1 Running Head: CAREER ENGAGEMENT NETWORKING MODEL

Career Engagement Networking Model

John Jameson

The Chicago School of Professional Psychology

January 17th, 2015

Introduction

Networking is described as a socially constructed strategic alliance for instituting change

and developing growth (Hite, 2005). It is also a process of sharing expertise, contacts, ideas, and

feedback with those who need it (Lopata, 2011). Table I in the appendix provides additional

definitions of networking. Networking is widely recognized as an effective method to find

employment, grow business, solve problems, and enrich careers.

There are many networking models that describe the networking process. This paper

describes a new networking model called Career Engagement Networking Model (CENM).

CENM steps in a different direction away from conventional networking -- towards an approach

that aims at fulfilling the psychological drives of autonomy, mastery, and purpose. In

conventional networking models, the fulfillment of psychological drives is a benefit of

networking efforts. In the CENM, psychological drive fulfillment is a reason to network. In

brief, through the use of this model, employees can gain autonomy in career decisions, learn

career insights, develop skills, and find purpose in their career by contributing to an objective

larger than themselves. The shift towards psychological drive fulfillment through networking

may be a solution to low employee engagement.

The problem this paper addresses is that employee engagement in the United States is

30% (Gallup, 2015). This statistic suggests that 70% of U.S. employees are not satisfied or

happy at work. The possible shift may benefit employee career engagement and living a happier

life. A study of 3000 workers in seventy-nine countries found that employees who experienced

greater satisfaction from their work were 150% more likely to have a happier life overall (Pryce-

Jones, J. Lyubomirsky, S., Salemi, V., 2010). Therefore, employees who can find career

satisfaction and engagement through networking can live happier lives. Additionally, through

the development of CENM competencies, employees can fulfill extrinsic drives by achieving

higher incomes and promotions. CENM integrates psychological drives that are proven to

increase employee engagement with networking competences to help employees achieve

sustainable career engagement.

This paper has several goals. A first goal of this paper is to describe why a new

approach to career engagement is needed. The second goal is to raise awareness of how

networking can play an important role in career engagement. A third goal is to educate readers

on the competencies needed to effectively network. The final goal is to present potential future

directions to test the validity of the model.

This paper is broken down into five sections. Section one is the introduction. Section

two is the literature review. Section three describes the methodology used to reach the

psychological drives and the competencies included in the model. In the fourth section, the

career engagement networking model is introduced. Section five acknowledges limitations, and

assumptions. Future directions and applications are explored in section six. In the final section, a

conclusion summarizes key findings and concepts.

Literature Review

The development of the Career Engagement Networking Model took place over a two

year period from September 2013 to December 2015. The model began from a belief that

altruistic networking can lead to career satisfaction. Two literature reviews were conducted for

this project. The first literature review explored the relationships between altruism, networking,

social capital, influence, and career engagement. Two months of database research revealed

many peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed articles related to altruism and networking. The

review also revealed a gap in literature that sought to identify links between altruism,

networking, and career satisfaction/engagement. Ten peer reviewed articles were selected for

article critiques. Eight of the ten articles critiqued were published in 2010 or more recently. The

article critiques were conducted for several reasons. A first reason was to identify gaps in

literature and the thoroughness of articles. The second reason was to gain further understanding

networking and altruism by identifying emerging trends and key concepts.

Overall, there were several key findings in the first literature review. The first key

finding was that sharing knowledge and information with others enables employees to develop a

network of influence and to gain access to resources. This finding was supported in a study of

networking and personal influence in a college setting. Through survey and structured

interviews, researchers found that establishing a reputation as someone who believes in others

ideas and supports efforts to bring those ideas to reality, enables that individual to develop a

network of influence (Simplicio, 2009). A second key finding was that employees are able to

grow business and accomplish goals through networking and referral relationships. This finding

was supported by the validation of a five step networking model that enabled entrepreneurs to

build business success through networking (Anderson, Dodd and Jack, 2010). This model

emphasized the importance of collaboration in networking. Also, networking during times of

change can lead to innovation and growth. A third finding was relationship strength and

emotional closeness increased the probability an employee would receive help from another

employee or networking contact. In support of this finding are several studies. A study of

altruism in social networks surveyed found emotional closeness is the best predictor of helping

behaviors. The study also concluded emotional closeness declines through networking layers

(Curry, Roberts, and Dunbar, 2013). This finding is further supported by the Broaden and Build

Theory that suggests cultivating positive emotions is means of achieving psychological growth.

The theory further suggests that positive emotions transforms people for the better by setting

them on paths toward flourishing and healthy longevity (Fredrickson, 2004). In all, the first

literature concluded that employees widely utilize networking to accomplish their goals and the

goals of others.

A second literature review was conducted to identify how networking can be a solution to

the problem of low employee engagement. More specifically, the literature review examined

applied networking models, employee and career engagement, career satisfaction, individual

motivation, career theory, and learning theory. Popular networking best practices published in

books and motivation psychology books were also considered in the development of CENM.

This was done to ensure both theoretical and applied content were considered for the model.

Article critiques identified relevant content from peer reviewed journal articles and studies (See

Table III). The literature review identified ninety-one concepts relevant to networking success.

The concepts were sorted by frequency of use, and the context (scientific vs. applied). Microsoft

Excel was used to sort and review all concepts. Like terms were put into the same columns.

Upon careful review, the seven concepts most salient to networking were: Goals, Relationships,

Social Capital and Branding, Trust, Referrals, Reciprocity, and Pay it Forward.

Methodology

Motivation theories and psychological drives were considered for use in the networking

model because research shows they drive employee engagement (Pink, 2009). The

psychological drives of autonomy, mastery, and purpose were chosen in the CENM Model for

several reasons. First, the drives are rooted in theories that have been cited in literature for more

than fifty years. Second, the drives are empirically validated influencers of employee

engagement. Third, the psychological drives autonomy, mastery, and purpose can be fulfilled

through successful networking. The following theories were also considered for the CENM:

David McLelland’s Learned Needs Theory (1961), Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

(1954), and Clayton Alderfer’s E.R.G. Theory (1969). These models can be reviewed in Table

IV in the appendix.

Career Engagement Networking Model

The Career Engagement Networking Model was designed to help employees create

sustainable career and employee engagement through networking. The networking goals

included in CENM are autonomy, mastery and purpose. A description of how employees can

fulfill each psychology drive through networking is explained in the next section. Best practices

revealed from the literature reviews are included to add depth to each networking competency.

The predictors of career engagement in this model include autonomy, mastery, and

purpose. The mediators are the networking competencies. Consider the following model:

In future testing of the model, employees are able to identify and develop the networking

competency that is most associated with the drive that has gone unfulfilled at work. For

example, the model below illustrates three potential paths to achieve career engagement. In the

first two paths, autonomy predicts engagement through networking goals and/or relationships.

At the bottom of the model, a “strong path” illustrates that the purpose motive is a predictor of

career engagement by paying it forward. As a real world example, the feedback from an

employee engagement survey shows that accountants believe their work is not connected to a

larger mission or purpose. This may be the result of redundant responsibilities, not seeing the

fruits of the work, or ineffective managers. As a result, the accountants’ engagement at work is

low. In response, the organization can present employees with networking opportunities

connected to a larger objective or purpose such as volunteering.

Identifying the “strongest path” from predictor to the outcome will improve the

probability that engagement will be achieved, which is the ultimate goal. The future applications

section below includes additional layers of analysis that can be tested.

3a. Networking Competency/Mediator: Goals

The first step to successful networking is to create networking goals (Ferrazzi, 2005;

Misner, 2000; Lopata, 2011; Townsend, 2014). Conventional networking goals are aimed at

fulfilling basic human needs. For example, finding a job and selling products through networking

results leads to an income that can be used to pay bills and buy food (Maslow’s level one

Physiological needs). On the other hand, networking goals aimed at fulfilling psychology drives

are higher level and growth needs focused (need for achievement, affiliation, etc.). Daniel Pink

(2009) presents extensive research of the nonmonetary motivational drivers of employee

behavior in his book Drive. He asserts forty years of research suggests that employees are driven

to fulfill the three psychological drives of autonomy, mastery, and purpose. In CENM, fulfilling

the drives is the primary networking goal. This will be elaborated upon in the next section.

Whether the intent is to find autonomy or find a job, networking goals should be linked with

contacts, events, social media usage, or other resources. For the purposes of this model and

paper, career engagement can be described as a measure of the degree to which somebody is

proactively networking to fulfill higher level psychological drives.

Autonomy through networking (Predictor of career engagement)

Autonomy can be described as the capacity of individuals (and organizations) to exercise

discretion or apply freedom of choice (Bank, M. 2010). Many organizations reward employees

who perform at high levels with increases in compensation and advancement in job titles. This

form of rewards will motivate some employees, but not all employees. This extrinsic approach to

reward employee performance is a contributing factor to low employee engagement (Gostick,

2014). Empowering employees to achieve results by providing them the autonomy to make

decisions is becoming adopted as an employee engagement strategy. Pink argues autonomy at

work can be divided into four categories: Task, Time, Technique, and Team (Table V). Outside

of the traditional workplace, the four categories may also be implemented in the networking

process. Consider the following:

Task: What people do – job responsibilities

In many professions, employees have limited control of their job responsibilities.

Employees are hired into a position with responsibilities and employers expect that the

responsibilities will be completed by the employee. On the other hand, through

networking, employees have more control to decide which networking behaviors they

decide to use for certain goals. Several examples include the decision to pursue learning

opportunities, socializing, and the option to engage in referral networking.

Time: When they do it

Employers are embracing the concept of flexible work arrangements more so now

than in the past. However, most employers have set hours of operations, offering

employees limited flexibility to determine which hours they choose to work. For

example, in professional services and legal industries, employee performance evaluations

are dependent upon the number of hours the employee worked. Through networking,

employees can choose the amount of time they spend networking. For example,

employees can choose when to network: at lunches, events, as well as the amount of time

contributing content on sites such as LinkedIn and Twitter.

Technique: How they do it

Upon joining an organization, new employees frequently participate in new hire

training. The training sessions frequently extend beyond company policy and benefits

enrollment to describe how employees should perform their job responsibilities. Without

this training, employees may not succeed in their jobs. However, upon acclimating into a

new position and fulfilling position expectations, many managers do not grant employees

the freedom to choose how to perform job responsibilities. There are many different

networking activities to partake in, and therefore, employees can exercise decision

making by picking an activity they enjoy.

Team: Whom they do it with

Another benefit of networking is the ability to choose who to network with.

Some professions, including career entrepreneurs, private practice physicians and

attorneys, offer the flexibility to choose who they work with. However, many

professions do not offer this flexibility. Networking offers many ways to connect:

professional networking and referral groups, networking websites, and networking

events. Employees can choose who to connect with through these methods. Similarly,

employees can qualify potential networking contacts by reflecting on past relationships

and the type of people they enjoy spending time with (Hettich, Landrum, Helkowski,

Jameson, & Miller, 2014). For example, if an employee previously worked with a

visionary leader but no longer works with the individual, the employee can develop a

relationship with a new visionary leader to fulfill the void. The proactive networking in

this example helps employees to create sustainable career engagement. Lastly,

employees can gain autonomy by choosing who they help and who to request help from.

Mastery through networking (Predictor of career engagement)

Mastery can be described as a desire to get better at something that matters (Pink, 2011).

Employees can develop job related (and non-job related skills) through networking. This section

describes why employees should take ownership over their skills development and how to do so

through networking.

Despite continued economic growth from 2012 to present, many employers continue to

be financially prudent when it comes to investing company budgets to training. Several reasons

for the financial prudence include: pressure from stakeholders, advances in technology, global

competition, and political influences. In addition to training expenses, employees take time

away from work to participate in sessions. The perspective of a short-sighted manager is that

that the time away from work in training is less work being completed, resulting in lost

productivity. As a result, employees should take responsibility for their career development, and

avoid reliance on companies to present the opportunities.

Conventional training takes place in classrooms, online, seminars, and on-site at

companies. Learning through networking takes place online and in public. Networking offers

many opportunities to learn from others through an exchange of knowledge and experiences

(Table VII).

Knowledge sharing can be described as guiding individuals through their thinking

(Taylor, 2009). Through informal dialogue, attending panels, and conducting Informational

Networking Interviews (INI), employees can take ownership over their skills development and

growth. During an INI, employees seek out information by asking questions about another’s

career path, passions, and expertise. INI can also be utilized to learn about industries, job

functions, and companies. Employees can also ask how networking has impacted career growth

or even how to solve a problem. INI can be viewed positively by an employer (Callahan, 2014)

and it is acceptable to request them from coworkers or employees outside the organization. For

example, a rookie salesperson may experience challenges separating himself/herself from the

competition. Through INI, the rookie salesperson can learn from experienced salespeople how

to differentiate themselves. Conducting an INI can lead to referrals to others who may be in a

position to further support the employee’s growth. Learning through INI embraces a Micro-

learning approach, whereby the information learned is broken down into bite-size chunks.

Micro-Learning content can also be characterized as a learning process that consists of fine-

grained, interconnected learning opportunities (Schmidt, 2007). These interconnected learning

opportunities can may be viewed by employees as short, personalized, learning (or training)

events. To capitalize on INI, employees can set specific objectives which are part of a larger

networking or skill development goal. A key benefit of learning through INI is employees can

get multiple perspectives on a topic. A second benefit is that mentoring relationships may

emerge. On the whole, informational networking interviews can help employees achieve

mastery by spacing bite size chunks of information out over time.

Purpose through networking (Predictor of career engagement)

The psychological drive purpose can be described as being part of an objective larger

than self (Pink, 2009). In this section, the purpose drive in organizations is described and

supported with an example. Later in the section, the fulfillment of the purpose drive through

networking and the larger circulation of goodwill is explored.

Networking is effective because employees help others accomplish their goals. If

employees did not help each other, no one would accomplish networking goals. In an office

setting, employees are able to achieve more when their efforts are in service of an objective

larger than themselves (Pink, 2009). In some organization environments, employees might not

feel connected to a larger objective. As a result, employee engagement may drop. Effective

organization leaders are able to communicate a vision and motivate staff by describing the

importance of their role in bringing the vision to reality. This leader skill is an example of how

leaders make employees feel they are part of an objective larger than themselves at work.

Increased employee engagement is the outcome.

Networking offers a mechanism to sustain engagement and fulfill the purpose motive.

The purpose motive and objective in this case is a broader circulation of goodwill, resources, and

the fulfillment of career goals. Finding purpose by contributing to a larger circulation of

goodwill requires a commitment to paying it forward and developing networking skills. Further,

it can be achieved by setting aside personal interests and taking a genuine interest in others.

Paying it forward as a networking behavior, may be the strongest predictor of engagement for

employees seeking to fill the purpose motive. In sum, networkers can take a first step by asking

themselves, “how can I make this person better as a result of connecting” (Gitomer, 2006).

3b. Networking Competency/Mediator: Relationships

Building and managing relationships is an essential skill if employees hope to experience

the full benefits of networking. There is no shortage of literature that describes how to develop

professional relationships. In this section the Five Level Exedia Relationship Model and it’s

viability as a networking mediator are presented. The Five Level Exedia Relationship Model

allows networkers to categorize the state of a relationship (Townsend, 2014). The five stages are

Identify, Connect, Engage, Collaborate, and Inner-circle. Each relationship category progresses

to a higher degree of trust and deeper knowledge of personal and professional interests. Deeper

knowledge of another’s professional interests may enable employees to identify more

opportunities to fulfill their own psychological drives. For example, two individuals may identify

a shared passion in positive psychology when their relationship is at the “collaborate” level.

First, each individual may learn by hearing about the other person’s knowledge of positive

psychology (mastery drive). Second, they may recommend resources (including introductions)

that support the person’s interest (purpose drive). Third, the individual can decide whether or

not to recommend resources, and to which resources to recommend to the other (autonomy).

The progression of relationships through the Exedia Model illustrate how a deeper

engage of resources position’s relationship’s as a viable networking mediator of career

engagement

3c. Networking Competency: Professional Branding & Social Capital

Building a professional brand and social capital are both essential components of

networking success and viable mediators that assist in reaching career engagement. .

Professional branding can be described as a proactive behavior that influences your ability to be

sought after, mentioned, and valued (Mobray, 2009). Social Capital can be described as

resources accumulated through social and interpersonal ties (Coleman, 1998). Accumulating

social capital is similar to developing a brand because both take time. Adding value and taking

an interest in others are two ways to build a brand and social capital.

The opportunities created through networking and accumulation of social capital may be

in the form of resources that span across societies, industries, levels of work experience, and

demographics (Lin, 2010). Having a brand and accumulated social capital can lead to drive

fulfillment in multiple ways. First, employees who have a professional brand may have more

career opportunities to consider. For example, a forensic psychologist with a strong brand may

be contacted to sit on various panels and speaking engagements because she is known as a “go

to” person. A stronger brand may lead to more career opportunities to consider (autonomy), as a

speaker, or as a participant (mastery). Along the same lines, employees with high social capital

and a brand may be contacted for frequently to help others. For example, a career services

specialist may have the opportunity to help many others in a job search (purpose).

3d. Networking Competency/Mediator: Trust

The importance of trust in developing networking relationships cannot be overstated. The

topic of trust thoroughly covered in networking literature. Trust solidifies relationships

(Ferrazzi, 2007), and is built by displaying behaviors that promote trust. For example,

employees can begin building trust after making a new networking contact by promising to

follow up by email. Following through on that small promise is a first step to building trust. It is

also a behavior that promotes trust.

Trust is also important to employee engagement. Employees may be less engaged at

work if they do not trust their managers, peers, subordinates, or business partners. An example

of diminished trust toward a manager is when promises of salary increases and promotions go

unfulfilled. Networking offers employees the opportunity to surround themselves with contacts

who are trustworthy. Finding a trustworthy mentor may boost career engagement for employees

who have worked for managers that made promises that went unfulfilled. Therefore, trust may

be a strong path mediator towards engagement for employees who are seeking to fulfill the

autonomy drive.

Trust is important to consider when providing referrals or requesting them. In referral

networking, the person providing an introduction must consider the two people he or she is

introducing. If the employee is unprofessional or unreliable, his or her behavior reflects poorly

on the person providing the introduction. Therefore, establishing trust should be a prerequisite to

requesting an introduction, which we will explore in the next section.

3e. Networking Competency/Mediator: Referrals

Referrals or “referring” is a networking skill widely utilized in job search, problem

solving, and business development. Referrals take place in person, by phone, email, or through

LinkedIn. Providing referrals is a process whereby one employee refers another employee to

contact, organization, resources.

As a networking competency, referrals may lead employees to career engagement if

networking activities are correctly aligned with their unfulfilled drive. Exploring the relationship

between referrals and each drive provides an understanding how engagement may be reached.

First, employees have the freedom to choose which contact to refer to another contact. This

“freedom of choice” networking opportunity creates career autonomy similarly created in the

sections above. Employees with larger networks have more opportunities to refer, resulting in

more opportunities to create career autonomy. Second, the process of providing and receiving

referrals requires effort and skill. Therefore, employees may fulfill the mastery drive by learning

how to refer others. The framework offered in a Referral Champion model (Lopata, 2011)

demonstrates that referring requires skill and effort.

Three Criteria needed to become a Referral Champion:

1. Trust: There is a high degree of trust in the relationship and a willingness to provide

the referral.

2. Understanding: An understanding of a referral partner’s business and target referral

3. Proximity: The employee is in a profession that interacts or is able to reach the

referral prospect.

The referral model champion model above exemplifies that referring is a skill to be

learned and requires practice.

Finally, referrals may also lead to engagement for employees aiming to fulfill the purpose

motive. Introducing two people who may benefit by knowing each other has intrinsic value and

is a contribution to the larger circulation of goodwill.

3f. Networking Competency/Mediator: Reciprocity

Reciprocity is belief that employees should mutually assist each other; and that when

helped, one should return the favor (Taylor 2009). Reciprocity is a key skill to networking

success and is has also been well documented. First, Nowak and Roch (2007) suggest that

upstream reciprocity, a process of helping an unrelated third party after being helped (Chang

2007), is an evolutionary process because of its potential to deepen the exchange of resources

within a network. Reinforcing this point, Richard Cialdini suggests people can capitalize on the

norm of reciprocity by giving what they want to receive (Cialdini, 2007). And by the same

token, LinkedIn founder Adam Rifkin is aiming to uproot he tradition norm of reciprocity and

fundamentally change our ideas about how we build networks and who should benefit from

them. Rifkin asserts we should see networks as a way to add value to everyone (Grant, 2009).

Reciprocity is a networking skill linked with both autonomy and purpose psychological drives.

Aligned with the autonomy drive, employees can choose whom they reciprocate favors. Along

the same lines, deepening the exchange of resources within a network contributes to the larger

circulation of goodwill. This contribution is aligned with the purpose motive. In sum,

reciprocity drives the exchange of resources through networking and is directly linked to the

fulfillment of psychological drives.

3g. Networking Competency: Pay it forward

Paying it forward is the act of selflessly helping another without an expectation of

reciprocity. Illustrated above, paying it forward aligns with the purpose motive by contributing

to the larger circulation of goodwill. Extensive research across industries and job functions

reveals people who share their knowledge with colleagues end up earning more raises and

promotions (Grant, 2013). This suggests that pay it forward may fulfill both growth needs and

deficiency needs. Malone and Lepper suggest challenge, curiosity, control, cooperation and

competition, and recognition influence intrinsic motivation. Further, activities are intrinsically

motivating if people engaged for the sake of the activity (Malone, Lepper, 1987). Ferrazzi

explores the value of networking and importance not keeping score, claiming that “generosity is

the currency of real networking” and reinforcing his point further, “real networking is about

finding ways to make others successful” (Ferrazzi, 2005). Finally, when it is time to search for

a job or build business, employees find it easier to ask for help knowing they have sought out

opportunities to help others first.

Limitations and Assumptions

There are several limitations to the Career Engagement Networking Model. A first limitation

of the model is that the model is hypothetical. The model theorizes three psychological drives

proven to drive employee engagement, when fulfilled through networking, will drive career

engagement. Drawing a parallel between career engagement and employee engagement has not

been tested. A second limitation of this model access to networks. Testing the model may not

be feasible for employees in non-professional trades, and employees living in geographic areas

that do not have professional groups or networking events. An existing career engagement

model accounts for this limitation by including networking as one of six proactive career

behaviors (Hirschi, A., Fruend, P. A., Herrman 2014). Another limitation is that networking

competencies are needed to utilize a career engagement networking model. On the whole, the

limitations above can be fixed through further development and testing the model.

Future Applications

A benefit of CENM is that it can be a new area of networking research that opens the

door to many areas of future applications. The model is intended to identify the strongest path to

career engagement through networking mediators. In the text, the purpose drive was the

predictor of engagement, and it was fulfilled through the path of “pay it forward networking”. A

near term opportunity for research is to identify variables within the mediator that impact the

strength of path. In this particular case, personality type or score on an introversion/extroversion

scale may impact viability of pay it forward as a strong path.

Another opportunity stems from the model’s integrative structure. The model extends

beyond career engagement to include employee engagement, because it is rooted in drives that

are proven to impact employee engagement. Therefore CENM can be applied (and tested) on

individual, departmental, or organization levels. Sales departments may be an ideal population

for future research due to the heavy reliance on referrals and networking to generate new

business. The increase in engagement may result in higher employee productivity and revenues

for the organization. The model’s versatility is also appealing for future research because drives

can be selected based on individual need.

Another opportunity for future research is to identify how expert networkers achieved

career engagement through networking. Understanding how top networkers have fulfilled drives

through networking may lead to new directions in research and application.

A final opportunity for future research is generational. Pink asserts that many of the 100

baby boomers who will turn 60 years old every 18 through 2025 are retiring and wondering what

their legacy is. CENM shows promise in equipping the retiring Baby Boomers with framework

to fulfill the purpose motive through networking. Millennials should also be considered for the

fulfillment of the purpose motive through CENM. In sum, because of CENM’s integrated

structure, there are many opportunities for future testing and application.

Conclusion

The goals of this paper were to construct a model for consideration in future research, to

help employees increase career engagement and to bridge the gap between theory and practice

through Engaged Scholarship. Underlying this emerging body of work, research may serve as a

problem solving activity (Deutch, 1997), with 30% employee engagement as the problem, and

career engagement through networking as a solution.

.

Appendix

Image Figure I: Career Engagement Networking Model

Image II:

Table I: Definitions of Networking

Author & Year Definition Key Elements

Rogelberg 2007

The development, maintenance, or use of social or

professional contacts for the purpose of exchanging

information, resources, or services (pg. 3)

Professional contacts,

exchange

Hite, 2005

A socially constructed strategic alliance for instituting

change, developing growth (pg. 113)

Strategic alliance,

change, growth

Forret & Dougherty,

2001

Proactive attempts by individuals to develop and

maintain personal and professional relationships with

others for the purpose of mutual benefit in their work or

career (pg. 420)

Relationships, mutual

benefit, work, career

Wolff and Moser,

2009

Building, maintaining, and using relationships, on

career success (pg. 196)

Relationships, career

success

Rojas-Guyler,

Murnam, Cottrell,

2007

A circuit through which things flow ideas, energy,

dialogue, information, favors, and so on (pg. 229)

Circuit, ideas, energy,

dialogue, information,

favors

Lopata, 2011

Sharing expertise, contacts, ideas, and feedback with

those who need it (pg. 16)

Sharing, expertise,

ideas, feedback,

contacts, needs

Misner 2008

Developing contacts and relationships to increase

business, enhance your knowledge, expand your sphere

of influence, or serve the community (pg. 3)

Relationships,

business, knowledge,

influence, community

Townsend 2014

Building up mutually beneficial relationships for your

career or business (pg. 17)

Relationships, career,

business

D'Souza, 2008

Networking is developing relationships which can

support you, and in which you can provide support to

others, in every area of life (pg. 1)

Relationships,

support, life

Table II: Altruism and Networking Article Critiques

Author & Year Article

Anderson, A.R., Dodd, S.D.

and Jack, S. (2010) Network Practices and Entrepreneurial Growth

Bapna, R., Gupta, A.,

Sundararajan, A. (2011)

Trust, Reciprocity and the Strength of Social Ties: An Online Social

Network based Field Experiment

Chang, Y. P., Lin, Y., Chen, L.

H. (2011) Pay it forward: Gratitude in Social Networks

Curry O., Roberts, S., and

Dunbar, R., (2013) Altruism in Social Networks; Evidence for a ‘kinship premium’

Fredrickson, B. L. (2004) The Broaden and Build Theory of Positive Emotions

Harrison, F., Sciberras, J.,

James, R. (2011)

Strength of Social Tie Predicts Cooperative Investment in a Human

Social Network

Lin. N. (1999) Social Networks and Status Attainment – A Meta-Analysis

Moss. J., Barbuto, J., (2010)

Testing the Relationship between Interpersonal Political Skills,

Altruism, Leadership Success and Effectiveness: A Multi-Modal

Model

Simplicio J. (Date unknown)

The Art of the Favor: The connection Between Networking and

Personal Influence Within a College

Taylor, E.Z., Marthy, U.S.

(2009)

Knowledge Sharing among Accounting Academics in an Electronic

Network of Practice

Table III: Applied and Scientific Networking Article Critiques

Author & Year Article

Applied or

Scientific

Anderson, A.R.,

Dodd, S.D. and Jack,

S. (2010)

Network practices and entrepreneurial

growth. Scientific

Ferrazzi, K. (2005) Never Eat Alone Applied

Gitomer, J. (2006) Little Black Book of Connections Applied

Gostick, A., Elton, C.

(2014)

What Motivates Me. Put your Passions to

Work Applied

Lopata, A. (2011)

Recommended: How to Sell Through

Networking and Referrals. Applied

Misner, I., Donovan,

M.R. (2008)

The 29% Solution; 52 Weekly

networking Success Strategies Applied

Pink, D. (2009)

Drive: The Surprising Truth About What

Motivates Us

Townsend, H. (2014) Business Networking Applied

Table IV: Psychology theories considered in the development of CENM

Author & Year Theory/Model Psychological Drives

Alderfer, C. (1969) E.R.G Theory Existence, Relatedness and Growth

Maslow, A. (1954) Hierarchy of Needs Physiological, Safety, Belonging and

Love, Esteem Needs, and Self-

actualization

McLelland, D.

(1961) Learned Needs Theory Achievement, Affiliation, Autonomy,

and Power

Pink, D. (2009) Drive: Surprising Truth About What

Motivates Us Autonomy, Mastery, and Purpose

Table V. Autonomy in Networking

Variable Work Networking

People Limited Choice Freedom of Choice

Time (and hours) Limited Choice Freedom of Choice

Use of Technology Limited Choice Freedom of Choice

Performance Review Self, Peer, Manager Freedom of Choice

Attire Limited Choice Freedom of Choice

Work

Responsibilities Limited Choice Freedom of Choice

Table VI. Conventional Learning and Mastery through Networking

Conventional Networking

University – College Control

Seminars – Conferences Time

Monetary Investment Monetary Investment

Valid & Recognized People

Practice Versatility

Interpersonal

Intrinsic

Table VII. Networking Construct Groupings

Goals Career Psychology

Job Search Intrinsic Rewards Power

Entrepreneurship Growth Psychic Income Influence

Business Development Career Growth Validation

Business Growth Career Fulfillment Problem Solving

Clear Goals Career Satisfaction McClelland

Problem Solving Self-Actualization Maslow

Diversity of Thought Lifelong Learning Pink

Connecting as Life Philosophy Ego

Mentoring-Coaching-Advising Extrinsic Rewards

Mission Johari Window

Protean Career Perception

Post Corporate Career Perceptual Distortions

Boundary-less Careers Schemas

Career Profiles Classical Conditioning

Hybrid Careers Career Satisfaction

Kaleidoscope Career Model Employee Engagement

Job Crafting Reward Systems

Job Sculpting Organization Citizenship

How to Network Traits Exchange

Trust Active listening Connectors

Following up Gratitude Social Exchange Theory

Network Audit Sincerity Law of Attraction

Events Positive Attitude Broaden and Build Theory

Mass Emails Passion Risk

Social Media Full Potential Anchor Tenants

Branding Trust Worthiness Strategic Alliances

Strength of Tie Time Management Givers/Takers/Matchers

Social Capital Fear of Rejection

24/7 networking Generosity

Credibility Staying in Touch

Marketing Knowledge Capital

Networking Strategy

Impression Management

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