: Public domainContributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Alex Covarrubias, 9 April 2006

• File:Flag_of_New_Caledonia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Flag_of_New_Caledonia.svg License:Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:WarX

• File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg License:Public domain Contributors: http://www.mch.govt.nz/files/NZ%20Flag%20-%20proportions.JPG Original artist: Zscout370, Hugh Jassand many others

• File:Flag_of_Paraguay.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Flag_of_Paraguay.svg License: CC0 Con-tributors: This file is from the Open Clip Art Library, which released it explicitly into the public domain (see here). Original artist: Republicadel Paraguay

• File:Flag_of_Peru.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg License: Public domain Contrib-utors: Peru Original artist: David Benbennick

• File:Flag_of_Singapore.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: The drawing was based from http://app.www.sg/who/42/National-Flag.aspx. Colors from the book: (2001). TheNational Symbols Kit. Singapore: Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts. pp. 5. ISBN 8880968010 Pantone 032 shade fromhttp://www.pantone.com/pages/pantone/colorfinder.aspx?c_id=13050 Original artist: Various

• File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License: Pub-lic domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and color guidelines(Russian/English) ← This site is not exist now.(2012.06.05) Original artist: Various

• File:Flag_of_Spain.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Switzerland.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: PDF Colors Construction sheet Original artist: User:Marc Mongenet

Credits:• File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public domainContributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370

14 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/law/vi/1951_to_1960/1955/195511/195511300001 http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/Lists/Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=820 Original artist: Lưu Ly vẽ lại theo nguồn trên

• File:Flag_of_the_Marshall_Islands.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Flag_of_the_Marshall_Islands.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_the_People'{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg License:Public domain Contributors: The design was taken from [1] and the colors were also taken from a Government website Original artist:User:Achim1999

• File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: User:SKopp

• File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Li-cense: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: ?Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Japan_glaciation.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Japan_glaciation.gif License: CC BY 2.5 Con-tributors: Davison A, Chiba S, Barton NH, Clarke B. (2005)“Speciation and Gene Flow between Snails of Opposite Chirality”(in English).PLoS Biology 3 (9, e282). doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030282 [1] Original artist: Davison A, Chiba S, Barton NH, Clarke B.

• File:Japanese_People.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Japanese_People.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors:

• File:Tosa Mitsuoki 001.jpg Original artist: Kyoww (composition)• File:Japantown_SF_Peace_Plaza_during_2010_NCCBF_2010-04-18_3.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

commons/3/38/Japantown_SF_Peace_Plaza_during_2010_NCCBF_2010-04-18_3.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Ownwork Original artist: BrokenSphere

• File:JomonStatue.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/JomonStatue.JPG License: Public domain Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Map_of_Empire_of_Japan.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Map_of_Empire_of_Japan.pngLicense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: 柑橘類 (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:%E6%9F%91%E6%A9%98%E9%A1%9E' title='User talk:柑橘類' class='mw-redirect'>talk</a>)

• File:Migraciones_humanas_en_haplogrupos_de_ADN-Y.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Migraciones_humanas_en_haplogrupos_de_ADN-Y.PNG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Maulucioni

• File:Momotaro2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Momotaro2.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-tors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:One_Ainu_man_and_bear.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/One_Ainu_man_and_bear.JPG Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Japanese book “Series of Japanese geography and folk culture: Vol.14”published by Shinkosha.Original artist: Unknown

• File:Red_Fuji_southern_wind_clear_morning.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Red_Fuji_southern_wind_clear_morning.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://visipix.dynalias.com/cgi-bin/view?s=5&userid=1025493065&q=red%20fuji&u=2&k=0&l=en&n=1 Original artist: Katsushika Hokusai (葛飾北斎)

• File:Samourai_photo_1867.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Samourai_photo_1867.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: Historia n°764 - Août 2010, page 33 Original artist: Felice Beato

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