iUaftter of $i)iloiB(op(p I express my gratidue to Prof. A.H. Musavi (Chairman, Ceitre of Wildlife)...

POPULATION STATUS AND MOVEMENT OF NILGAI (Bohifaphus tragocamelus, PALLAS) AROIJDID 11IE VILLAGE GURSIKARAN

NEAR ALIGARH UNIVERSITY

DISSERTATION 8UBMITTEO IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQMIflEMENTS

FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

iUaftter of $i)iloiB(op(p IN

Wildlife Science

BY

M. 41AMAR QURBSKl

CENTRE dp WILDLIFE & ORNITHOLOGY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY

ALIGARH (INOIA)^

1991

^f^lAZAD

/ C . N'o-

• W ^

g-.v-^s^HO .,^ A-^ r, • . - ,At5!^

DS2417

CENTRE OF WILDUIF, 6> ORmTllOrA)GY

ALIGARH MUSLIM UNlVERSUY. AJJGARH-Wimi

Vri'l A. 11. MUSAM i hail won Dated;

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation "Population status

and movement of Nilqai (Boselaphus traRocamelus, Pallas) in

and around the village Gursikaran near Aligarh University"

submitted for the award of M.Phil, degree in Wildlife

Sciences, Cof the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, is the

original work of Mr. M. Qamar Qureshi. This work has been

done by the candidate under my supervision.

.«*A»"

( PROF. A.H. MUSAVI )

Telephones—Office : 290S2, Resilience : 24^59 :: Telex—564-2iQ AMU IN

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my gratidue to Prof. A.H. Musavi (Chairman, Ceitre of

Wildlife) who has been a source of Inspiration, and for his guidance

in and off the field.

I acknowledge with thanks the help and encoursgement recieved from

Mr. V.B. Sawarkar (Joint Director, Wildlife Institute of India) and

Dr. A.R. Rehmani, A.M.U. Aligarh.

I appreciate my colleague Parlkahl t Gautata for h i s help and company

which made life lively in the field. I thank Jamal Khan, Ainul

Hussain, AfifuUah Khan and Nayarul Haque for providing comments

on ear l ier version of th is thes i s .

I am thankful to my colleagues Salim Javed, Ramveer Singh,

Fahmeeda Hanfee, Mohd. Amir and Javed Hussain for thei r support .

I appreciate staff of Action for Food Production farm staff and of

Centre of Wildlife for providing help in various ways during the

s tudy. Thanks are due to Rajesh Thapa and his team for their

help on computer at Wildlife Institute, Dehradun. Mr. Akhtar Jamil

deserve a thanks for helping me in developing computer programme.

1 have no words to express my feelings for my parents , brother

and s i s te rs for their concern and to Mrs. and Mr. Gautam for their

good wishes. I owe a lot to Nita for her help and support in

completion of th is t hes i s .

CONTENTS

Acknowledgement I

List of Tables II

List of Figures & Plates Ill

Chapter I - Introduction..... 01

Chapter II - Study Area.................. 04

Chapter III - Population Structure 09

Chapter IV - Range of Movement 14

Chapter V - Social Organization 24

Appendix - 1 31

Appendix - II... 33

Appendix - III a & b 35-36

Appendix - IV 37

References 39

l.iHi. o f Trtbl<*H

Tciblf- ] . The cri jpK growi) i n l . h r f p (JJKlirxM. cTrt)pping pHl. l .prn • 07

Tdl) ]p 2 . P o p u l f l l . j o n Kt . ruc l .urH of n J l g H i {19n7-f iB) 11

T d b l e 3 a . Home» - rangf" s i z e and mean a c t i v i l . y - r a t l i u K of n i ] ga j 17

Table 3l>. Comparison of home range between sex, age,

and season (Mann-Whitney I] test.) 17

Table 4. Sightings of males in different group sizes 26

Table 5. Sightings of females in different, group sizes... 26

Table 6. Index of association for identified individuals.. 38

List of Figures & Plates

Fig. 1. Range of Distribution of nilgai 02

Fig. 2. Vegetation map of study area 05

Fig. 3a. Home range of four nilgai males in Sept to May (1987-88) 12

Fig. 3b. Home range of four nilgai males in June to August (1988) 19

Fig. 4a. Home range of three nilgai females in Sept. to May (1987-88) 21

Fig. 4b. Home range of three nilgai females in June to August (1988 ) 22

Plate 1 & 2. A mosiac of grassland, scrubland and cropfields in study area 50

Chapter-I

&HTRODDCTION

Aims of the Study

The nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) is the largest

antelope found in the region. Like most Indian species of

wildlife, nilgai has not received adequate attention of

biologists. The species is endemic to the Indian sub-continent,

occurring in a wide variety of habitats. Large populations

thrive in cultivated areas and are regarded as pests on crop.

The main aim of the study was focused on the nilgai population

existing in a rural area (Gursi Karan village, Aligarh

District). Following aspects were studied in detail:

(a) Population structure.

(b) Ranging pattern.

(c) Social organization.

Nilgai has adapted very well to certain alien habitats in

United States of America (USA) where it was introduced in 1930

(Sheffeield et. al. 1983).

Origin and Distribution

The tribe boselaphinae was widespread in Africa and

Eurasia in the Miocene and Pliocene, and probably includes the

oldest bovids fossil (Gentry 1978). Tragelaphines and bovines

probably split from the main boselaphine line in the mid Miocene

(Kingdom 1982).

The pleistocene vertebrate fauna of peninsular India were

found in Narraada gravel and the Karnul caves. The mammalian

fossils found in the two places include those of Boselaphus

specis. The Punjab tract had Boselaphus species but it did not

occur beyond the river Indus in the west (Mani 1974).

Blanford in his scheme of classification included

Boselaphus genera in the Aryan element which occured in

O study Area (Aligarti)

Fig.1 Dlatrfbution of Nilgai In India

peninsular India, but was absent in the rest of India and

Malayan area, though it reappeared in tropical Africa. The

typical genera of Aryan element do not, however, occur in

northern Africa or even in western Asia and are thus distinct

from,the mediterranean elements (Mani 1974) . In the peninsula,

the Aryan elements are on the whole subtropical rather than

tropical forms that are best developed in the parts with

moderate rainfall. Some of them do not indeed occur in humid

extreme south or in Ceylon, but are largely confined to the

grassy and bush covered plains with scattered trees.

Nilgai is distributed in India from the Himalayan foot

hills southward through Central India to Mysore (Sankhala 1964,

Walker 1968). Nilgai does not occur in eastern Bengal, Assam and

on Malabar Coast. There is practically no permanent resident

population in Pakistan today, but nilgai still regularly occur

around the Indian border of Kasur in the north eastern corner of

the Punjab and further south around Bhawalpore (Mirza & Khan

1975, Roberts 1977). It was stocked in Royal Karnali-Bardia

wildlife preserve, Nepal (Dinerstein 1979).

The present distribution of nilgai in India is given in

Fig.l. The species seems to have great potential of fast

multiplication because inspite of poaching in certain regions it

has been thriving. In some parts of the country, however. It is

not poached because of religious sentiments attached to the

suffix ''gai' .

The population under study inhabits the crop fields and

wasteland. The nilgai survives in good number in saline-

alkaline belt which passes through Utter Pradesh, part of

Aligarh district come under it. Observations were conducted

primarily in alkaline grassland patches which were protected by

Action Food Production Organisation (APPRO).

Chapter-II

STDDY AREA

Study area is a part of Aligarh district which is located

in the upper Ganga plain. It is located in 27* 11' to 27* 29'

North latitude and 77* 29' to 78' 38' East longitude. The study

was done from 1987 to 1988.The length and breadth of study area

is 10 and 8 km respectively, comprising 60 sq. km.

Climate

The study area is located in the region of monsoon with its

characteristic seasonal rhythum winter (mid October - mid

March), Summer (mid March to mid June) and monsoon (mid June to

mid October). Average annual rainfall is 647.3mm. Mean max.

temp 41.3'c in May-June and mean min. temp is 7.6*c. in December-

January. The relative humidity during the winter season ranges

63-81 % at 8:30 hrs and 28-45% at 17:30 hrs while in summer it

is 30-37% at 8:30 hrs. and 16-21 at 17:30 hrs. During monsoon

relative humidity was 87% at 8:30 hrs. and 78% at 17:30 hrs in

the month of August.

Geology and Soil

A l i g a r h i s l o c a t e d in a r e g i o n wliLch haw un i fo rm s u r f a c e

m a t e r i a l . The p r i n c i p a l f o r m a t i o n i s of p l e i s t o c ^ e n e and ret^eriL

o r i g i n . The r e g i o n I s m o s t l y c o n s t i t u t e d by . i l l u v l a l f i l l i n g .

The a r e a c o n s i s t s of s i l l . y and c l a y e y bhariger Lrac:tH and t h e

Hand rl<ltj<JH a l t e r n . i t e d by depreHs io t iH. The n a t u r e of depcjHlt.s

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11121314151617 .J192021

Fig Map of study area depectlng different vegetation types.

Plate-1

*«V*K:- . » - • * .

Plate-2.

J •» » S

Plate 1 & 2. A mosaic of grassland, scrubland and cropfields in the study area.

49

Yamuna. Khadar,bhangar and usar soils impregnated with salts are

found in this area.

Water

The region in 'general is a part of well integrated drainage

system of the Ganga. The gentle gradient almost all over the

region restrict the degradational processes. The Upper Ganga

Canal passes through Aligarh district. Most of the rivers are

perennial. The Sengar river and several small streams pass

through study area, are all seasonal.

The region is potentially rich in ground water resource,

both free and confined. The confined aquifer strikes between 60-

90 meters depth, temporary water table is less than 30 meters

with wide seasonal and temporal variation.

Flora

Aligarh is classified as Babul savanna of saline/ alkaline

scrub savanna type (Champion and Seth 1968). No natural forest

has left in the region at present. The ground vegetation takes

on an almost luxuriant appearance in monsoon. The ground is bare

where concentration of salt is excessive.

Vegetation of Study Area

The study area is dominated by agriculture, 72.6% of land

is occupied by crop fields. Grassland and fallow land occupies

21.4% of the area while Pvosopis juli flora covers 3% and

rf^mainlng 3% Is undf?r mixed plantation of Mango (M.ingifera

intl[i\i) , Tmli (T.^marindiis indica), and Neem {A^adLraobta

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indica) . The area occupied by crop fields and three major

vegetation types are given in Fig.2.The lict of flora is given

in appendix I. The list of plants eaten by nilgai in appendix

IV.

The cropping pattern in study area is characterized by two

seasons, Kharif (July - October) and Rabi (November - March),

the crop cultivated between March - June is called "Zaid' which

mainly consists of vegetables and some legumes (Table 1).

Chapter-Ill

POPDLATION STRDCTDRE

Methods

The study area was chosen on considerations of logistics

and accessibility. The nilgai inhabiting the area are

sufficient in number for this type of study. Due to openness of

the habited and good visibility total count in the study area

was possible. Two teams did total count in the area. The census

was conducted while walking along criss-cross line transects

between 0800 hrs and 1200 hrs. The total count were done in

November, January, May, July, August, and September in the year

1987-88. It is difficult in a short-term study to define the

group of animals found in the study area, as a population or a

sub-population. That will require marking of at least several

animals and keeping them under regular observation for a

considerably long time. Nilgai is found throughout the Indo-

Gangetic Plains but its distribution is sporadic. Whether there

is regular intraction (immigration and emigrations) between the

otherwise separated groups can not be stated with confidence.

Occassionally one or few animals may or wander from one area to

another. It is also possible that when driven away by farmers

or scattered by the poachers, one or more animals may stray into

a nearby area and join the group living there. Since it was not

feasible to investigate all such possibilities, the author of

this report has presumed the group of about forty nilgais in the

study area to be a population. Apart from this being a working

hypothels, cortaLn other observations supported the approach.

The total number of .inimals Ln the group mostly remained

accountea ror throughout the study period and no such change in

the age composition or sex-ratio was ob? rved which could not be

explained. Similarly, only two of the recognized individuals

mysteriously disappeared and no recognizable new animal was

observed.

Result and Discussion

The population comprised of 45 animals, including 3 calves

By the end of study period (November 1988) the population had

risen to 51 individuals of which one recognized male and one

female disappeared (presumed poached). Population estimate in

different is given in table 2.

Sex Ratio

The approximated sex ratio in the target population was 73

males:100 females. Berwick and Jordan (1971) reported even sex

ratio of 89 males:100 females. Schaller (1967) reported sex

ratios of two different population as 59 males:100 females and

37 males:100 females. The sex ratio for nilgai in Cristal and

Rosita pastures, (USA) in 1968-69 reported to be 109 males:100

females. The figures from zoological gardens worldwide

indicates almost equal percentage of males and females, 49% and

51% respectively of 535 births (Jarvig 1966, 1967, 1968, Lucas

1969, 1970). The sex ratio of population under study was from

predator free system but were subjected to selective poaching;

males are preferred by poachers. This may be the reason for

slightly lower proportion of males.

10

Population Bl.ruot.uro of nilgai (19ftfl-89).

NOV DEC FEB MAY JUI, AUG SEP

Adult male

Subadult male

Yearling male

Adult/subadult female

Yearling female

Calves

3

8

8

19

4

3

3

8

4

14

6

3

2

7

5

17

3

3

3

9

5

14

5

4

3

8

3

12

8

7

2

6

5

16

9

10

2

8

6

15

9

11

Total 45 38 37 40 41 48 51

Rate of Increase

The average annual rate of increase was 1.416; the growth

of population compounded annually, therefore, works out to be

41.6%. The calves:females ratio was found to be 82:100.

Sheffield et. al. (1983) found in two different population«^ratio 7/

^ beingj^and 81 calves: 100 females. These ratios indicate that

more than 50% females were sexually mature, i.e. females of age

2 to 3 years toobreed. Captive female nilgais have been reported

to start breeding at the age of 2 years (Berwick 1974), but

females are more fecund between 3-7 years (Berwick 1974,

Sheffield et. al. 1983). A nilgai female was observed with two

calves of different ages indicating that it probably mated even,

while suckling the older calf. Female nilgai was reported to

conceive while suckling young (Brander 1931). Twins and triplets

were reportedly born in Rosita and Cristal pastures, USA

(Sheffield et. al. 1983). However during present study only one

female was observed with twins.

Mortality

No natural deaths were recorded during the study period.

Five animal; (two females, one subadult male and one yearling

male) were poisoned by villagers in October 1987 to save the

crops. One identified female and a subadult male were found

missing after three months of tracking. Their fate was unknown;

probably they were poached. There was a report of poaching of a

male in study area at the same time.No evidence of calf

mortality was seen during the study. Three skulls of males arid

one of female were collected during the entire study perit;d.

12

Considering the animals poisoned, missing, and evidence of

mortality, totally 11 individuals were lost. Except two all nine

were died one month before commencement of st^tdy. So for

calculating mortality nine individuals were added to the initial

population of 39 individuals. Mortality observed in the study

population was 22.9%, leaving poisoning cases, the 13.95% nilgai

were poached.

1 ^

Chapter-IV

RANGE OF MOVEt>iiNT

Home range is the term given to the area in which free

living individual animal normally lives, regardless of whether

or not the area is defended as territory, and without reference

to home ranges of other animals. The term 'home range' used here

is adopted from Jewell (1966) as being the "area over which an

animal normally travels in pursuit of its routine activities".

Such activities will include feeding, mating, care of young,

availability of food, shelter and cover, and social behaviour.

Methods

The pilot survey of the study area was made and all the

vantage points were identified and correlated on corresponding

locations on the Survey of India map (1:25,000). An arbitrary

boundary of the study area was drawn. The area was divided into

500 X 500 mts cells. The cells were then makred for

identification through the landmarks such as boundaries of crop

fields, roads, canals, ponds, trees and electric poles.

The study area was regularly scanned by the help of 7x50

field glasses to locate the recognized animals and whenever any

one or more of these were seen, hhey were tracked in two shifts

viz: 07-01300 hrs and 13-1900 hrs. Positions of the animal(s)

were mapped on X and Y coordinates. Sometime lat.er, one af the

recognized males changed ihs idenhiFication fea^ure while one of

hhe females mysheriously d i s.ippe.i red. Thus only seven

14

recognized animals (males=4, females=3) were regularly studied.

The identification charecte- .? of males and i emales are given in

appendix iii and iv.

Calculation

For home range analysis a computer programme Mcpaal was

used. The harmonic mean transformation (HMT) was chosen for

drawing isopleths. The initial code of HMT was developed by

Dixon and Chapman (1980). The harmonic mean measure was used for

calculating home ranges as it can define home ranges of any

shape and are related directly to the intensity of activity. The

isopleths containing 90% of animal location is used for

analysis.

A computer programme is developed in FORTRAN for

calculation of centre of activity and mean activity radius

(appendix ii) using following equations:

The centre of activity X, Y (Hayne 1949, Dice and Clark 1953)

X = X,/n Y = Y,/n

X and Y are coordinates of the centre of each grid and n is

the number of grids in the home range.

Mean activity radius = S, (x, - X)' + (Y, - Y)'

S,

where S, is the number of sighting in each grid. Home range

overlap was calcul.ited by using the method for niche overlap and

species association (Gtjddall 1961)

I'i

Home range overlap P,j = min (P,,, Pj.)

X = all cells overlapped

P,j = Proportion of sightings of individual i in grid x

Pj, = Proportion of sightings of individual j in grid x.

Out of two individuals whose home ranges overlapped the

minimum value of overlapped grids was considered as the value of

(overlap) association.

Index of association for space used by the animal was calculated

by

2 X Pij Index of Association (la)

P, + P,

P, = Proportion of sightings of individual i in non-overlapped

grids

Pj = Proportion of sightings of individual j in non-overlapped

grids.

Pij =Proportion of sightings of individuals i & j in overlapped

grids.

Mann Whitney-U test and chi square contingency table

(Snedecor & Cochran 1967) was used for calculating statistics of

significance of home range sizes between sexes, age classes and

in different seasons.


The home range of identified males and females are given in

Table 3(a) and Fig.3 (a, b) , 4 (a, b) . With the sowing .\nd

harvesting of d if fi rent .igr iciil tural t:rops a c-hang* in the

16

TABLE-3a. Homo - range size and moan art.iviiy - radiuB of nilgai

ANIMAT, HOME RANGE SIZE (Km') CODE WINTER-SUMMER MONSOON

MEAN APTIVITY RADIUS WINTER-SUMMER MONSOON

MD

MF

MB

MY

FA

FAC

FY

7.23

33.87

11.17

8.5

8.5

6.5

5.5

13.5

9.5

8.85

8.25

5.5

8.25

6.0

] .1

1 .51

1.47

1.29

1.05

1.05

1.08

1 .41

1.23

1.6

1.27

0.9

1.0

1.0

TABLE-3b; Comparison of home range betwen sex, age and season (Mann-Whitney D t

8 5 1 0.002 Significant

3 4 1 0.057 Significant

Male:female (winter

- summer range)

Male:female (monsoon

range)

Winter - summer range: 4 4 9 0.443 Insignificant

monsoon range (male)

Winter - summer range: 3 3 3 0.350 Insignificant

monsoon range (female)

Adult roale:subadult male 2 6 2 0.143 Insignificant

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ranging pattern of the recognized animals was observed. Both

males and females were seen to shifted cheir centres of activity

with the onset of monsoon. Since home ranges (in Mcpall

programme) are drawn on the basis of centres of activity, the

home ranges have been shown to vary during monsoon and

otherwise. Thus two different ranges have been drawn; one for

Winter-Summer period and the other Monsoon period. Ecological

factors influencing such a change are apparent.

The males and females show significant difference in their

range size during Winter-Summer period (P < 0.057, Table 3b)

and Monsoon period (P < 0.057, Table 3b). All four males

(dominant male MD, sub-dominant male MB, floater male MF, and

yearling male MY) show more than 70% overlap with home range of

all three females FA, FSA, and FAC. The value of overlap is

given in Table 6.

The home ranges of all males were found to be larger than

those of females. Because the dominant male was seen to

irratically wander in pursuit of females while the other low

ranking males traversed wide area when chased by the dominant

male. The dominant mala MD was seen to remain confined to a

home range (7.23 sq.km.) which was to a great extent,

overlapping those of females and hence it was smaller in size

than the home ranges of low ranking males (average size 11.18

sq.kms.).

Three of the four malo.s (MD, MB and MF) shifted their

<;pntres of .ictivity and hcncf thfir home r.ingf s, with the ons< t

20

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of monsoon, but the yearling MY persisted in its pre-monsoon

home range (Fig. 3u ,b) . No significant change (P>0.05/ is

observed in home range area of all males taken together in two

periods.

The home ranges of MF and MY overlapped to a great extent

probably due to tolerance of each other, being lower in

heirarchy. Apparently due to intolerance factor, the home ranges

of the dominant male MD and sub-dominant male MB overlapped the

least (Table 6).

No difference in the sizes of home ranges of the three

identified females (FA, FAC and FY) has been observed (Figs.4a

and b) nor any significant variation in the home range sizes of

females was found throughout the year (P >0.05, Table 3b). The

home range overlap values were highest amongst females when

compared to overlap values of males (Table 6). The overlap of

home range and consistency was probably due to mutual tolerance

and lack of competition for courtship between oestrous females.

23

Chapter-V

SOCIAL ORGATNIZA' :ON

Methods

The behavioural observations were conducted primarily in

alkaline grassland patches which were protected by action Food

Production Organization(AFPRO). Seven individual animals were

recognized. Data was collected on group structure and responses

of known individuals. Nilgai were observed from a distance 100

- 150m with the help of field without disturbing the animals.

They were have grown used to human presence due to frequent

interactions.


The sightings of single males were highest (62%) in winter

(Table4). This may be because of peak rutting period (winters)

during which adult males tend to segregate. Prater (1965) and

Sheffield et. al. (1983) also reported that most adult males

remain alone during rut. In monsoon, a period prior to rut, 32%

of the males (Table4), mostly subadults observed single.

Subadult males and those males which reached adulthood contest

for higher rank in hierarchic system. The males try to

establish the rank as rut begins from September.

Seasonal variations in social behaviour of nilgai were also

observed. Adult males, particularly during winter which is also

the main rutting season, tend to be with females and to be

antagonintic to tether males. The dominant male tries to keep as

many mature ff^malns to hirns lE as pf)H3lbU^ and to ("base away

24

other males. Lower ranking males occassionally get access to

females beyond the infix.' nee of the dominant male.

All male groups were mostly observed during Summer and

monsoon, 67% and 68% respectively . Bigger groups of males were f

formed due to herding behaviour of subadults in post rut phase

and adult males too were seen associated with them. The

yearlings were mostly seen in groups of 2 to 5 throughout the

year. Yearling and subadult males in contract to adult males,

occurs mostly in groups which was also observed in Rosita &

Cristal pastures (Sheffield et. al 1983).

Out of 25 male groups classified excluding singles, the

associations observed were as follows; adult males only 5.8%,

subadults 26.8%, yearlings 35.4%, adult - subadult - yearling

7.7%, adult - subadult 6.6% and sub-adult - yearling 17.5%.

Single females were predominant (37%) (Table 5) during

monsoon . The.large number of single females segregate at the

time of parturition; similar pattern was observed in Rosita

(Sheffield et. al. 1983). Nilgai females were less frequently

seen in smaller groups; groups of 2 to 3 females together were

observed 19 times during entire study period.

Observations during this study indicated soome seasonal

variations in social organization. Adult males, particularly

during winter (which is also the main rutting season in this

part of the country) sf>em to become antagonistic to other mal(?s

and more poHsessive <JE fomalfs. Th iy usually oh.ise away oth«»r

25

TABLE- <. Sir,htinr.B of males in d i f f errn l group s i z e s .

SEASON

1

62

33

32

GROUP SIZE a)

2-3

28

22

48

4-5

10

Al

11

6-7 8-9

Winter

Summer

Monsoon

AG

93

21

3

9

TABLE-5. Sightings of females in different group sizes.

SEASON

1

13

3

37

GROUP SIZE (%)

2-3 A-5 6-7

8 39 20

2 7 4

26 28 9

8-9

10

36

5

10-15 16-25

6 A

17 21

>26

Winter

Summer

Monsoon

82

78

31

intruding males. This observation conforms to the reports of

other workers. According to Sheffield et. al. (1983), most

adult males remain alone during the rut. Prater (1965) also

stated that old bulls keep to themselves or a few may associate

together. In the small population (or group) observed during

this study, the dominant male appeared to be more intolerant of

other males.

Before the start of the main rut i.e. with the onset of

monsoon, single males were seen less frequently (33% sightings)

but in winter single males were more frequently seen (62%)

sightings) which was the heighest frequency during the whole

year (Table 4). All male groups were usually seen during summer

and monsoon.

The social structure did not seem to follow fixed pattern.

It was flexible, dynamic system that changed throughout the year

in accordance with the reproductive cycle. The family groups

appear much flexible and have weaker bonds among the individuals

The only exception was the bond between females and calves which

lasted for 8-12 months. One possible advantage of weaker family

ties in matriarchal groups may be a greater capability for

dispersal by younger animals at times of relatively high

population levels. The same behavioural pattern was observed by

Hardin et. al . (1976).

The. index of association is given in Table 6. Tlie highest

v.i 1 ue f)f association was observed in flo.iter male MF and

yearling male MY. Dominant male MD shows least asHO(Mat"ion wit'h

27

Table 6. Index of association for identified nilgai.

MD

MF

MSA

MB

FA

FY

FAC

MD MF

0.331

MSA

0.611

0.300

MB

0.222

0.147

0.273

FA

0.529

0.574

0.224

0.319

FC/A

0.340

0.324

0.452

0.172

0.382

FAC

0.467

0.512

0.561

0.272

0.552

0.611

other low ranking males; the association index value being

lowest with subdominant male MR (Table 6). The floater male

was more associated with yearling male, its association with

subdominant male was less.

The dominant male (MD) , floater male (MF) and yearling male

(MY) showed highest value of association with adult female FA

and FAC. Dominant male was associated more with adult females

than that with yearling female (FY). The same was observed in

floater male. The yearling male was associated with all

females; probably because of age and social status. Amongst all

males subdominant male (MB) showed least association and was

kept away from the herd by the dominant male. The males MD and

MB show site fidelity and large number of faecal piles were

observed in the areas occupied by them. The two sites were

about 100 metres apart with Prosopis juliflora patch separating

them . The floater male roamed over a large area and join the

female herd whenever dominant male was not around.

All three females FA, FAC and FY closely associated and

remain in a group. The yearling female FY was associated more

with FAC. The females formed cohesive groups. The female group

structure was influenced by calving while mating season have

minor effects.

As described above ^he adult male MD and MR shows site

fidelity but these arfas were not defended like territory and

both animals were SHHM in f arh other's area. The male MR was

seen ("basing .iway MR more from Hie herd raHier t.han from area.

29

Herding behaviour by adult males was not observed. Low ranking

males exihibit liner r hierarchy amongst themselves. All these

observations substantiate that nilgai's social behaviour is

intermediate between territorial and hierarchical; conforming

to the social system observed in all tragolaphines ( Fall;

B.A.,1972 & Sheffield's 1983) except eland.

Lot of ambiguity appears in littrature regrading social

structure of nilgai; Schaller (1967) reports nilgai being

territorial; Dharamkumarsinhji (1957) claimed they are not

territorial but males maintain harem. Both authors presented

little evindence for thier conclusion.

^0

APPENDIX-T

Flora of Study Area

Trees and Shrubs

Prosopis cineraria

prosopis juliflora

Prosopis specigera

Acacia catechu

Acacia leucophloea

Azadiracta indica

Phoenix sylvestris

Capparis decidua

Capparis separia

Calotropis procera

Zizyphus spp,

Salvadora oleoides

Herbs

Vicia hirusta

Argemone maxicana

Oxalis cuniculata

So Ianum spp.

Grasses

Vetivevia z Ly^anoidf^s

S,iC(:hariim munja

rmpe^r.i ha ry I i ndf r ic.i

nicjitt^fLi binurnis

^\

Cenchrus setigera

Dichanthium annulatus

Setaria uerticulata

Penicum antidotale

Sporobolus spp.

Cynodan dactylan

Sedges

Cyprus compressus

Cyprus rotundus

Climbers

Rhyeosia minima

Coccinia cordi fnlia

Ipomoea pestigenidis

12

Append!x-II

Computer program for calculating centre of activity and

mean activity radius

DIMINSION X(IOO), Y(IOO), S(IOO), P(IOO)

READ(8,*)N

READ (8,*) (X(I), 1=1, N=l)

READ (8,*) ( Y d ) , 1 = 1, N = I)

READ (8,*) (S(I), 1=1, N=l)

WRITE (5,3)

WRITE (5,1)

SUM X=0.0

SUM Y=0.0

SUM S=0.0

DO 10 1=1,N

10 SUM X SUM X + X (I)

DO 91 1=1, N

91 SUM Y SUM Y + Y (I)

DO 93 1=1, N

93 SUM S SUM S + S (T)

GEOM X = SUM X/N

GEOM Y = SUM Y/N

PRINT* SUM P

DO 20 1=1, N

P(I)= ( (S(I)*SQRT( (X( T )-GEOM X ) * * 2+(Y(I )-GEOM

Y)**2) ) )/SUM*0.025

20 CONTINUE

DO 30 T=l, N

30 SUM P= SUM P + P (I)

PRTNT*S[JM P

33

pinNT*ninM x

PHjrrr»,GLlJMY

UO 99 1 = 1 , . , , *

1«3«2X« • )

88 FUKfATCloX, '* ' 9 X , ' * ' 3 C l l X , ' » ' J , y X , ' » ' ) 99 COMANUt

WK11E(!>,92) 92 FOKMATC10X,57(H*))

tNKllCilb.lljGEOMX.GtaMy.SUMH 11 FOKhATtl0X,b7(H*5/ iyX,** ' ,2X, ' 'Ht; i>ULT t ' , 4 b X , ' » ' / 1 0 X , ' * ' , 2 X , ' 1 , '

l i K t ' o K A C T 1 V 1 T Y ' , 3 1 X , ' » ' / 1 0 X . ' * ' , 6 X , ' C U - U K U 1 N A T E X = ' , F b . 3 , 2 7 X , ' • 2 ' / 1 0 X , ' * ' , b X , ' C O i O K D i N A T E 1( = * , h b , 3 , 2 7 X , ' • ' / I U X , ' • ' , 5bX. *• V l O X . ' » ' 3 , 2 X . ' 2 , ' , 2 X , * M E A N ACTIVITY RADIUS dCin Kfi ) = ' , F b , 3 , i IX, ^ • ' / l O X , ^ » ' 5 4 5 X , * » ' / l 6 x , b 7 ( H * ) )

SlUF

APPENDIX-IIIa

Identification characters for male nilgai

MD

Broken right horn

MY

Scar below left eye

and on neck

MF

Hairless patch on

snout and ear

MB

Hairless patch on

dorsal side

Ti

APPENDIX-IIIb

Identification characters for female nilgai

FAC

Deep cut in

right ear

FY

Black patch on

left foreleg

FA

Cut tail

16

Trees

Prosopis cineraria

Prosopis juliflora

Prosopis specigera

Acacia leucophloea

Shrubs

Zi zyph u s spp.

APPENDIX-IV

Plants eaten by nilgai

Grasses

Vetiveria zizanoides

Saccharum manja

Setaria uerticulata

Sporobolus spp.

Cynodon dactylon

Sedges

Cyprus Compressus

Cyprus rotundas

Saccharum o f f i c l n a r u m Crops

Zea mays

Sorghum vulgar^

Pf^nn i sf^tum t.ypho idt's

C.ij.inus f.ij.in

M

Lens esculentus

Phaseoles aureus (Vigns radiata)

Cicer arietivum

Triticum aestivum

Oryza sativa

Brassica compestris

in

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41

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