James Doc Crabtree

James "Doc" Crabtree

Guerrilla Air Defense:Antiaircraft Weapons and Techniques for Guerrilla Forcesby James "Doc" Crabtree

Copyright © 1996 by James "Doc" CrabtreeISBN 0-87364-880-3Printed in thc United States of America

Contents

Chapter 1AirThreat 1

Chapter 2Passive Air Defense 19

Chapter 3Active Air Defense 31

Chapter 4Flak Traps 45

Chapter 5Dedicated Antiaircraft Weapons... 57

Guerrilla Air Defense

Chapter 6Improvised Antiaircraft

Weapons 77

Appendix AProblems of Antiaircraft

Gunnery 91

Appendix BProblems of Missile Gunnery 95

Appendix CA Selected Chronology of

Guerrilla ImprovisedAir Defense 99

V I

Warning

The Information in this book is presented for his-torical reference and academic study only. The author,publisher, and distributors of this book disclaim anyliability and assume no responsibility for the use ormisuse of the Information herein.

v i i

Chapter 1

The Air Threat

In the 20th Century, air power has come to playimportant roles in warfare. Air transport, intercep-tion, reconnaissance, and Strategie taombing are justa few of the missions carried out by aircraft. Of prima-ry concern to the guerrilla are the roles of counterin-surgency (COIN) and close air support (CAS).

The British pioneered the practice of using aircraftagainst guerrillas following World War I. Using aircraft,they were able to police up their huge colonial empireagainst the threat of native uprisings in the MiddleEast. Bombing and strafing natives far from the citiesand forts effectively crushed their resistance.

In recent years, helicopters, tacticaljets, and evensome propeller aircraft have been employed to fightinsurgents. In South West Africa and Angola, South


African helicopters and paratroop aircraft were usedin concert to fight South West African People'sOrganization (SWAPO) insurgents. In Argentina, thegovernment employed specially designed twin-turbo-prop Pucara COIN aircraft against guerrillas. And, ofcourse, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics'(USSR's) war in Afghanistan led to the massive use ofattack helicopters and close air support jets to attackMujihadeen guerrillas in a variety of ways, usingrockets, bombs, air-dropped mines, and helicopterassault troops.

The lesson for the guerrilla is clear: air power mustbe recognized as a factor in the struggle. The govern-ment against which the insurgency is struggling willhave the advantage of comparatively vast resources atits disposal, including army aviation and air forceassets. And even small numbers of aircraft can have agreat impact on the struggle. Let's look at how aircraftare employed against the guerrilla.

Aircraft can be used to locate insurgents, eitherthrough high-altitude reconnaissance or low-levelobservation. There is little the guerrilla can do abouthigh-altitude spy aircraft and, in fact, it is often wiseto leave low-altitude scouts alone as well. Unless thescout aircraft can be brought down with certainty, allthe guerrilla will be doing is giving away his position.Passive air defense measures are the best means ofprotecting insurgent forces against scout aircraft.

Many countries now use remotely piloted vehicles(RPVs)—sometimes called unmanned aerial vehicles,or UAVs—to conduct battlefield reconnaissance.These radio-controlled aircraft are easily recognized—they are small and often similar in appearance tolarge remote-controlled model planes. Most are propfixed-wing modeis, although some modeis have jetengines or are rotary-winged in design.

RPVs can be used to fly patterns over a suspect area.

The Air Threat

A sure sign that an RPV has spotted something is abreak in its flight pattern in response to the Controllersdesire to get a better look at something. Television cam-eras relay real time images back to the RPV Controller,giving him a picture of the battlefield without exposinghim to danger. The RPVs small size makes it difficult tohit and, once again, firing at them only serves to drawunwanted attention to guerrilla positions.

Some airborne scouts do pose a direct threat, how-ever. RPVs or small scouting aircraft might beemployed as forward air Controllers (FACs) that call inartillery fire or strike aircraft to hit insurgent positions.They usually operate with enemy ground forces to pro-vide direct support. These aircraft orbit above the bat-tlefield, making wide circles or racetrack patterns, butthey are known to break the pattern and mark targetsfrom the air using smoke or flares. If FACs foolishlystick to a set pattern, it is easier to engage them.

Infiltration is another purpose for which govern-ment or invasion forces use air power in counterin-surgency operations. Aircraft are used to insertscouts to look for guerrillas on the ground far fromareas under enemy control and with a minimumChance of detection. These operations are often per-formed at night when regular military forces will havethe advantage of night Vision devices.

The enemy may use air assault, in which helibornetroops are quickly inserted into an area of operationsby rappelling from the helicopter or using "fastropes," which are Special sleeved ropes soldiers cangrip and slide down. If conditions at the landing zonepermit, the helicopters may opt to land and dischargetheir troops, or the enemy may mount an airborneOperation. This is the insertion of paratroopers—either overtly or covertly—into the area of operations.There are many missions such troops could perform.

And finally, there is the direct attack against insur-


FIGHTER-BOMBER

CLOSE AIR SUPPORT

GROUND ATTACK

HELICOPTER GUNSHIP

ATTACK HELICOPTER

UTILITY HELICOPTER

SCOUT HELICOPTER

PROP TRANSPORT

PROP GROUND ATTACK

PROP COUNTERINSURGENCY

PROP RPV

VARIOUSAIRCRAFT TYPES

The Air Threat

gent forces using ground attack aircraft. These air-craft can be divided into three types: jets, props, androtary-wing aircraft. Each type has its own strengthsand weaknesses.

Jets are fast and powerful and capable of carryingheavy loads at high speeds. Some Single, well-equipped ground at tack aircraft are capable ofdestroying almost any military target. The U.S. AirForce's A-10 Thunderbolt II "Warthog" ground attackplane is an excellent example of such a jet. Butbecause of its speed, its pilot must make decisions ina fraction of a second, and this can reduce the plane'seffectiveness in an observation role.

Propeller-driven aircraft can fly at much slowerspeeds and can be used to both find and destroyenemy insurgents. Propeller aircraft also have theadvantage of being able to operate from primitive air-fields close to remote areas where insurgents mighttry to hide. Argentina's Pucara is such an aircraft,having proven its worth during the Argentine guerrillaconflict; however, the relatively slow speed of this pro-peller-driven aircraft makes it an easier target.

Helicopters are a proven COIN weapon. They haveall the advantages of prop aircraft, plus the ability tohover. (Some Soviet helicopters cannot hover; theyrely on wing pylons to provide necessary lift.) The ver-satility of helicopters has resulted in the developmentof many different designs, most of which are useful inCOIN operations: light helicopters for scouting theenemy, Utility helicopters for transporting troops, andhelicopter gunships for strafing and rocketing guerril-las. Some helicopter modeis can do all of these jobswhen properly equipped.

In order to Support friendly troops in a ground-attack role, aircraft have been equipped with a varietyof weapons. Fixed-wing aircraft in the ground attackrole are almost always equipped with some sort of

The Air Threat

AIRBORNEWEAPONS

7CHART OF AIRCRAFT CAPABILITIES

NAME TYPE ARMAMENT MISSION SPEED

A-10 Jet Cannon, Rockets, Attack 436 mph

Bombs, Missiles

AH-1 Helicopter Cannon, Rockets, Attack 175 mph

Missiles

AH-64 Helicopter Cannon, Rockets, Attack 184 mph

Missiles

Alpha Jet Cannon, Rockets, Multi 644 mphJ e t Bombs, Missiles

F-15E Jet Cannon, Bombs, Multi Mach 2.5

Missiles

F-16 Jet Cannon, Rockets, Multi Mach 2

Bombs, Missiles

Mi 8 Helicopter Rockets, Missiles, Multi 161 mph

Machine Guns (MGs)

Mi-24 Helicopter Cannon, Rockets, Attack 192 mph

Bombs, Missiles

Mig-21 Jet Cannon, Rockets, Multi Mach 2

Bombs

Mig-27 Jet Cannon, Rockets, Attack Mach 1.7

Bombs, Missiles

Mig-29 Jet Cannon, Rockets, Multi Mach 2.3

Bombs

Mirage Jet Cannon, Rockets, Multi Mach 2.2

"' Bombs, Missiles

Mirage Jet Cannon, Rockets, Multi Mach 2.2

Bombs, Missiles

Peace- Prop Cannon, Rockets, COIN 162 mphmaker

Bombs

Pucara Prop Cannon, Rockets, COIN 310 mph

Bombs, MGs

Su-25 Jet Cannon, Rockets, Attack 527 mph

Bombs, Missiles

UH-1 Helicopter MGs, Cannon, Multi 136 mph

Rockets

UH64 Helicopter Cannon, Rockets, Multi 184 mph

Missiles


cannon, harking back to the days when early aircraftstrafed troops with machine guns. Later, planes wereadapted to carry bombs, but since then aircraft havealso been equipped with unguided rockets and guidedair-to-surface missiles like the TOW.

Rotary-wing aircraft carry rockets and missiles,but they rarely carry bombs. Many helicopters carrysoine sort of automatic cannon, but instead of beingfixed nose-forward, the cannon is often located in anose turret that can sweep left and right. Some Utilityhelicopters and older attack helicopters also havedoor gunners on either side of the aircraft, but sucharrangements almost always use machine guns.

Cannon tactics include strafing for fixed-wing air-craft and left-and-right sweeps for helicopters.Cannon fire is the most economical form of groundattack for aircraft because it gives pilots the ability tosweep large areas at will. Cannon Shells, dependingupon their size, can penetrate light protective Cover,but the density of the fire produced may result inmany misses against ground targets.

Rockets have the effect of instant artillery againstground targets. Carried by both helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft on strafing runs, rockets can be fired oneat a Urne for harassing fire or salvoed to devastate asmall area. The potential velocity and explosive powerof the rocket can easily destroy well-built bunkers.

Ground-to-air missiles can be used by just aboutany type of aircraft flying today. They can be guidedthrough a number of different means by either thelaunching aircraft or by a second aircraft. These mis-siles are usually designed to destroy a Single, heavilyfortified or armored target. If ground-to-air missilesare in short supply, a pilot will think twice before"wasting" such an expensive weapon on guerrillas.

Bombs have been used ever since aircraft werefirst flown. Some are guided by reflected laser energy,

The Air Threat

but it is not unusual for bombs to be "dumb" weaponsthat are simply dropped in the general direction of atarget. Antipersonnel bombs can be used to sprayshrapnel over a large area, while cluster bombs arecapable of spreading destruction over an even largerarea by spreading small, golf-ball-sized submunitionsacross the ground.

Another airborne weapon is napalm. Spread over alarge area and ignited in just a few short seconds, it isparticularly destructive and was well used by U.S.forces in Vietnam.

But the purpose of this book is to give the readerrespect for air power, not to give the impression thataircraft rule the battlefield unchallenged. Measurescan be taken to protect friendly troops from airattack, and the aircraft themselves are not invulnera-ble. In fact, the more sophisticated the aircraft themore susceptible it can be to being brought down byrelatively minor damage—the mere nick of a bullet ona hydraulic line can cause the pilot to lose control ofhis rudders, or a small hole made by the explosion ofa rocket might cause him to lose fuel and have toretreat to base. More importantly, if enough firepowercan be brought to bear on an aircraft, the pilot couldmiss his target or abort his mission altogether. This isknown as "Virtual attrition," which means that evenwhen the enemy uses the same number of aircraft, hecannot accomplish as much as he could if he did nothave to contend with guerrilla air defense.

Two examples of the success insurgents haveenjoyed against superior forces are the Vietminh (andlater, the Vietcong) and the Mujihadeen in Afghan-istan. In Vietnam, the insurgents defeated the Frenchcolonial forces despite their superior firepower andtheir ability to airlift paratroopers almost anywherewithin Indochina. In Afghanistan, Muslim freedoinfighters managed to break the grasp of Soviet occupa-


tion forces and later forced them to withdraw. Both ofthese guerrilla struggles are important for the lessonsone can draw from them.

Following World War II, the French attempted toreclaim their colonial possessions. A resistance move-ment called the Vietminh emerged to contest the con-trol of the provinces that today make up Vietnam. TheFrench had first employed air power against an insur-gency known as the Red Soviet revolt, which wasmade up of several communist enclaves that wereestablished in the countryside in 1930 and 1931.Despite the fact that the French's use of air power didnot quickly put an end to the guerrilla war, theyturned to the same COIN tactics.

Vietminh guerrillas had many advantages. Theycould hide in the jungles and highlands of Indochinaand then sally forth to strike the French at will. Whenthe French attempted to follow them back into thejungle, they ran into booby traps like the infamouspunji stake or found that their enemy had simply dis-appeared into the native population.

One French attempt to win the war came duringOperation Lea, a 1947 air and ground offensiveagainst the Vietminh's main stronghold northwest ofHanoi. They hoped that by capturing the Vietminh'sleadership and the bulk of their organized forces, theymight end the war in one stroke.

Two columns approached the stronghold on theground, while a third "column" of paratroopers wasdropped directly over the Vietminh strong point. Artilleryand armor supported the infantry, and the combinedground forces were supported by an entire fighter group.The French possessed overwhelming firepower.

Thanks to their use of the air and a lack of effectiveair defense, the French's surprise was total. Theynabbed several Vietminh leaders and narrowlyrnissed capturing Ho Chi Minh himself. However, the

10

The Air Threat

bulk of the guerrilla forces managed to escape thetrap to fight another day.

Following this battle, the Vietminh concentratedon improving their firepower. Soviet and Chineseweapons began replacing the old Japanese andFrench weapons in the hands of the guerrillas. Someof these weapons were antiaircraft (AA) guns—most-ly light automatic weapons. There would be norepeat of Operation Lea.

For their part, the French eventually settled on theidea of luring the Vietminh into a conventional, set-piece battle in which French firepower and use of theair, two areas in which they had overwhelming advan-tages, could be brought to bear to destroy the bulk ofthe insurgent forces with one blow. The place theFrench chose to land this blow was an outpost deepin insurgent territory called Dien Bien Phu.

Dien Bien Phu dominated several land routes andmade it difficult for the insurgents to harvest theircash crop of opium. The Vietnamese People's Army(VPA) answered the French challenge by building uptheir forces around the fort until it was surroundedand cut off from all routes except one—the air route.The 10,000-man garrison was reduced to beingresupplied from the air.

The French had every reason to believe that theywould be able to maintain Dien Bien Phu by airlift.They possessed ample transports and thought theyhad the edge in firepower. But the VPA supply linewas able to survive attacks by World War II vintageaircraft, and VPA forces were able to manhandleartillery pieces into positions around the fort and rainShells on the defenders. Then the Vietnamese turnedto the problem of cutting the French aerial lifeline.

The VPA insurgents launched an artillery attackagainst the fort's runway and then followed it up with aninfantry assault. The capture of the runway meant that

11


VIETNAMESEAIR DEFENDER

12

The Air Threat

the French forces could only be supplied by parachute.This is where the Vietnamese antiaircraft forces

took their toll on the French aircraft. In order to reli-ably drop supplies into friendly hands, the French hadto fly "low and slow," which made them perfect targetsfor the light AA guns available to the insurgents.

Thirty-seven millimeter guns were positioned tokeep the entire French garrison under an umbrella ofantiaircraft fire. Transports making their approach tothe garrison met a hail of flak. Food and ammunitioncould not be brought into the garrison without greatrisk, and the supplies that did get through were notenough. Dien Bien Phu, manned by elite ForeignLegionnaires and French paratroopers, had no choicebut to surrender to the Vietminh. The end of DienBien Phu meant the end of French power in Vietnam.

But the Vietnamese example is just one story ofguerrilla air defense—one that ended with a Single,decisive opportunity to use antiaircraft fire to prac-tically win a war. Another more recent example isone in which antiaircraft weapons were used to pro-tract a guerrilla war to the point where occupationwas no longer economical. This was the Soviet expe-rience in Afghanistan.

At the end of 1979, Soviet forces invaded the cen-tral Asian country to install a government moreamenable to the USSR. As a result, the Soviets foundthemselves fighting a war against a determined resis-tance that had already been formed to oppose theDemocratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA). TheMujihadeen ("fighters of the faith") rose up to fightagainst godless Communism.

The Soviets employed motorized rifle divisions andairborne troops to rapidly secure Afghanistan, or atleast the major population centers and military facili-ties. Soviet motorized rifle formations had heavyarmor and artillery support, and even airborne units

13


MUJIHADEENAIR DEFENDER

14

The Air Threat

had air-dropped and air-transportable armored vehi-cles. And to support the ground forces, the Sovietsbrought in helicopters and fixed-wing attack aircraft.The Afghani insurgents faced a modern and for-midable combined-arms force.

In the beginning, even the small arms possessedby the resistance were not entirely reliable. This Situ-ation changed as better weapons were smuggled in bythe West and as Soviet military equipment was cap-tured from the Soviets or their DRA Army troops. TheMujihadeen went from using rifles and light machineguns to employing heavy antiaircraft machine gunsand other automatic air defense weapons.

Soviet helicopters were used more often as com-munist ground forces found it difficult to deal withthe Mujihadeen's ability to d isappear into therugged mountains of their country. To the Afghanis,and indeed to the world, the Soviet helicopter cameto symbolize the ruthless use of force against a rela-tively primitive people.

Although the Afghanis might have been primitive,they were also brave and wise warriors with a longhistory of dealing with invaders. Knowing they couldrely on no one but themselves, they learned to dealwith the enemy on his terms. They destroyed modernfighter-bombers and attack helicopters where theystood the best Chance against them—on the ground.The Mujihadeen also protected themselves as well asthey could against the dreaded enemy air attacks andthen began harassing Soviet helicopters and fighterswith small-arms fire and rocket-propelled grenadesas they flew above the countryside. Every once in awhile, the guerrillas would get lucky and bring downan aircraft, but more often they succeeded in degrad-ing the Performance of Soviet pilots.

Then the Afghanis graduated to man-portable airdefense Systems (MANPADS). The first shoulder-fired

15


CHECHNYA1995

16

The Air Threat

surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) the Afghanis were ableto acquire were Soviet-made Strela-2s captured fromDRA Army defectors, who also taught them how touse them. These were not very effective; the Strela-2(known as the SA-7 Grail in the West) is a revengeweapon and can only be used against an aircraft thathas already passed overhead. The infrared (IR) seekerused by the missile can be easily deceived by clouds,set astray by the sun, or tricked by air-droppedflares. And on top of all these faults, they were avail-able only in small numbers. A more effective weaponwas needed and in numbers great enough to causethe Soviets to take notice.

The weapon that answered the Mujihadeen'sprayers was the American-made Stinger missile. TheStinger is an all-aspect weapon, which means it canbe used against an aircraft whether it is approachingor leaving. Its seeker is more sensitive and harder tofool. The Stinger turned the tables and made thehunters the hunted in the skies over Afghanistan.

The Soviet occupation forces found themselves vir-tually under siege within the cities, and that includedtheir air force. Aircraft entering and leaving the air-port in Kabul were fair game for the insurgents, andSoviet pilots routinely dropped flares as they flew inand out. There were reports that Soviet pilots refusedto fly certain formations, and the communist heli-copters and jets began flying at far higher altitudes,which degraded their Performance.

The failure of the Soviets to secure the countrysidewith air power doomed their occupation of Afghan-istan. By 1988, the USSR had had enough—theSoviets left the Afghanis to sort out their future forthemselves. It was a great victory for the Mujihadeen.

As this book was being written, the Chechenrebels fighting for independence in Russia succeededin downing a Russian Su-25 "Frogfoot" using small-

17


arms fire. With the determination that comes from abelief in the righteousness of a cause and the righttactics, the guerrilla can persevere against air attack. . . and eventually win.

18 4

Chapter

Passive Air Defense

The use of passive air defense measures goes backto the American Civil War when Confederate troopsfirst hid themselves and extinguished their campfiresto evade detection from Union balloons. Since then,passive measures, from the "blackout" to the bombshelter, have been used in every war in which aircrafthave played a role, even though their use posed nodanger to hostile forces.

Passive measures must be used by guerrillas.What the enemy cannot see, he cannot attack. And ifhe does attack, he cannot hit what his bombs cannotreach. Guerrilla forces are usual ly limited inresources, and passive measures allow them to con-serve what they have. They are the guerrilla's first lineof defense against air attack.

19


CAMOUFLAGE

LIGHTDISCIPLiNE

AVOID OPENMOVEMENT

MiNIMIZERADIO USE

ATTACKAVOIDANCE

20 I

Passive Air Defense

Passive measures can be divided into two differentcategories: attack avoidance measures and damagelimiting measures. Attack avoidance measures limitdetection from the air, while damage limiting mea-sures minimize the effects of air attack.

Attack avoidance measures are extremely valu-able. Usually, these are simple tasks that require lit-tle effort, and yet, if consistently followed, they willoften protect friendly troops from air attack betterthan any heavy machine gun or missile by makingcertain that an attack doesn't occur at all.

Camouflage, of course, is an important attackavoidance measure. Even if a pilot cannot spot aguerrilla position from the air, an aerial imagery Inter-preter might after analyzing aerial photographs takenby the pilot. Colors that do not belong in the environ-ment, Sharp edges, and individual fighters can all bespotted from the air, but Camouflage can protectguerrillas and their activities from detection.

First of all, everything in the field should be paint-ed in nonreflective flat colors. Most military itemscaptured or purchased or otherwise supplied to aguerrilla force will already be properly painted, per-haps including a Camouflage pattern, but civilianitems useful to the fight also have to be painted. Andit goes without saying that the colors must match theenvironment. If paint is not available, mud or sandcan be smeared across equipment to subdue it.

If available, Camouflage nets should be used. Asidefrom providing additional color, nets also break upthe shape of vehicles, tents, equipment, and perma-nent structures. Equipment camouflaged with suchnets tend to blend in with the local environment,making them very difficult to identify through aerialphotographs and virtually impossible for a pilot todetect while flying at high speed and altitude.

If nets are not available, items from the environ-

21


ment must be used. Sand can cover bunkers bulltIn the desert, and scrub brush can be planted onthe roof. Similarly, weathered dead wood can beplaced on or near equipment in the forest In orderto break up its Silhouette. And vehicles can beparked in the tree line, using its natural canopyand shadows to hide them.

Vehicle Windows and mirrors must be coveredwith cloth or whatever means are available. Thereflection of light on a window can be seen from theair as a bright flash, which can get the instant atten-tion of a pilot. Sometimes it is enough to lift the hoodof a vehicle so that it blocks the windshield and tolower the Windows.

In areas where guerrillas have established control,the guerrillas will naturally leave signs of their pres-ence. Paths in the open will leave a brown line thatcan be seen from the air, and trash dumps can bedetected in aerial photographs. Guerrillas must moveunder the cover of trees, even if it is not the easiestpath. Debris and garbage must be disposed of in waysthat will be hard to detect.

Individual fighters must also be concealed.Camouflage uniforms are best, if available, but thefighters can also wear shades that blend in with theenvironment. If there is a distinctive dress amongthe locals, guerrillas might also wear that to mini-mize suspicion.

Another detection danger is movement. Movementcatches the eye. While aircraft are in the area, fightersshould get to the ground and freeze, and vehiclesshould be stopped until it is safe or detection is cer-tain and active air defense measures are necessary.Moving at night minimizes the possibility of detection,even against an enemy armed with infrared and nightVision equipment.

In regions where there is a distinct change in sea-

22

Passive Air Defense

sons, it is necessary to adjust Camouflage according-ly. Whitewash should be used to make green-painteditems match the snow-covered background, andguerrillas should wear white smocks over their cloth-ing. Basically, they should do whatever it takes tominimize the chances of detection.

Light discipline is important in attack avoidanceprocedures. At night, relatively dim sources of lightcan be detected at great distances. As in the earliestinstances of air defense, the blackout should beused upon the detection of aircraft—all lightsshould be shut off, and campfires and cigarettesshould be extinguished.

Today, there are several ways that freedom fight-ers can be detected, in addition to simple Visualdetection. One is infrared (IR) detection, and anoth-er is radio detection. Attack avoidance proceduresmust be extended across the spectrum to includethese possibilities.

Infrared devlces are employed by modern armiesand air forces to detect heat sources, or the lack ofthem, caused by human Intervention. Such devicesvary in their effectiveness: more primitive ones aregood for little more than finding campfires, while farmore sophisticated modeis have fine resolution andcan see individual soldiers in enough detail to iden-tify which side they are on.

When such devices were first used in Vietnam tolocate tunnel entrances, the Vietcong developed aSpecial System of dispersed exhaust air vents. Theseserved to slightly cool the air leavlng the tunnels andto get rid of it at some distance from the actual tunnelentrance. Any permanent tunnel System should havesuch a way of getting rid of warm air or smoke fumes.

There are habits that will minimize IR detection.Upon hearing enemy aircraft, fires should be put outor not used at all if unnecessary. Smokeless fires are

23


still detectable in the daylight, and even extin-guished fires will have an IR signature. Vehicleengines should be run at a bare minimum, and ifrecently used, they should be cooled by whatevermeans necessary. Vehicle engines should not berun at all at night, as this is when IR detectiondevices are most likely to be used.

It is the sarae with radio detection. There arenumerous radio detection devices, many of which areairborne, but the danger from radio detection is con-stant. In fact, distant ground-based stations might beable to safely intercept and identify a guerrilla trans-mission Site through a technique called triangulation.

If radios are not used, say, because of the use ofrunners or land lines for Communications, the dan-ger of detection is somewhat reduced. But if radiosare used to maintain Communications with friendlyunits, to give Orders, or to keep in contact with dis-tant allies, the danger is substantial. The longer thetransmission the more likely the enemy will locatethe exact position of the transmitter. And the morelikely that a bombing or strafing sortie will belaunched against the site, as air attack is theswiftest means of response.

Signal discipline is therefore the order of theday Transmissions should be short and broken upin'three- or four-second bursts. Whenever possi-ble transmissions should take place away frombase camps or permanent Sites to draw attack onthe remote site instead of an important base loca-tion. And, of course, radios should not be used atall if unnecessary.

An early warning network should be set up dayand night, not just to coordinate passive air defensemeasures but also to prepare active air defenses foraction. An air guard should be established to warnthe base camp against air attack. Set up on high

24

Passive Air Defense

AIR GUARD WARNSTHE CAMP by SOUNDINGAN ALARM, IN THIS CASE

A BELL

EARLYWARNING

25


ground and away from the activities of the camp, anair guard can listen for the sound of approaching jetsor rotors and spot distant aircraft. The warning canthen be relayed to the other fighters.

A prearranged signal for air attack should beadopted such as the sound of metal on metal or a bell.Whatever the Signal, fighters must be aware that itmeans an air attack is imminent.

If the insurgency is widespread, an air warningnetwork can be established with radio Signals relay-ing the location of enemy aircraft and the directionthey are headed in.

After everything has been done to avoid attack, theguerrilla must do everything possible to minimize theeffects of attack if and when it comes. Damage limit-ing measures must come into play to preserve thestrength of the insurrection.

From the air, large targets can be effectively hitmany times. Several smaller targets are much moredifficult to hit; therefore, dispersal is an importantpractice. Vehicles should never be parked at one cen-tral location but at individual spots instead, largebunkers should be avoided in favor of several smallerones, and guerrillas should not be allowed to congre-gate for any length of time. Personnel and vehiclesshould be staggered so that a strafing aircraft cannothit all of them in a Single run.

The effectiveness of dispersal cannot be overstat-ed Smaller targets are harder to spot and give littlesatisfaction to enemy forces when they are destroyed.By spreading out assets, the guerrilla forces theenemy to disperse his firepower as well.

Bombs, rockets, and cannon fire can cause severedamage to troops in the open. But it is possible toprotect military stores and guerrilla fighters notengaged in the air defense battle. Bunkers are idealfor this purpose.26

Passive Air Defense

CLUSTER BOMBSFAILED TO PENETRATE

COVER.

NEAR-MISS THROWNOFF BY CAMOUFLAGE. SHRAPNEL FROM

NEAR-MISS FAILEDTO PENETRATE COVER.

AFTERMATHOF AN ATTACK.

BUNKERS

2 7


Earthen bunkers can be constructed with handtools and guerrilla labor. First, a good position isfound, preferably where there is good overhead con-cealment from Vegetation. Next, a shallow trench isdug. Then, thick earthen walls are built along theoutside of the trench and reinforced with whatevermaterials are available—filled sandbags are goodfor this. The bunker is then covered with a thickroof, perhaps made of logs that are covered overwith a layer of sand or soil. The finished bunker willthen be camouflaged.

It goes without saying that the bunker should beheavily reinforced. If built with two entrances, it willbe better able to protect its occupants from the con-cussion effects of bombs, which are very dangerouskillers. The bunker should be built not just as a bombshelter but as a fighting position as well. Gun slitsshould be left to cover approaches, and a dispersedbunker complex should have interlocking fields offire. This ensures a warm reception for visiting para-troopers or helicopter troops.

Whenever possible, guerrillas should use caves ordeep tunnels for shelter. During the Vietnam War,insurgents were able to protect themselves insidetunnel complexes, even when attacked by B-52strikes that obliterated everything on the surface.The main drawback to elaborate tunnels is theimmense effort that goes into their construction.The cost in effort might make a guerrilla force standand fight prematurely to keep possession of the tun-nels rather than give them up during a withdrawal.

Tunneling should not be attempted if the soil is toosoft or too close to the water table. And if tunnels arebuilt, they must be reinforced and braced to prevent acollapse under bombing.

These are all measures that can be taken to mini-mize damage from air attack or prevent the possibility

28

Passive Air Defense

of air attack at all. But eventually a guerrilla forcemust face the possibility of air attack and activelydefend itself. The next chapter looks at how to accom-plish this.

2 9

Jhapter

Active Air Defense

It is foolish to attempt outright to deny enemy orinvasion forces the use of the air by employing thetypes of weapons available to the guerrilla. Instead,the guerrilla must pick and choose the time and placehe wishes to contest enemy use of the air.

Of course, the logical place to defend is the guerril-la base area. This is where much, if not all, the guer-rilla's air defense weapons will be stored. Theweapons should be available with a plan for their use.

The simplest weapon available for air defense pur-poses is the guerrilla's rifle. A lone guerrilla with aSingle rifle is not much of a threat to an aircraft,which is why teamwork and volume fire are the keysto effectively engaging enemy aircraft.

Volume fire is created when all available rifles are

31


CROSSING

SMALL ARMSAIMING POINTS

32

Active Air Defense

aimed in front of the nose of an aircraft. The result ofsuch an intense use of small arms is a relativelydense mass of bullets in the path of the aircraft—infront of it, behind it, and, with any luck, rightthrough it. The effectiveness of volume fire is depen-dent upon the type of weapons involved, how manyweapons are involved, and how well the individualgunners judge their aiming point.

Since a Single air raid can begin with little or nowarning and be over in a matter seconds, there is littleor no time for the guerrilla to make an estimate of thespeed or ränge of an enemy aircraft, much less to cal-culate the proper deflection and lead. Instead, the aim-ing point is determined by using a bit of imagination.The individual guerrilla needs to aim by imagining anAmerican football field or similar-sized reference andadjusting the aim point according to the speed of theaircraft and its course in relation to his position.

Jets are the fastest aircraft and will need the mostlead. If crossing to the left or right or flying directlyoverhead, a jet should be led by two football fields. If ajet appears to be heading directly toward the guerril-la, the aim point should be just above the nose, per-haps at the cockpit or tail.

Helicopters are slower. If hovering or moving veryslowly, a helicopter should be engaged as a stationarytarget. If moving faster, a helicopter must be engagedby giving it a half a football field lead if it is crossingthe guerrilla's position. If the helicopter is movingdirectly toward the guerrilla, the aim point should bethe hub of the rotor blades—the drop of the roundswill land them in the engine and the cockpit.

Individual fighting positions for air defense weaponsmust be prepared, just as fighting positions for antitankor infantry weapons must be prepared. But require-ments for air defense weapons are slightly differentfrom, say, a machine gun used for ground defense.

33


THE CHARACTERIST1CS OFDIFFERENT WEAPONS SYSTEMS

COMPUMENT EACH OTHER ANDCOVER EACH OTHER'S WEAKNESSES.

ITHIS IS MIX.

MIX

34

Active Air Defense

There are certain principles of air defense thatensure that the tactics used, regardless of what formthey take, are effective. These are mass, mix, mobili-ty, and Integration. Here is how each works.

Mass is the simplest of these principles. It means theconcentration of air defense weapons in order to havethe greatest chance of a hit. Although this is a simpleidea, it flies in the face of guerrülas who are tempted to"fritter away" antiaircraft weapons to many differentpoints. The problem is there will never be enoughweapons to defend everything, and by trying to do so theavailable weapons' effectiveness will be diluted.

It is better to rely on passive air defense measuresand small arms to defend points of secondary interest,while dedicated air defense weapons are devoted to afew primary Sites. Although the guerrilla will rarely beable to concentrate air defense fire to a level compara-ble to that of a conventional force, as he will lack long-range, high-altitude missile Systems, he will be able tocreate a volume of fire intense enough to make itextremely hazardous for enemy aircraft to operate.

One example of the use of mass is the flak trapUsing a flak trap is a deliberate attempt to destroyenemy aircraft and, in effect, take the initiativefrom him. Vietcong gunners massed automaticweapons at likely helicopter landing zones duringthe Vietnam War, successfully bringing down manyAmerican helicopters. (Flak traps are discussedfurther in Chapter 4.)

The next air defense principle is mix. Wheneverpossible, different antiaircraft weapons should beused in conjunction with each other. For instance,automatic weapons and shoulder-fired missiles canbe used to defend the same target. In this way, thetwo weapon types compliment each other—missilescan hit targets at higher altitude and moving atfaster speeds, while automatic weapons can hit

35


slower targets and those closer to the ground.Mix compounds the enemy's problems when he

tries to deal with air defense measures. If the enemyflies at a higher altitude to get above the antiaircraftcannon fire, the missles will get him. If he drops alti-tude to try to lose the missiles, the guns will get him.And if he forgets which is the greater danger or hesi-tates in making a decision, he'll get hit by both.

The guerrilla can use mix to compensate for theuse of improvised weapons as well. Unguided rocketscan be used in conjunction with the few shoulder-fired missües available to confuse enemy pilots. Whenflying at high speed, it is virtually impossible for apilot to tell the difference between a guided and anunguided missile. And while far less accurate than aheat-seeking missile, an unguided rocket has twoadvantages over a homing missile: it cannot be fooledby infrared countermeasures such as flares, and itcan be fired at an aircraft at approach, whüe crossing,or as a chase weapon (older infrared missiles are tail-chase weapons only). This is also true for convention-all missiles based on other guidance principles suchas laser or remote control.

By using mix, the guerrilla forces the aggressor toprepare for any contingency. His planes and heli-copters must carry flares and other infrared counter-measures in case there are heat-seeking missiles,and he must carry air-to-surface missiles to counterheavy antiaircraft guns. When near the target, theaggressor must maneuver in order to evade small-arms fire and unguided rockets and potentially throwoff his aim. It may turn out that what the guerrillalacks in mass he can make up for in mix, making ithis greatest air defense asset.

Needless to say, mobility is an important airdefense concept when applied to guerrilla warfare.Some antiaircraft weapons must be light enough to be

36

Active Air Defense

STRAFING AIRCRAFT WILLRUN THE LENGTH OF ACOLUMN. ANTIAIRCRAFTWEAPONS SHOULD BE PLACEDAT THE FRONT AND BACKOF A COLUMN. POINT MAN

MACHINE GUNSECTION

ON THE MOVE

37


EACH WEAPON HAS ITS OWN AREA OFRESPONSIBilTY, COLLECTIVELY PROVIDING

TOTAL COVERAGE AND INTERLOCKINGFiELDS OF FIRE. THIS IS INTEGRATION.

HEAVY AA MACHINE GUNFORCES TARGET TO ENTER

KILL BOX AND INCREASEALTITUDE.

MISSILE GUNNER WAITS FORTARGET TO ENTER HIS

"K1LL. BOX."

INTEGRATION

3 8

Active Air Defense

taken with raiding parties in order to provide pro-tection to mobile elements. And even the weaponscommitted to protecting statte positions have to bemobile enough to be taken along if the guerrillas areforced out of an area or if they advance to take pos-session of new territory.

Guerrillas can move through areas virtually impass-able to a modern mechanized force that is dependenton wheeled or tracked transport. To maintain thisedge, air defense weapons should be as small as possi-ble. because the air defense has to be as mobile as theforce it is protecting. Even if larger weapons are cap-tured or offered, the danger they pose to the guerrillamay outweigh the advantages. If they slow the speed ofthe insurgents or limit where they can go, they mayhave to be sacrificed. They might be more useful asexpendable bait in a flak trap (see Chapter 4).

Integration of fires is important. One tactic prac-ticed by the Vietcong was the establishment of twofire units to protect an individual target—twin fireunits that are separated but mutually supportineOne fire unit is the primary antiaircraft unit andhandles the initial engagement by attracting enemyattention. If the enemy has aircraft dedicated to flaksuppression, these aircraft will concentrate on thefirst unit. The first unit goes silent as its gunners gounder cover, and if its weapons are well-camou-flaged, it will be difficult for the flak suppression air-craft to find it. In the meantime, the second unitengages the aircraft from its position. The two airdefense units may be able to continue to switch rolesthroughout an air defense battle, but the more theyfire the greater the detection risk.

Guided missile teams of two men each are used tocover "dead space" that the automatic weapons cannotreach as well as to reinforce the areas of coverage thatthey can reach. Shorter-range improvised missile teams

39


THE CAMPS ANTIAIRCRAFT WEAPONS PROVIDE 360 COVERAGE,BUT ITS HEAVY ANTIAIRCRAFT MACHINE GUN HAS SEEN PLACEDIN THE PATH OF THE ENEMY'S LIKELY AIR AVENUE OF APPROACH,AND ONE MEDIUM MACHINE GUN AND ONE MANPADS HAVE BEEN

PLACED IN SUPPORT. THIS IS WEIGHTED COVERAGE.

WEIGHTEDCOVERAGE

4 0

Active Air Defense

are placed along the enemy's likely avenue of approachwhere they have the best Chance of interception. Airavenues of approach are identified by studying howenemy aircraft fly: Do they fly low through Valleys, or dothey follow roads and highways? Do they fly into a targetarea using the same route each time? By studying theenemy's patterns and using that knowledge, the guerril-la can use short-range missiles to their maximum effect.

Guidelines for air defense employment involvemany concepts. They are: balanced fires, earlyengagement, weighted coverage, mutual Support,overlapping fires, and defense in depth.

The use of balanced fires ensures 360-degree cov-erage around a protected point. If there are no identi-fiable air avenues of approach (which will probably bethe case in the desert or plains), this coverage shouldbe equal in all directions, if possible.

Early engagement means placing antiaircraftweapons where they can hit enemy aircraft at the ear-liest possible point. The longer an enemy aircraft isunder fire, the better the chances of a hit. Also, theguerrilla will want to fire on the aircraft before itreleases its ordnance. Before bomb or missile release,the pilot may have to fly straight and level for a fewmoments, making the aircraft an easier target. Afterrelease, the pilot will be free to maneuver in any wayhe sees fit, making the target harder to hit.

Weighted coverage is the principle of placing airdefense weapons along the enemy's most likelyavenue of approach or facing the enemy's front. Thismakes it likely that the guerrilla will hit the enemywith intense firepower as soon as he makes anappearance and minimizes the wasteful positioning ofweapons where they are unlikely to find targets. Thiswould seem to conflict with the balanced fires princi-ple, but this isn't necessarily so. Individual weaponscan be part of a 360-degree defense and yet simulta-

41


neously placed so that their Optimum coverage isright in the path of the enemy.

Mutual coverage is simply the positioning of airdefense weapons so that they compensate for eachother's weaknesses. Primarily, mutual coverage isconcerned with placing weapons where they cancover the dead space of other weapons. For instance,if a heavy antiaircraft machine gun is placed on highground overlooking a valley floor, there may be areasbelow the gun's lowest elevation that are free fromfire. To compensate, an improvised antiaircraft gun isplaced where it can cover this dead space.

Overlapping fires is the placing of air defenseweapons close enough together so that their engage-ment envelopes overlap each other. In this way, anenemy aircraft is under continuous fire the entiretime it is near the defended point—before the aircraftleaves the ränge of one weapon, it has already enteredthe ränge of another.

And finally, there is the guideline of defense indepth. This means placing air defense weapons sothat the closer an aircraft gets to the target, the morefire it comes under. This will be possible only to a lim-ited degree for the guerrilla because he will have toofew weapons to defend an entire liberated area.

Training cannot be overlooked. Without it, aneffective defense will be virtually impossible, regard-less of what is available to mount it. Specifically, anti-aircraft gunners will have to be trained on their indi-vidual weapons and know their weapons' capabilitiesand limitations. They should understand air defenseguidelines and principles, even if they do not directlydecide how their weapons are employed.

It is difficult to conduct gunnery training withguerrillas. Ideally, live-fire exercises against drones isthe best method for perfecting technique, but it isunlikely that guerrillas will have ammunition to spare

4 2

Active Air Defense

for such training, nor will they have drones. Instead,gunners will have to rely on dry-fire training by track-ing imaginary aircraft or modeis to practice engage-ment sequences, like North Vietnamese defenseforces did during America's Vietnam War. The finaltraining will come when the guerrillas are under fireagainst actual targets.

In general, all guerrillas should be trained in air-craft recognition in order to understand the threatposed by specific types. The WEFT (wings, engine,fuselage, tail) guide is useful for teaching aircraftrecognition by observing the distinctive characteristicsof each type. For instance, a MiG-21 would bedescribed as a delta-winged, single-jet-engined aircraftwith a cigar-shaped fuselage and a swept-back tail.

Air defense guidelines and principles should beadapted for use by the guerrilla and modified towhatever degree is appropriate to the Situation. Atfirst it may be difficult to comply with all of them dueto a minimum of air defense weapons. But as timegoes by, it will be possible to employ them to effec-tively mount a defense that will deter the enemy airforce, minimize its effectiveness, and destroy itsplanes in significant numbers.

Mounting an effective defense can be expressed inthree simple words: adapt, adopt, and improve. Adaptto the conditions presented by enemy air power byusing both passive and active air defense measures;adopt the weapons left behind by the enemy and pro-vided by friendly powers to provide air defense fire-power; and improve available weapons by whatevertechnical and tactical innovations are available.

An enemy who possesses air supremacy has theinitiative in the air. But employing flak traps, whichwill be discussed in the next chapter, can give theguerrilla the opportunity to fight enemy air powerwith an advantage.

4 3

Chapter

Flak Traps

A third air defense Option for the guerrilla—a way tocarry the war to the airborne enemy—is flak traps.Flak traps are deliberate ambushes set up by groundforces in order to lure and destroy enemy aircraft. Theyserve several purposes: to build morale among friendlyforces, to reduce enemy forces, and to discourageenemy pilots. Flak traps give the guerrilla the opportu-nity to seize the initiative for a short period of time.

Flak traps are usually designed to look nonthreat -ening in order to lure in unsuspecting pilots. The baithas to be something that will provide a worthwhiletarget, such as a fake base camp or a storage area,but it should not be an obvious lure. Attempts shouldbe made at Camouflage, though they can be flawedattempts. Gun and other weapon positions should be

45


POSSIBLE ENEMY AVENUES OF APPRCACH8ASED ON:

1. "ROAD RUNNING"

2. TERRAIN FOLLOWING

3. DIRECT ROUTE

AVENUES OFAPPROACH

4 6

Flak Traps

planned out in advance, but weapons should be cam-ouflaged extra well by keeping them in nearby cavesor under overhangs where they are hidden but canquickly be moved into position.

The ideal flak trap should be set in an area thatrestricts air avenues of approach. If a transit routeused by enemy aircraft can be positively identified, aflak trap can be set up along it. Bait isn't necessaryif enemy aircraft will be in the area anyway. Thesecret to setting up an ambush like this is to care-fully plan it. Air defense weapons of all types arebrought into the area as quickly as possible, but noone should be allowed to fire until all missiles andguns are in position. Then it comes down to a matterof waiting for the right target.

Tactics are the same as those for regulär airdefense operat ions . The only difference is thepurpose: during Standard air defense operations,the mission is to protect friendly personnel andequipment from air attack. In a flak trap, the pur-pose is to inflict as many casualties among enemyaircraft as possible.

Once a flak trap is sprung, it should be used just thatSingle time. After antiaircraft fire is drawn from a specif-ic point, the enemy will pay that point a visit again, evenif the guerrülas scored no hits. When they come back,they may have napalm and antipersonnel bombs.

A plan should be drawn up to move weapons out ofthe area as quickly and as safely as possible along pathshidden from the air. When the enemy aircraft return,they will waste their bombs on abandoned positions.

A similar Operation can be used against helicopterpüots who employ road running or the "iron compass"navigation technique—a technique of using railroadtracks as navigational aids that was first used by airmail pilots. Pilots with little navigation skill or inferiorInstruments sometimes develop the habit of following

47


FLAK TRAP

4 8

Flak Traps


PRIMARY AND BACK UPTHERMAL- BATTERIES

SECURED BY USINGTHE RUBBER SHOULDER

STRAPSTHE LEAFY CANOPY OF THE

TREE WOULD NORMALLY SERVE

AS NATURAL CAMOUFLAGE. BUT

FOR THE PURPOSES OF CLARITY

HAVE BEEN OMITTED.

ANTIAIRCRAFTMINE

50

Flak Traps

for COIN operations, the guerrilla may plan on settingup helicopter ambushes. These will hamper futureenemy operations and create morale problems amongthese elite" troops.

Helicopters land troops on the ground by designatingcertain areas as landing zones, or LZs. An LZ will be anopen level space with as much clearance from trees aspossible so that helicopters can approach and touchdown with little danger to their rotors.

Helicopter operations will be conducted for a vari-ety of reasons, such as to place a Company along asuspected resupply route, to insert a recon party oras part of an overall air assault Operation. One of theways to counteract this possibility is to be ready forthe enemy when he lands. A check of the map willidentify areas that the enemy might attempt to use asLZs, and these points can be prepared by the guerrillato provide a warm welcome for the enemy.

The easiest way to prevent the enemy from usingan LZ, or at least making him pay a high price fordoing so, is to plant minefields in the open spacewhere helicopters are bound to deposit their troops Ifa soldier is injured or killed by a mine as soon as heeaves the aircraft, it will cause the remaining troops

to hesitate or maybe not leave the helicopter at allbven if the troops manage to get off the helicoptertheir movements will be limited when they discoverthey are in the middle of a minefield.

Antipersonnel mines are sufficient for this taskbut it may be useful to place some antitank minesamong them as well. Some helicopter pilots will landtheir machine firmly on the ground to deposit troopsDepending on the type of antitank mine employedthis might create enough pressure to set the mine off'destroying both helicopter and passengers A roddetonator commonly used with antitank mines isideal for such operations. Any recovered dud bombs

51


could be made into improvised mines whenburied nose up in the ground and fitted with newdetonators and rods.

Other antipersonnel devices can be hidden in thegrass of a potential LZ, such as barbed wire, punjistakes, and knee-deep post holes. All of these can beemployed to make it difficult for the enemy to success-fully deploy from his aircraft; however, it is possible tooverdo it Pits should not be dug, as they could actuallybe used as cover by the enemy, even if stakes or spikeshave been put in them. Likewise, the idea of plantingpoles is of limited value. While they might make it diffi-cult for helicopters to land, especially if explosives areattached to them, they are also an indicator to enemyintelligence of the presence of guerrillas. If poles canbeplaced on short notice in a way that would take theenemy by surprise, they might be worthwhile.

Fighting positions can be prepared in advancearound the perimeter of the LZ in the tree line, if oneexists Some of these should be manned in advance toprovlde harassing flre and take advantage of the initialconfusion caused by the antipersonnel devices and topin the enemy down until more guerrillas can bebrought up to man the remaining fighting positions.

Once manned, the fighting positions will forminterlocking flelds of fire that will sweep the LZ, pin-ning down and küling the heliborne force before it canestablish itself on the ground. Mortar fire and anyartillery available will be used to inflict the maximumamount of punishment possible on the enemy.Artillery fire can be carefully planned for maximumeffect, if it is available.

Once engaged, the enemy might call in other air-craft for support, such as helicopters and fixed-wingaircraft, to bomb and strafe the insurgents besiegingtheir heliborne force. A trick the Vietnamese used is"hugging." or moving so close to the air assault unit

52

Flak Traps

AAMG

PREPARED INFANTRYFIGHTING POSITIONS

AAMG

HELICOPTERAMBUSH

53


that enemy aircraft cannot be used to attack theinsurgents without running the risk of hitting theirown troops. While this allows the enemy to engage theinsurgents with all of their small arms, it negates theeffect of their heavier weapons.

A helicopter ambush is the best opportunity theguerrilla will have to bring down the enemy's aircraft,because the helicopters will have to fly low and slowon approach and will be motionless for at least a fewseconds while depositing troops. Every helicopterdowned is one less machine the enemy will haveavailable to him. And any helicopter shot down willinevitably bring others to rescue the crew, thus givingthe guerrilla more targets. Even if the guerrilla has tobreak off the air defense battle because of the enemy'ssuperior firepower, this is the best opportunity for theInsurgent to fight the enemy on even terms.

But fighting a battle at the LZ may not be in thebest interests of the guerrilla. Certainly, if the heli-borne troops are relatively few in number and landingin a Single area close to a point where the guerrillascan mass their forces, the enemy should be dealt acrippling blow within sight of their wrecked heli-copters. If, however, the enemy succeeds in landingsufficient strength in different areas, a different strat-egy may be called for.

If a certain area known to be an enemy target isnot accessible from the air for some reason but thereare LZs around it, contingency planning can revolvearound ambushing the enemy en route from theLZs. In fact, this may be an ideal strategy if theenemy's route is predictable and there is an identifi-able choke point at some point along it. In this typeof action, guerrillas near the LZs would cause asmuch damage as they could on the enemy as helanded, then fight a withdrawal along the enemy'sroute, inflicting as many casualties as they can.

54

Flak Traps

Once they hook up with other guerrillas manningthe choke point, they can reduce the enemy furtherand perhaps even counterattack.

So far, I have discussed the methods of airdefense—the tactics. In the next chapter, I will look atthe means of air defense—the weapons.

5 5

5 Chapter

DedicatedAntiaircraft Weapons

Antiaircraft weapons have their own unique char-acteristics and requirements. Some weapons, such asantiaircraft machine guns, are close relatives to themachine gun familiar to every infantryman, whilesurface-to-air missiles are totally different in designand use from anything the guerrilla is likely to befamiliar with. Some weapons that are likely to be usedin an insurgency are examined in this chapter.

Automatic weapons are effective for air defense atclose range. What they lack in "reach" and "punch"they make up for in volume, spraying hundreds ofbullets into the path of the aircraft. We will be lookingat several types of automatic weapons in use in the1990s, but first let's discuss the qualities and con-cerns involving all these weapons.

57


Automatic antiaircraft weapons are almost cer-tainly going to be more sophisticated, or at least morecomplicated, than a simple infantry machine gun.Care and servicing are important. If they have beenprovided by a friendly outside power, arrange for for-mal training in their use and maintenance. If suchweapons are captured, enemy prisoners should bepersuaded to teach the insurgent force how to main-tain them. Any manuals that are captured or other-wise made available should be studied carefully.

One maintenance problem that is likely to arise asa result of the exceptional rate of fire used in auto-matic antiaircraft weapons is barrel wear. Each roundfired will cause barrel wear, which in turn will cause agradual degrading of the weapon's accuracy. Manysuch weapons have barreis that are designed to beremoved and replaced easily.

To keep available weapons up to their maximumeffectiveness, the number of rounds fired by eachweapon should be kept track of. Granted, keepingtrack of the number of rounds fired per barrel may bedifficult in the heat of battle, but the number can atleast be guessed at and barreis replaced according tothe recommended Service lifetime. If this is impracti-cal because of a lack of spares available, the numberwill enable the guerrillas to use barrels with the low-est number of rounds and replace the most worn bar-rels with the newest captured or provided.

Rounds for these weapons may have to be manual-ly linked by the gunner into a belt, but often theycome pre-linked. A typical belt might include asequence of tracer, armor-piercing, ball, ball, ballammo. When fired, the weapon's tracer stream notonly gives the gunner an idea of the true path of therounds, but also serves to unnerve enemy pilots whohave to fly through the hail of bullets to reach theirtargets. These two advantages outweigh the disad-

5 8

Dedicated Antiaircraft Weapons

vantage that the tracer stream also makes it easier forthe pilots to spot the location of guns when they fire.

Gunnery with such weapons can be of two types:1) simple "iron" sights in which lead is figured (or,more likely, guessed at) by the gunner, and 2)mechanical sights, which promise more accuracy.

A mechanical sight consists of an optical unit thatis connected to the gun by means of a mount. This, inturn, is connected to a series of knobs that areadjusted for the target's speed and range. As theknobs are set, the optical unit is physically moved toadjust the sight so that the perceived target positioncorresponds with the point where the weapon'srounds will actually go. In other words, windage isbeing done by the machine itself so that the gunnercan aim the gun directly at the target, rather thanjudge where he should aim.

Mechanical sights offer greater accuracy, but theyhave some disadvantages. An antiaircraft machinegun equipped with an elaborate mechanical sightrequires both a gunner to keep the target in view andan assistant gunner to operate the knobs of the sight.Plus, the weapon is only as accurate as the assistantgunner's judgment allows it to be—target speed andrange are largely guessed at, although by someonewho can devote himself to that task.

There are several common automatic weapons thatmight be found in an insurgency. The DSchK(Degtyarev, Schpagin, Kalashnikov) M38 12.7mmmachine gun is one such antiaircraft gun, though it isdesigned as a dual-purpose weapon. When equippedwith a Standard tripod, it can be used in the antiaircraftrole. Because they are found on many Russian vehicles,it is possible to salvage M38s for antiaircraft purposes.The DSchK has a range of 1,094 yds. against aerial targets. It weighs 69 Ibs., not including the tripod.

A Czech quad Version of the DSchK is the M53

59

TRIPOD-MOUNTEDMACHINE GUN

HEAVYAAMACHINE GUN


antiaircraft machine gun. Mounted on a two-wheeledcarriage, the weapon operates on a stabilized plat-form. It can be turned 360 degrees but elevated onlyto 90 degrees, all manually by means of hand wheels.

The Soviet ZPU (antiaircraft, machine gun, mount-ed) series of 14.5mm antiaircraft guns has seen agood deal of service around the world. ZPUs are avail-able in a variety of mounts: the ZPU-1 single-barreledgun, the ZPU-2 double-barreled gun mounted on aSingle axle, and the ZPU-4 quadruple-barreled gunmounted on either a Single or double axle. Sovietdesigners used the simple expedient of adding barreisand firing mechanisms to multiply the firing rate ofan individual weapon; therefore, the rate of fire is 600rounds per minute for the ZPU-1, 1,200 rounds perminute for the ZPU-2, and 2,400 rounds per minutefor the ZPU-4. Each gun in the mount has a relativelylarge ammunition canister for its belted rounds.

The ZPU series usually features axle wheels thatcan be raised by use of a crank, and the weapon canbe set down on a stable gun platform on which it canbe rotated 360 degrees. The gun barreis can be raisedto near-vertical position. Movement is manual, bymeans of hand wheels. A mechanical gunsight givesthe weapon improved accuracy, while firing is doneby use of a foot trigger.

One of the disadvantages of this weapon for use inan insurgency is its weight. The ZPU-2 weighs morethan 1,400 lbs., while the ZPU-4 is a whopping 3,990lbs., making these weapons difficult to move withoutsome sort of tow vehicle. However, they can be man-handled to a small degree, and their weight doesmake the weapon mount a very stable gun platform.

The ZPU-2 has been mass-produced by thePeople's Liberation Army (PLA) of communist Chinaas the Type 58, and a variant of the ZPU-4 is alsoavailable from the PLA.

62


Another, heavier Soviet weapon is the twin-bar-reled ZSU-23-2. A 23mm gun, the ZSU-23-2 can fire1,000 rounds per minute per barrel, or 2,000 roundsper minute per gun. Like the ZPU, the ZSU-23-2 isequipped with a mechanical sight, and it is a heavyweapon—almost 2,100 lbs., or more than a ton.

The U.S. equivalent of the ZPU is the M55 12.7mmantiaircraft machine gun, or "quad fifty." It consists offour .50-caliber machine guns—two on each side of acentral mount. The mount has a self-contained powerunit for the elevation and azimuth traverse mecha-nisms. It is operated by means of two control handlesas the gunner sits in the center of the mount. Thetriggers are located on the control handles, and thegun's electrical system will continue to fire as long asthere is ammunition. The weapon is aimed by meansof a reflex sight that reflects the image of the targetonto an inclined glass plate. Its effective ränge isabout 1,641 yds., and it weighs almost 3,000 lbs.when attached to its wheeled trailer. The M55's elec-trical System has maintenance requirements uniqueto it, such as the prevention of corrosion in the unit's6-volt storage batteries. Ammunition is availablethrough four canisters—one for each barrel.

The 20/3mm M55 antiaircraft gun is a triple-bar-reled 20mm weapon produced in what used to beYugoslavia. The Yugo M55 is moved into position ontwo wheels, which are lifted off the ground after theantiaircraft gun's outriggers are lowered into place.The gun can fire 2,100 rounds a minute from its threecombined barrels, but each of the three cylindricalcanisters holds only 60 rounds.

There are three versions of the Yugo M55: the A2 isoperated entirely manually, the A3 is outfitted with amotor for powered traverse and elevation, and the A4B1 has powered traverse plus a computerized sight inplace of Standard mechanical sights. Firing is done by

63

NAME

DSchK

M-38

M53

(CZK)

M55

(U.S.)

M55

20/3mm

M75

20/1 mm

M167

(U.S.)

VULCAN

Oerlikon

GAI-BO1

Oerlikon

GBI-AO1

Type 56

Type 58

Type 75

(T)

Type 75-1

(W)

Type 80

ZPU-1

ZPU-2

ZPU-4

ZSU-23-

Caliber

12.7mm

12.7mm

12.7mm

20mm

20mm

20mm

20mm

25mm

14.5mm

14.5mm

14.5mm

14.5mm

14.5mm

14.5mm

14.5mm

14.5mm

l 23mm

RPM

500

80x4**

150x4**

700x3

700x1

3,000

1,000

160**

550x4

550x2

550x1

550x1

550x1

140x1**

140x2**

140x4**

200x2**

MAXRANGE

1,641 yds

7,111 yds

1,641 yds

6,017 yds

6,017 yds

2,407 yds

3,282 yds(?)

3,282 yds(?)

2,188 yds

2,188 yds

2,188 yds

2,188 yds

2,188 yds

8,752 yds

8,752 yds

8,752 yds

7,658 yds

MAXALTITUDE

1,094 yds

6,126 yds

1,094 yds

4,376 yds

4,376 yds

1,313 yds

2,188 yds

2,735 yds

1,641 yds(?)

1,641 yds(?)

1,641 yds(?)

1,641 yds(?)

1,641 yds(?)

5,470 yds

5,470 yds

5,470 yds

5,579 yds

WEIGHT

261 Ibs

1,380 Ibs*

2,145 Ibs*

2,420 Ibs

573 Ibs

3,400 Ibs

890 Ibs

970 Ibs*

4,600 Ibs

1,450 Ibs

310 Ibs

360 Ibs

470 Ibs

900 Ibs*

1,400 Ibs*

4,000 Ibs*

2,000 Ibs

* Without Trailer ** Practical Rate of Fire

Note that when maximum altitudes and ranges were not available,

effective ranges and altitudes were substituted.

AUTOMATIC AA GUNS


foot pedals. Their range is 2,735 yds. with a verticalreach of about 2,188 yds. The weapon weighs morethan 2,100 Ibs. unloaded.

The 20/ lmm M75 is a Single-barreled Version ofthe M55. Its 700 rounds per minute provides consid-erable firepower, and the weapon has a certain degreeof versatility. While not exactly light at 573 Ibs., it isconceivable that the M75 could be transported withpack animals or using human labor.

Man-portable surface-to-air missiles may be cap-tured or provided by a friendly power. Some of theseweapons have a disadvantage in that they can only beused once. Another disadvantage is that MANPADSemploy fairly small warheads.

But the advantages of MANPADS missiles morethan outweigh the disadvantages. Some MANPADSare "fire and forget" missiles, which means that thegunner need not remain still and track his target allthe way through its flight. In fact, the gunner can takeevasive action even before the missile hits its target.In addition, although these missiles have small war-heads, they have a much better chance of scoring ahit, and it takes very little to damage a modern jetengine or cut delicate hydraulic lines.

The Redeye is the original MANPADS. Produced inthe 1960s, it can still be found in arsenals aroundthe world. The Redeye has a range of about 3,282yds., but it is a tail-chase-only weapon. The hotexhaust of a jet engine is needed for the primitiveseeker head to home in on, and it can only be usedagainst an aircraft that has already passed overheadon the way to its target.

To prepare the Redeye to fire, the gunner mustremove the protective Cover from the front of thelaunch tube and install the cylindrical battery,which screws into place at the bottom of the tubeand forward of the hand grip. The gunner then raises

65


SHORTS STARSTREAK

VARIOUS MANPADS

6 6


the optical sight from its stowed position foldedalongside the missile's launch tube until itsnaps into place.

To engage an aircraft, the gunner presses the ini-tiator switch with his thumb to provide battery powerfor the seeker head. A vibrator/buzzer alerts the gun-ner when the seeker has acquired the heat of the tar-get. The gunner then releases the seeker head bypressing the uncage bar, a large rubber-coveredswitch forward of the trigger, allowing the seeker headto travel freely. The tube is then superelevated tocompensate for the missile's drop after it leaves thetube. Upon pulling the trigger to launch the missile,the backblast area must be clear or the weapon willcause serious injury to friendly forces and equipment.This is a characteristic of all MANPADS weapons.

Once fired, the entire launch tube is normally dis-carded. However, if fighting a guerrilla campaign, itmight be wise to save the empty tube to improvise anew antiaircraft rocket, especially since the Redeyetube has sights already built in.

The Soviet equivalent of the Redeye is the SA-7Grail, or Strela-2. Like the Redeye, the Strela-2 is arevenge weapon that homes in on the enemy aircraftafter it has already passed overhead. Unlike theRedeye, the Strela-2 employs a removable gripstock.The launch tube is thrown away once fired, but thegripstock with its electrical components can beattached to a new tube and used many times over.

To prepare to fire the Strela-2, the gunnerremoves the protective cover and installs a battery,in this case a small cylinder that attaches to thefront of the gripstock. Instead of a one-piece sight,there are separate front and rear sights that unfoldalongside the missile tube.

To engage an aircraft, the gunner turns a frictionswitch on the battery, activating it and providing

67


MISSILE GUNNER

68

Dedlcated Antialrcraft Weapons

6 9


such as the Stinger. Older versions of the Strela-2have a maximnum range of about 3,938 yds.; improvedversions can hit targets at a range of about 6,126 yds.Their maximum altitude is about 4,923 yds.

The Strela-3, code named SA-14 Gremiin, is amore advanced version of the Strela-2 and compen-sates for many of the Strela-2s weaknesses. Althoughit is still a tail-chase weapon, it is a deadlier one witha seeker head capable of ignoring infrared sourcesthat might fool a first-generation MANPADS System.

The most notable difference between the Strela-2and Strela-3 is the forward-mounted battery: theStrela-3's is spherical instead of cylindrical. This is nodoubt part of a product-improvement program, as theStrela-2's battery had a run time of anywhere from 10to 60 seconds, and the Strela-3's battery run time isprobably more consistently about 60 seconds.Preparing the Strela-3 to fire appears to be identicalto the Strela-2. Its range is about 6,564 yds., and itsmaximum altitude is about 6,017 yds.

The American-made Stinger is a second-generationMANPADS. Famous for its success in the hands ofAfghani rebels, the Stinger is an all-aspect weaponcapable of hitting aircraft as they approach, as theycross, or as they leave the gunner's defended area. Itis harder to fool with flares. It has a range of around 3miles and a ceiling of around 5,107 yds. In the handsof a good gunner it is a real helicopter killer.

Unlike its predecessor, the Redeye, the Stinger hasa detachable gripstock. The gripstock includes thefolding sights, the trigger, the battery well, and a fold-ing antenna unit on the right side. The antenna con-nects to an IFF (Identification, Friend or Foe) System,which transmits a code to an unknown aircraft. Afriendly aircraft will have the correct response code.However, the guerrilla is in a Situation where he mustconsider every aircraft to be hostile; an IFF System is

70


unnecessary and even dangerous, as enemy aircraftmay be capable of detecting its Signal.

Indeed, the most extensive use of Stingers tookplace during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan—aSituation in which the need for an IFF system wasnonexistent. The Stinger was well liked by theAfghanis, who stated that a Mujihadeen needed onlytwo things: the Koran and Stingers.

Preparation and firing of the Stinger is identical tothe Redeye. After expending the missile, the gunnerremoves the gripstock to attach it to the next round.The next round need not necessarily come from aMANPADS System. Stinger rounds are being adaptedfor use on board helicopters for the air-to-air role,and a vehicle-mounted version of the Stinger, calledthe Avenger, places Stinger rounds on either side of aturret. Removed from these mounts, the tubes can beattached to a gripstock and be made ready for use.Assuming these versions are exported, it may be pos-sible to capture such rounds from shot-down aircraftor captured vehicles.

The next Russian MANPADS is the Igla, known in theWest as the SA-16. This missile system is distinctly dif-ferent from the Strela series, although the Igla sharesthe characteristic gripstock design and folding sights. Ituses a battery similar to the Strela-3's, but its warheadis cone-shaped. The control and launch sequence is alsosimilar to that of the Strela-3. The Igla is an all-aspectweapon with a ränge of up to 4.3 miles and an altitude ofup to 3.7 miles. It is designed to be less susceptible tosimple infrared countermeasures (IRCM).

Infrared gunnery is different from other types ofweapons. When tracking an aircraft, it is necessary tokeep the missile aimed over the horizon—heat reflect-ed from the earth or plants might lure the missilefrom its target. Obviously, the sun is an intense heatsource capable of diverting the missile, but less obvi-

71


ous is the danger posed by clouds. Clouds can reflectenough heat to fool the missile's guidance System,and enemy aircraft might deliberately try to lose aheat-seeking missile by flying through the clouds.

A gunner can avoid typical IR spoofing by wait-ing until a target is in sight before initiating thebattery unit . The missile's battery will only lastabout a minute, but while it runs it keeps the seek-er head cool enough to "see" its heated targets. Thegunner then visually acquires the target and aimsuntil the missile responds with a tone, showingthat the seeker head "sees" the target. If there areclouds or other potential IR sources along the air-craft's path, the gunner waits before releasing theseeker head to track independently prior to super -elevating and launching.

The same tactic works against the IRCM of choice:flares. Pilots will often drop flares if they are awarethat their aircraft is being tracked by heat-seekingmissiles, either singly or in patterns. Flares are hot-ter than the exhaust of aircraft and will thereforeprovide a "better" target for the missile. If a gunnerholds fire until the aircraft stops dropping flares, itcould defeat enemy IRCM.

Another factor a missile gunner must be aware ofis the safety procedures involved in using coolant bat-teries. Such batteries generate an enormous amountof heat when in Operation. After firing, a gunner mustremove the battery by unscrewing it by its insulatedcollar and then allowing it to drop to the ground.

Fumes are also a hazard involved with suchweapons. When firing or changing batteries, a gun-ner should hold his breath for a few seconds untilthe fumes dissipate. The gases involved in super-cooling are usually not toxic, but they can still causebreathing problems.

The British Blowpipe is a MANPADS similar in size

72


to the heat-seeking missiles commonly used for airdefense, but it is command-guided instead. The gun-ner acquires his target in the optical sight attached tothe missile round, removes the safety catch, and pullsthe trigger, activating the batteries. Once fired, thegunner keeps both the target and the missile's tailflare in sight, correcting the missile's course bymeans of a thumb-controlled Joystick. Correctionsare transmitted to the missile by means of a radio inthe optical sight package. The gunner must continueto track the target until the missile scores a hit.

The Blowpipe is superior to heat seekers in thatIRCM are virtually ineffective against it. However, itstwo drawbacks are the amount of time the gunnermust remain in the open tracking the target and itsProblems in tracking crossing targets.

The Blowpipe's optical package, which includesthe trigger mechanism, detaches from the tube sothat it can be used again and again. The ränge of theBlowpipe is more than 2 miles.

The Starstreak is a more sophisticated weapon. Ituses a laser system that is incorporated in the opticalpackage to guide the missile to its target. Oncelaunched, the gunner needs only to keep the target insight—the missile does the rest. The missile travels atvery high speed, and its warhead consists of threeexplosive darts that separate prior to impact. Thethree darts spread out slightly, increasing the likeli-hood of a hit. The missile relies primarily on kineticforce to cause damage rather than the explosive forceof its tiny warheads.

These are by no means the only air defenseweapons that might be available to the guerrilla;other weapons are in development, and weapons thattoday may be unobtainable to a guerrilla force mightsomeday reach their hands. But the weapons dis-cussed here are typical in Operation and principle of a

73


NAME

HN-5

TYPE

IR Homing

Chinese copy of the Strela-2

IGLA IR Homing

NATO SA-14 "Gremiin"

MATRA MISTREL IR Homing

Employs a tripod launcher

Laser

(with stand and sight)Breaks down into majorcomponents for travel

IR Homing

First generation MANPADS

IR Homing

Egyptian copy of the Strela-2

Command

Uses radio commands

Command

3-tube launcher available

Shorts STARSTREAK Laser

Uses high-velocity darts

IR Homing

Second generation MANPADS

IR Homing

NATO SA-7 "Grau"

STRELA-2MImproved "Grail"

IR Hominc

WEIGHT

35 Ibs

Minimums:

33 Ibs

Minimums:

44 Ibs

Minimums:

185 Ibs

Minimums:

29 Ibs

Minimums:

33 Ibs

Minimums:

38 Ibs

Minimums

53 Ibs

Minimums:

(?)Minimums:

35 Ibs

Minimums:

29 Ibs

Minimums:

31 Ibs

Minimums:

MAXRANGE

4,376 yds875 yds

6,564 yds

656 yds

6,564 yds

328 yds

5,470 yds

219 yds

3,610 yds

656 yds

4,814 yds

875 yds (?)

3,829 yds

547 yds

6,017 yds

547 yds

7,658 yds

328 yds

6,017 yds

219 yds

3,938 yds

492 yds

6,126 yds

492 yds

MAXALTITUDE

2,735 yds

55 yds

6,017 yds

11 yds

4,923 yds

16 yds

3,282 yds

Oyds

3,282 yds

27 yds

2,626 yds55 yds

2,735 yds

11 yds

3,282 yds

11 yds

4,376 yds

11 yds (?)

5,251 yds

33 yds

3,282 yds

27 yds

4,923 yds

16 yds

All weights include launcher. Ranges and weights are approximate. Manytypes are still classified.

MANPADS


wide range of weapons, and familiarity with them willenable one to understand and adapt to similar mis-siles and guns.

But a guerrilla war is a poor man's fight. What aguerrilla cannot obtain he must either do without orimprovise. And as shown in the next chapter, it ispossible to improvise effective antiaircraft weapons.

74

75

ImprovisedAntiaircraft Weapons

If dedicated antiaircraft weapons are not availableto a guerrilla force, the alternative is to improvisethem. Improvisation can provide an entire arsenal ofantiaircraft weapons, either to provide an air defensecapability where one did not exist before or to Supple-ment the meager collection of dedicated air defenseweapons available to the movement.

The easiest antiaircraft weapon to improvise is theantiaircraft machine gun. Machine guns that are pro-vided by sympathetic Outsiders or are captured canbe employed against jets and helicopters. If the guer-rillas successfully engage enemy armored vehicles,the heavy turret-mounted coaxial machine gunsfound on them can be adapted for use as AA weapons.Even shot down helicopters and jets might provide

77


EACH DESIGN MUST TAKE INTOCONSIDERATION THE INDIVIDUAL

FEATURES OF THE WEAPONBEING USED.

IMPROVISED #

AA SIGHTS

HEAVYMACHINE GUN

SWIVEL MOUNT

TREETRUNK

HIGH GROUND

IMPROVISEDAA MG MOUNT

78

Improvised Antiaircraft Weapons

cannon for use as antiaircraft guns. This may be thewisest use of such guns, particularly since ammuni-tion for them will be very limited

When improvising antiaircraft mounts for auto-matic weapons that were originally designed for useagainst ground targets, the guerrilla must keep sever-al important factors in mind. First, the weapon mustbe able to engage targets at maximum elevationsweep and at 360 degrees. The elevation sweepshould be from near vertical to below Operator levelVertical shots are not advisable-as the old sayinggoes, "what goes up, must come down."

Second, ammunition feed should not be affected Ifthe machine gun does not have an organic ammuni-tion carrier, improvise one. If one cannot be impro-vised, a second guerrilla must help to feed theweapon, following the movements of the gunner

Third, there is the matter of aiming the weaponSince the weapon is being used in a way that it wasnot intended for, it goes without saying that it will notbe equipped with the sights necessary to aim at aerialtargets. The sights will have to be made by the guerrilla himself and designed partially by using a general,all-purpose model and partially by trial and error

A simple ring sight will make it possible to engageaircraft; the front part of the sight is a simple ball andpin, the rear a ring with several smaller rings withinand straight lines pointing to the central circular sightThe weapon is aimed by placing the ball of the frontsight within the central ring of the rear sight. The frontball will be lower than the rear central circle, causingthe barrel of the weapon to fire at a higher elevationthan the aim line. This is necessary since the weaponwill be firing at a higher angle than normal.

The height for the rear and front sights will have tobe determined during trial fires employing tracer bul-lets-this will be good only for an Optimum engage-

79


A1M SO THAT THE BUllSEYE LIES ON THE A1RCBAFTSPERCEIVED PATH. WHILE THE NOSE OF THE AIRCRAFrTOUCHES THE APPROPRlATE SPEED RING. FOUOW

TÜACERS TO CORRECT AIM.

MEDIUM-SPEED.CROSSING

HEUCOPTERS• ' tOW

MEDIUMHIGH

WIRE AND METAi.CONSTRUCT1ON

IMPROVISEDGUNSIGHT

80


8 1


SIDE

RIBBON ATTACHEDTO WARHEADARMING PIN

LAUNCHING HANDLES

SIGHTS

FRONT

TRIGGER

MISSILE*

FIBERGLASS LAUNCH TUBE

IMPROVISEDAA MISSILE

82

Guenilla Air Defense

inflict the maximum damage to enemy alrcraft. In thisway, hollow-shaped charges can be made that willpenetrate the light armor of aircraft, or shrapnel-spreading cones can be molded that will punch holesin thin metal. If plastic explosives are not available,the next best designs will have to use readily availableexplosive charges. The warhead should be tested forbalance to make certain it will not throw off the tra-jectory of the finished missile.

Warheads can be of two different types. The first isa shaped Charge. This is the best design only if theguerrilla is relying on a contact fuze to destroy thetarget. However, such a Charge would almost certain-ly have to be custom made for the rocket warhead.The second is a shrapnel Charge, which is designed toinflict damage by employing high explosives to propelpieces of metal fast enough to penetrate the light met-als and plastic used in aircraft construction. Unlike ashaped Charge, a shrapnel Charge does not necessari-ly have to be in the nose of the missile but can belocated almost anywhere in the missile tube.

Since it is dangerous to make an armed explosivedevice, particularly one that will be mobile, a safetyshould be incorporated into the warhead design. Apin type device would be best—something that couldbe removed just before flight. The ideal design shouldhave a marker, or reminder, attached to the pin andplaced so that it physically blocks the sight. This willensure that the Operator can not launch the missilewithout first arming the warhead.

Depending on the technical expertise of the guer-rillas, a more sophisticated arming device could bemade—one that incorporates a mechanism that onlyarras the missile after it has flown some distance fromthe user. This is the safest design.

The most difficult part of improvised SAM con-struction is the creation of an effective fuze. The easi-

84


est type of fuze to make is a contact fuze, which deto-nates the warhead by the physical effects of the rock-et hitting the aircraft and can be either mechanical orphysical. Although it is the easiest fuze to make, it isalso the least effective, as the chances of hitting amaneuvering aircraft with a Single rocket is slim, evenwith the best gunner and the best guidance package.

The next best device is a timed detonator. The mis-sile warhead is preset to explode a certain number ofseconds after launch. The main drawback to thisdesign is that the gunner must wait until the aircraftis within the preset ränge, and the less accurate thegunner is with the interception ränge, the farther offthe missile will be from the target when it explodes.

One of the best fuze devices for antiaircraft use isthe proximity fuze. Invented during World War II, theproximity fuze employs a simple radar principle. Ineffect, the warhead emits a radio Signal that bouncesoff the enemy aircraft, telling the warhead that it isgetting closer. The moment the Signal teils the war-head that It is beglnning to move away from the air-craft, it detonates.

If the weapon is close enough when it explodes, theshrapnel will damage important hydraulic Systems andmight even penetrate the cockpit. The main difficulty isin designing and making a proximity fuze. During WorldWar II, it took the United States and England tremen-dous efforts to build the first one, while Germany neverdid succeed in making such a device.

The next device is a heat-seeking warhead. Asdescribed in Chapter 5, the infrared seeker homes inon the heat of an aircraft engine. This is an extremelysophisticated device because it actually consists oftwo separate mechanisms: a homing device thatkeeps the warhead aimed at the heat source and aservo mechanism attached to the rocket's fins forcourse corrections. The best feature of this type of

85

86


BOX FRAME

15 RPGLAUNCH TUBES

SIGHT

ROTATABLEMOUNT

TRIGGERMECHANISM

RPGBATTERY

87


vised missiles, the battery can be aimed at a Singletarget or in the midst of a formation. Although therockets require a contact kill, the use of groups ofeight or more multiply the possibility of a lucky hit.Better yet, there might be several hits, making it morelikely that the aircraft can be brought down.Effectively, the rocket battery is a barrage weapon.

If antitank rockets are not available, it might bepossible to rig up such a weapon using rockets simi-lar to the improvised MANPADS described earlier.This is a preferable arrangement, in fact, if there areno proximity fuzes available for improvised rockets,thus substituting mass flre for accuracy.

Another tactic for using the battery is ripple fire.This is a tactic in which rockets are fired singly but inrapid succession one after the other and requires areliable firing circuit that can be built into the Systemand triggered at will.

The main drawbacks of the battery are its size andawkward shape. The weapon is best used for defense ofpermanent or semipermanent encampments and whereit can be kept camouflaged, except during attack.

Rocket pods salvaged from crashed enemy aircraftcan conceivably be used as a barrage weapon as well,but this will take some mechanical and electronicingenuity to accomplish. Captured air-to-air andground-to-air missiles can be used as antiaircraftweapons as well, but the technical problems involvedmight prove to be insurmountable.

The psychological effect of improvised rockets andmissiles cannot be discounted. Enemy pilots are notgoing to have time to discern whether an incomingmissile is a heat seeker or a simple rocket with a con-tact fuze, and they will have to react at the price ofbombing and strafing accuracy. In fact, if both impro-vised and dedicated antiaircraft rockets are available,both should be used. By integrating both types of

88


weapons in a concerted defense, they Supplementeach other's strengths and cancel out each other'sweaknesses. For instance, a helicopter droppingflares might be able to fool a Strela missile but will beineffective against an unguided rocket armed with asimple proximity fuze.

Eventually, a successful guerrilla movement willmove toward a far more conventional war. As its sol-diers begin to fight on the same terms as its enemies,it must improve its air defenses to protect its owntroops. Instead of relying primarily on passive airdefense measures, it must move toward a greaterreliance on active measures. Instead of emphasizingimprovised weapons, it must provide itself with dedi-cated and effective weapons. And instead of challeng-ing enemy air strength only at the time and place ofits choosing, it must protect friendly troops from airattack at all times and no matter where they are.

But the lessons learned in fighting a guerrilla airdefense can easily be used to defend a conventionalforce fighting a conventional war and can even be car-ried forward into Strategic air defense. Guerrilla war-fare itself might be called an "antiaircraft primer."

89

Appendix

Problems ofAntiaircraft Gunnery

The difficulty involved in hitting aircraft in flight isa problem that has evolved as air th rea t s haveevolved. A short study of this evolution will provideinsight into the problems of antiaircraft gunnery.

The earliest air threat was posed by fixed obser-vation balloons during the French Revolution.French balloons gave the Republican forces the abil-ity to see beyond enemy lines. Balloons were neverused in great numbers, but they did represent a newdimension in warfare.

The Austrians, who were at war with France at thetime, recognized the "unfair" advantage the balloonsgave to the French and became determined to elimi-nate them. Since the antiaircraft gun had not beeninvented yet, the Austrians improvised by taking

91


some of their cannon and sticking their trails into aditch to raise the angles of the barrels high enough tofire on the balloons. At this time, antiaircraft gun-nery was a two-dimensional problem. Since the tar-get remained in one spot—it was tethered—it wasonly a matter of firing a shot so that its trajectoryintersected the balloon.

There are three important lessons to be learnedfrom this early exercise in air defense. First, the ear-liest antiaircraft weapons had to be improvised.Second, despite the relative simplicity of the prob-lem, the Austrians were not able to hit the Frenchballoons because they lacked a way to track theirshot while it was in flight. And third, despite theirlack of success in hitting the balloons, the Austrianswere able to come close enough to scare the balloonsout of the sky. A successful air defense doesn't nec-essarily need to destroy aircraft in order to accom-plish its goal of protecting friendly forces from obser-vation and attack from the air.

The next step in antiaircraft evolution occurred dur-ing the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. Prussian forcessurrounded Paris and placed it under an extendedsiege. The only way left to get in and out of the city wasby free balloon. The Prussians became determined tocut off this line of Communications as well.

A firm by the name of Krupp was contracted todesign a breech-loading "balloon gun" to destroyFrench balloons traveling in and out of Paris. Theballoons did not change their altitude but traveledin a "path," moving linearly relative to the gunner.This made the problem three-dimensional. Targetspeed was so slow that the need for leading thetarget was minimal.

During World War I, dedicated heavy antiaircraftguns engaged relatively fast-moving airplanes. Suchaircraft not only moved along a path but also in alti-

92

Problems of Antiaircraft Gunnery

tude and had great control over where they could go.It was necessary to predict where an enemy airplanewas likely to be and determine how long it would takea shell to reach that point. Antiaircraft gunnery hadbecome a four-dimensional problem.

Since enemy aircraft remained extremely maneu-verable, there were two primary options to ensureaecurate fire on aerial targets, without resorting tocomplex Computers or mechanical predictors. Thefirst was a method invented during World War I: cre-ating barrage boxes. In this method, weapons arepre-sighted and fixed so that when they are fired,they fill a volume of space (a "box") with Shells. Themain drawback of this method is that it requires alarge number of weapons to make it work. It isunlikely tha t a guerril la force would use thismethod, except perhaps at night or in inclementweather when targets are hard or impossible to see.Without radar or infrared, this is the only means theguerrilla has of responding.

The other method is to make liberal use of tracerrounds to track Shells after they have been fired andcorrect aim while engaging the aircraft. The drawbackto this Option is that the gunner is reacting to themaneuvers of the target. Unless the gunner is verygood (or very lucky) and the pilot is unskilled (or veryunlucky), the chance of making a hit is not very high.But the gunner still provides nuisance value againstthe enemy and Virtual attrition of enemy air power.

The minute details of antiaircraft gunnery varyfrom weapon to weapon, as each antiaircraft gunhas its own unique characteristics. The best tacticsfor a guerrilla-type air defense will evolve as thecapabilities of the guerrilla change and as guerril-las learn more about the tactics and abilities oftheir enemy's air force.

9 3

Problems ofMissile Gunnery

One might think that since man-portable missilesare primarily self-guided, or seeking, there is little inthe way of gunnery involved in missile use. This istrue only to a small degree. The effective use of mis-siles requires skill just as the use of automaticweapons requires skill.

Infrared-guided missiles correct their course asthey fly to their target. As long as the gunner providesthe lead angle and elevation Standard to his particu-lar weapon, the missile will do all the work. The gun-ner's main concern is when to launch.

First, the gunner should hold fire until the target iswithin range. He should always know the range of hisweapon, both its minimum and maximum range, andbe skilled at gauging distance. Missiles are expensive

95


and liable to be scarce—a gunner will not wantto waste them.

Second, the gunner should hold fire to avoidIRCM and natural infrared sources that might foolthe missile's seeker. This will require a great deal ofdiscipline, especially if he is under air attack. Butby waiting for an aircraft to finish dropping itsflares or for a plane to pass IR-scattering clouds forblue sky, the gunner will be increasing his odds formaking a hit tremendously.

In defending a fixed location, the gunner shouldchoose a firing position that will minimize any possi-ble infrared interference from local terrain. This willnot be possible while on the move, as every secondwill count during an unexpected air attack.

Missile gunners need to be trained in the dangersand needs of their weapons. The biggest danger posedby the man-portable missile is its backblast area;being in the area immediately behind the rear end ofthe missile tube can cause burns and other bodilyinjury. Equipment might also suffer damage. Otherdangers are the fumes produced by the rocket motorand the cooling System as well as the heat generatedby thermal batteries when the missile is activated.While under attack there might be many differentthings going on all at once, but the gunner must keepin mind the dangers posed by his own missile.

The gunner should act as part of a team, and theother half of his team is the assistant gunner. Theassistant gunner is responsible for identifying targetsand guiding the gunner to his target while his Visionis limited by the weapon itself. This should be done bymeans of voice commands, such as "Ten o'clock, heli-copter!" or "Three o'clock, jet crossing left!" The assis-tant gunner can keep track of other aircraft while thegunner engages his target, and he can also confirmthat the backblast area behind the gunner is clear.

96

1 Problems of Missile Gunnery

If an effective early warning system is in place, agunner may have many minutes to prepare for anattack. However, the enemy will try to take an insur-gent force by surprise whenever possible, and eventhe most incompetent air force will succeed in this atleast every once in a while. The ability to react quicklyis an important asset for a missile gunner. By goingthrough dry runs, possibly with an expended launch-er, a missile gunner can prepare his weapon andengage a target in only a few seconds.

Good training will make the difference between asuccessful gunner who gets frequent hits and a gun-ner who wastes precious rounds.

9 7

A Selected Chronologyof Guerrilla and

Improvised Air Defense

1792-1802FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS

Saw the first use of balloons in combat. Alsosaw the first improvised antiaircraft

guns.

1861-1865AMERICAN CIVIL WAR

First use of passive air defensemeasures to defeat aerial observation.

99


1914-1918WORLD WAR I

Improvised AA machine guns were used toSupplement dedicated heavy AA

artillery.

1918-1920CHAOS IN GERMANY

Flak units of the Freikorps helped suppress theRed Revolution by using their weapons in the

ground mode.

1918-1921RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR

Bolsheviks employed air defense weaponsagainst White and Interventionist aircraft as

well as against ground targets.

1927-1934NICARAGUAN INSURGENCY

Guerrillas employed skyrockets armed withdynamite against American aircraft.

1935-1936ITALO-ETHIOPIAN WAR

Ethiopian forces fought Italian invaders. King

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Chronology of Guerrilla and Improvised Air Defense

Haile Selassie personally manned an antiaircraftgun in defense of his country.

1946-1954INDOCHINA WAR

Vietminh guerrillas overthrew French colonial-ists. Air defense played a key role.

1956-1975VIETNAM WAR

Insurgents in the Republic of Vietnam managedto down Vietnam Air Force and U.S. ArmedForces aircraft using antiaircraft guns and

shoulder-fired SAMs. This marked the first useof missiles by a guerrilla force. Communist useof air defense helped to negate the heavy fire-

power available to American forces.

1966-1988NAMIBIAN WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE

Saw extensive use of Soviet-made heavy AAmachine guns and SA-7 missiles by Namibianinsurgents and Angolans against South African

helicopters and jets.

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1969-1994NORTHERN IRELAND

During this low-level insurgency, IrishRepublican Army terrorists attempted to securean improvised surface-to-air missile made from

a model rocket kit.

1980-1988AFGHAN WAR

Mujihadeen insurgents defeated Soviet invadersand Afghani Republican forces. Liberal use ofAmerican Stinger missiles negated Soviet air

power.

1990-1995YUGOSLAVIAN CIVIL WAR

Bosnian Serb insurgents succeeded in downingan American F-16 in the United Nations-

imposed "no fly zone."

1994-1995CHECHNYAN WAR

Insurgents succeeded in engaging and shootingdown at least one attack aircraft.

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From the Vietcong to the Afghan Mujihadeen,well-prepared guerrilla forces have employed a varietyof ingenious tactics to defeat their enemies' air superi-ority. Guerrilla Air Defense shows you exactly howthese guerrilla forces pulled off successful antiaircraftdefense operations.

Author James "Doc" Crabtree, a former U.S.Army Air Defense Artillery Officer, includes current,detailed Information on the following:

• limiting detection from the air and minimizingthe effects of an air attack by using passiveair defense measures

• employing such active air defense tactics asbalanced fire, early engagement, weightedcoverage, mutual support, and overlappingfire

• setting up flak traps to lure in and destroyenemy aircraft

• using and maintaining antiaircraft weaponsprovided by sympathizers or captured fromenemy forces

• improvising machine guns, surface-to-air mis-siles, and antitank rockets for antiaircraft use

If guerrilla forces can deny their opponents theadvantage of attacking from the air, they'll no longerhave to defend themselves against "death from above."For academicstudyonly.

James Doc Crabtree

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