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IT2354 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS UNIT-I

DEPARTMENT OF IT/SVSCE 1

UNIT-I

EMBEDDED COMPUTING

Challenges of Embedded Systems Embedded system design process. Embedded processors

8051 Microcontroller, ARM processor Architecture, Instruction sets and programming.

INTRODUCTION

Embedded system:

An embedded system is a special-purpose computer system designed to perform a dedicated

function Unlike a general-purpose computer, such as a personal computer, an embedded system

performs one or a few pre-defined tasks, usually with very specific requirements, and often

includes task-specific hardware and mechanical parts not usually found in a general-purpose

computer.

Embedded computer System: Any device that includes a programmable computer but is not

itself intended to be a general-purpose computer is called embedded computer system.

Embedding Computers

Computers have been embedded into applications since the earliest days of computing.Eg)

Whirlwind. a computer designed at MIT in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Whirlwind was also

the first computer designed to support real-time operation and was originally conceived as a

mechanism for controlling an aircraft simulator.

Microprocessor:

A microprocessor is a single-chip CPU. The first microprocessor, the Intel 4004, was designed for

an embedded application, namely, a calculator. Microprocessors come in many different levels of

sophistication; they are usually classified by their word size. Microprocessors execute programs

very efficiently.

An 8-bit microcontroller is designed for low-cost applications and includes on-board

memory and I/O devices; A 16-bit microcontroller is often used for more sophisticated applications that may

require either

longer word lengths or off-chip I/O and memory;

A 32-bit RISC microprocessor offers very high performance for computation-intensive

applications.

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Why use microprocessors?

Microprocessors are a very efficient way to implement digital systems.

Microprocessors make it easier to design families of products that can be built to

provide various feature sets at different price points and can be extended to provide

new features to keep up with rapidly changing markets.

Characteristics of Embedded Computing Applications

Embedded computing is in many ways much more demanding than the sort of programs that you

may have written for PCs or workstations. On the one hand, embedded computing systems have

to provide sophisticated functionality:

Complex algorithms: The operations performed by the microprocessor may be very

sophisticated. For example, the microprocessor that controls an automobile engine must perform

complicated filtering functions to optimize the performance of the car while minimizing pollution

and fuel utilization.

User interface: Microprocessors are frequently used to control complex user

interfaces that may include multiple menus and many options. The moving maps in Global

Positioning System (GPS) navigation are good examples of sophisticated user interfaces.

Deadlines involve:

Real time: Many embedded computing systems have to perform in real time if the data is notready by a certain deadline, the system breaks. In some cases, failure to meet a deadline is unsafe

and can even endanger lives. In other cases, missing a deadline does not create safety problems

but does create unhappy customersmissed deadlines in printers, can result in scrambled pages.

Multirate: Many embedded computing systems have several real-time activities going on at the

same time. They may simultaneously control some operations that run at slow rates and others

that run at high rates. Multimedia applications are prime examples of multirate behavior. The

audio and video portions of a multimedia stream run at very different rates, but they must remain

closely synchronized.

Costs of various sorts are also very important:

Manufacturing cost: The total cost of building the system is very important in many cases.

Manufacturing cost is determined by many factors, including the type of microprocessor used, the

amount of memory required, and the types of I/O devices.

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Power and energy: Power consumption directly affects the cost of the hardware, since a larger

power supply may be necessary. Energy consumption affects battery life, which is important in

many applications,as well as heat consumption, which can be important even in desktop

applications.

CHALLENGES IN EMBEDDED COMPUTING SYSTEM DESIGN

The following external constraints are one important source of difficulty in embedded

system Design.

How much hardware do we need?

We have a great deal of control over the amount of computing power we apply to our problem.

We cannot only select the type of microprocessor used, but also select the amount of memory, the

peripheral devices, and more. If too little hardware and the system fails to meet its deadlines, too

much hardware and it becomes too expensive.

How do we meet deadlines?

It is entirely possible that increasing the CPU clock rate may not make enough difference to

execution time, since the programs speed may be limited by the memory system.

How do we minimize power consumption?

In battery-powered applications, power consumption is extremely important. Even in non- battery

applications, excessive power consumption can increase heat dissipation. One way to make a

digital system consume less power is to make it run more slowly, but naively slowing down the

system can obviously lead to missed deadlines.

How do we design for upgradability?

The hardware platform may be used over several product generations or for several different

versions of a product in the same generation, with few or no changes.

Does it really work?

Reliability is always important when selling productscustomers rightly expect that products

they buy will work.

The sources that make the design so difficult are:

Complex testing: Exercising an embedded system is generally more difficult than typing

in some data. The timing of data is often important, meaning that we cannot separate the testing

of an embedded computer from the machine in which it is embedded.

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arrows. We need bottomup design because we do not have perfect insight into how later stages

of the design process will turn out. During the design process we have to consider the major goals

of the design such as

manufacturing cost;

performance (both overall speed and deadlines); and

power consumption.

Design steps are detailed below:

A.Requirements:

Requirements may be functional or nonfunctional. We must capture the basic functions

of the embedded system, but functional description is often not sufficient. Typical nonfunctional

requirements include:

1. Performance: The speed of the system is often a major consideration both for the usability of

the system and for its ultimate cost. Performance may be a combination of soft performance

metrics such as approximate time to perform a user-level function and hard deadlines by which a

particular operation must be completed.

2. Cost: The target cost or purchase price for the system is almost always a consideration. Cost

typically has two major components:o Manufacturing cost includes the cost of components and assembly;

o NonRecurring engineering (NRE) costs include the personnel and other costs of

designing the system.

3.Physical size and weight: The physical aspects of the final system can vary greatly depending

upon the application. e.g) An industrial control system for an assembly line may be designed to

fit into a standard-size rack with no strict limitations on weight. But a handheld device typically

has tight requirements on both size and weight that can ripple through the entire system design.

4. Power consumption: Power, of course, is important in battery-powered systems and is often

important in other applications as well. Power can be specified in the requirements stage in terms

of battery life.

mock-up. The mock-up may use canned data to simulate functionality in a restricted

demonstration, and it may be executed on a PC or a workstation. But it should give the

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customer a good idea of how the system will be used and how the user can react to it.

Physical,nonfunctional models of devices can also give customers a better idea of

characteristics such as size and weight.

e.g)Requirements analysis of a GPS moving map

The moving map is a handheld device that displays for the user a map of the terrain around the

users current position; the map display changes as the user and the map device change position.

The moving map obtains its position from the GPS, a satellite-based navigation system.

The moving map display might look something like the following figure

Fig.1.2 G.P.S Moving map

Functionality: This system is designed for highway driving and similar uses, not nautical oraviation uses that require more specialized databases and functions. The system should show

major roads and other landmarks available in standard topographic databases.

User interface: The screen should have at least 400_600 pixel resolution. The device should be

controlled by no more than three buttons.

Performance: The map should scroll smoothly. Upon power-up, a display should take no more

than one second to appear, and the system should be able to verify its position and display the

current map within 15 s.

Cost: The selling cost (street price) of the unit should be no more than $100.

Physical size and weight: The device should fit comfortably in the palm of the hand.

Power consumption: The device should run for at least eight hours on four AA batteries.

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Fig.1.3Requirements form for GPS Moving map

B.Specification

The specification is more preciseit serves as the contract between the customer and the

architects. The specification should be understandable enough so that someone can verify that it

meets system requirements and overall expectations of the customer. It should also be

unambiguous. the specification must be carefully written so that it accurately reflects the

customers requirements and does so in a way that can be clearly followed during design. A

specification of the GPS system would include several components:

Data received from the GPS satellite constellation.

Map Data

User Interface

Operations that must be performed to satisfy customer requests. Background actions required to

keep the system running, such as operating the GPS receiver. UML, a language for describing

specifications

C.Architecture Design

The specification does not say how the system does things, only what the system does. Describing

how the system implements those functions is the purpose of the architecture. Figure 1.3 shows a

sample system architecture in the form of a block diagram that shows major operations and data

flows among them.

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Fig 1.3:Block diagram of the moving map

Many implementation details should we refine that system block diagram into two block diagrams: one for

hardware and another for software. These two more refined block diagrams are shown in Figure 1.4.The

hardware block diagram clearly shows that we have one central CPU surrounded by memory and I/O

devices. In particular, we have chosen to use two memories: a frame buffer for the pixels to

be displayed and a separate program/data memory for general use by the CPU .

Fig 1.4:Hardware design Fig 1.5:Software design

D. Designing Hardware and Software Components

The component design effort builds those components in conformance to the architecture and

specification. The components will in general include both hardwareFPGAs, boards, and so

onand software modules. Some of the components will be ready-made. In the moving map, the

GPS receiver is a good example of a specialized component that will nonetheless be a

predesigned, standard component. We can also make use of standard software modules. One good

example is the topographic database.

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E. System Integration

The components built are put together and see how the system works. If we debug only a few

modules at a time, we are more likely to uncover the simple bugs and able to easily recognize

them. Only by fixing the simple bugs early will we be able to uncover the more complex or

obscure bugs.

EMBEDDED PROCESSORS

Embedded processors can be broken into two broad categories: ordinary microprocessors (P)

and microcontrollers (C), which have many more peripherals on chip, reducing cost and size.

Contrasting to the personal computer and server markets, a fairly large number of basic CPU

architectures are used; there are Von Neumann as well as various degrees of Harvard

architectures, RISC as well as non-RISC and VLIW; word lengths vary from 4-bit to 64-bits and

beyond (mainly in DSP processors) although the most typical remain 8/16-bit. Most architecture

comes in a large number of different variants and shapes, many of which are also manufactured

by several different companies. e.g ARM

8051 MICROCONTROLLER

8051 is an excellent device for building many embedded systems. One important factor is

that the 8051 requires a minimum number of external components in order to operate.

It is a well-tested design; introduced in its original form by Intel in 1980 the development

costs of this device now start at less than US $1.00. At this price, you get a performance of around

1 million instructions per second, and 256 bytes (not megabytes!) of on-chip RAM, 32 port pins

and a serial interface.

Features of 8051:The main features of 8051 microcontroller are:

RAM 128 Bytes (Data memory)

ROM 4Kbytes .

Serial Port Using UART makes it simpler to interface for serial communication.

Two 16 bit Timer/ Counter, Input/output Pins 4 Ports of 8 bits each on a single chip.

6 Interrupt Sources

8 bit ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
http://www.engineersgarage.com/tutorials/interrupts-8051-interrupt-programminghttp://www.engineersgarage.com/tutorials/interrupts-8051-interrupt-programming

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Harvard Memory Architecture It has 16 bit Address bus (each of RAM and ROM) and 8

bit Data Bus.

8051 can execute 1 million one-cycle instructions per second with a clock frequency of

12MHz.

This microcontroller is also called as System on a chip because it has all the features on

a single chip. The Block Diagram of 8051 Microcontroller is as shown in Figure

8051 Microcontroller Block diagram

Pin configuration of 8051

The following is the Pin diagram of 8051 microcontroller.

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address and data bus that can be used to access external memory in conjunction with PORT P2.

P0 acts as AD0-AD7.

C) OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS

The 8051 requires the existence of an external oscillator circuit. The oscillator circuit usually runsaround 12MHz, although the 8051 (depending on which specific model) is capable of running at a

maximum of 40MHz. Each machine cycle in the 8051 is 12 clock cycles, giving an effective cycle

rate at 1MHz (for a 12MHz clock) to 3.33MHz (for the maximum 40MHz clock). The oscillator

circuit generates the clock pulses so that all internal operations are synchronized.

The external interface of the Standard 8051

Small 8051

Low-cost members of the 8051 family with reduced number of port pins, and no support for off-

chip memory. Typical application: Low-cost consumer goods.

Standard 8051: The Small 8051s and the Extended 8051s are derived

Extended 8051:Members of the 8051 family with extended range of no-chip facilities

(e.g. CAN controllers, ADC, DAC,etc), large numbers of port pins, and - in recent

devices - support for large amounts of off-chip memory. Typical applications: Industrial

and automotive systems.

Reset requirements

Reset routine must be run to place hardware into an appropriate state before it can begin

executing the user program. Running this reset routine takes time, and requires that the

microcontrollers oscillator is operating.

Where system is supplied by a robust power supply, which rapidly reaches its specified

output voltage when switched on, rapidly decreases to 0V when switched off, and while

switched on cannot brown out (drop in voltage), then we can safely use low-cost reset

hardware based on a capacitor and a resistor to ensure that system will be reset correctly: this

form of reset circuit is shown in Figure

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Figure:Reset requirements

Clock frequency and performance

All digital computer systems are driven by some form of oscillator circuit: the 8051 is certainly

no exception. If the oscillator fails, the system will not function at all; if the oscillator runs

irregularly, any timing calculations performed by the system will be inaccurate.

Memory Issues

Fig: Clock frequency and performance

A. Types of memory

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

Mask Read-Only Memory (ROM)

Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)

UV Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (UV EPROM)

EEPROM and Flash ROM

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Dynamic RAM Vs Static RAM

Dynamic RAM Static RAM

Dynamic RAM is a read-write memorytechnology that uses a small capacitor

to store information.

Static RAM is a read-write memorytechnology that uses a form of

electronic flip-flop to store theinformation

It must be frequently refreshed tomaintain the required information

No refreshing is required

Less complex and least cost More complex and costs can be severaltimes that of the corresponding size ofDRAM

Access time is large compared to

SRAM

Access times may be one-third those of

DRAM

Mask Read-Only Memory (ROM):

Mask ROM is from the software developers perspective read only; A mask is

provided by the company for which the chips are being produced. Such devices are

therefore sometimes referred to as factory programmed.

Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)

PROM is a form of Write-Once, Read-Many (WORM) or One-Time Programmable

(OTP) memory. Basically, we use a PROM programmer to blow tiny fuses in the device.

UV Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (UV EPROM) :

UV EPROMs are programmed electrically. Unlike PROMs, they also have a quartz

window which allows the memory to be erased by exposing the internals of the device to

UV light.

EEPROM and Flash ROM

Electrically-Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROMs) and Flash ROMs are a

more user-friendly form of ROM that can be both programmed and erased electrically. EEPROM

and Flash ROM are very similar. EEPROMs can usually be reprogrammed on a byte-by-byte

basis, and are often used to store passwords or other persistent user data. Flash ROMs generallyrequire a block-sized erase operation before they can be programmed.

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b) Memory organization and hex

All data items are represented in computer memory as binary codes, each containing a certain

number of bits. To simplify the storage and retrieval of data items, these memory bits are

organized into memory locations, each with a unique memory address. The other Memory

representations are shown

Fig: Memory Organization and Hex representation

C) The 8051 memory architecture

There are two distinct memory regions in an 8051 device: the DATA area and the CODE area.

DATA memory : DATA memory is used to store variables and the program stack while the

program is running. The DATA area will be implemented using some form of RAM. Most ofthe DATA area has a byte-oriented memory organization. However, within the DATA area is

a 16-byte BDATA area which can also be accessed using bit addresses.

The compiler avoids confusion if 0x24 in bit address and byte address.

CODE memory :CODE area is used to store the program code, usually in some form of ROM.

The CODE area may also contain read-only variables (constants), such as filter co-efficients

or data for speech playback.

D) 8-bit family, 16-bit address space

An 8-bit microcontroller refers to the size of the registers and data bus. This means that

the family will handle 8-bit data very quickly and process 16-bit or 32-bit data rather less

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16

efficiently. The 16-bit address space means that the device can directly address 216 bytes of

memory: that is, 64 kbytes.

E) I/O pins

Most 8051s have four 8-bit ports, giving a total of 32 pins you can individually read from or

control. All of the ports are bidirectional: that is, they may be used for both input and output

F) Timers

All members of the 8051 family have at least two timer/counters, known as Timer 0 and Timer 1:

most also have an additional timer (Timer 2). These are 16-bit timers, they can hold values from 0

to 65535 (decimal).There are many things we can do with such a timer:

It used to measure intervals of time. It can measure the duration of a function by noting

the value of a timer at the beginning and end of the function call, and comparing the two

results.

Use it to generate precise hardware delays.

Use it to generate time out facilities: this is a key requirement in systems with real-time

constraints.

Most important of all, we can use it to generate regular ticks, and drive an operating

system

G. Interrupts

An interrupt is a hardware mechanism used to notify a processor that an event has takenplace: such events may be internal events (such as the overflow of a timer) or external events

(such as the arrival of a character through a serial interface).The original 8051 (8052)

architecture supported seven interrupt sources:

Two or three timer/counter interrupts

Two UART-related

Two external interrupts

The power-on reset (POR) interrupt. In Figure

the system executes two (background) functions,

Function 1 and Function 2 . During the execution of

Function 1, an interrupt is raised, and an

interrupt service routine (ISR1) deals with this event.

After the execution of ISR1 is complete, Function 1

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resumes its operation. During the execution of Function 2,

another interrupt is raised, this time dealt with by ISR2.

H. Serial interface

Such an interface is common in embedded processors, and is widely used. Here are some

examples:

The serial port may be used to debug embedded applications, using a desktop PC.

The serial port may be used to load code into flash memory for in circuit programming

The serial port may be used to transfer data from embedded data acquisition systems to a

PC, or to other embedded processors

I .Power consumption

All modern implementations of 8051 processors have at least three operating modes:

Normal mode.

Idle Mode.

Power-Down Mode.

The Idle and Power Down modes are intended to be used to save power at times when no

processing is required .We generally aim for an average power consumption of less than 10 mA.

Idle mode: In the idle mode the oscillator of the C501 continues to run, but the CPU is gated

off from the clock signal. Rhe interrupt system, the serial port and all timers are connected to

the clock. The idle mode is entered by setting the flag bit IDLE (PCON.0). The easiest way is:

PCON |= 0x01; // Enter idle mode

There are two ways as activating any enabled interrupt and Perform a hardware reset.

Power-down mode:

The power-down mode is entered by setting the flag bit PDE (PCON.1). This is done in C as

follows:

PCON |= 0x02; // Enter power-down mode

The only exit from power-down mode is a hardware reset.

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ARM PROCESSORThe ARM processor is widely used in cell phones and many other systems.

INTRODUCTION:

complex instruction set computers (CISC).

These machines provided a variety of instructions that may perform very complex tasks, such as

string searching; they also generally used a number of different instruction formats of varying

lengths.

Reduced instruction set computers (RISC)

These computers tended to provide somewhat fewer and simpler instructions it.

Streaming data.

Data sets that arrive continuously and periodically are called Streaming data.

Assembly language:

Assembly language has the following features:

One instruction appears per line.

Labels, which give names to memory locations, start in the first column.

Instructions must start in the second column or after to distinguish them from

labels.

Comments run from some designated comment character (; in the case of ARM) to

the end of the line

Assemblers must also provide somepseudo-ops to help programmers create complete assembly

language programs.An example of a pseudo-op is one that allows data values to be loaded into

memory locations.These allow constants,for example, to be set into memory. TheARM %

pseudo-op allocates a block of memory of the size specified by the operand and initializes

locations to zero.

e.g)

label1 ADR r4,c

LDR r0,[r4] ; a comment

ADR r4,d

LDR r1,[r4]

SUB r0,r0,r1 ; another comment

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ARM PROCESSOR:

ARM is actually a family of RISC architectures that have been developed over many

years. ARM does not manufacture its own VLSI devices; rather, it licenses its architecture to

companies who either manufacture the CPU itself or integrate the ARM processor into a larger

system.

The textual description of instructions, as opposed to their binary representation, is called an

assembly language. ARM instructions are written one per line, starting after the first column.

Comments begin with a semicolon and continue to the end of the line. A label, which gives a

name to a memory location, comes at the beginning of the line, starting in the first column

e.g) LDR r0,[r8]; a comment

label ADD r4,r0,r1

1. Processor and Memory Organization

TheARM architecture supports two basic types of data:

The standardARM word is 32 bits long.

The word may be divided into four 8-bit bytes

ARM7 allows addresses up to 32 bits long.An address refers to a byte,not a word.Therefore, the

word 0 in the ARM address space is at location 0, the word 1 is at 4, the word 2 is at 8,and so on.

The ARM processor can be configured at power-up to address the bytes in a word in either

little-endian mode (with the lowest-order byte residing in the low-order bits of the word)

big-endian mode (the lowest-order byte stored in the highest bits of the word),

Fig: Byte organizations within an ARM word.

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Data Operations:

Arithmetic and logical operations in C are performed in variables. Variables are

implemented as memory locations.

Sample fragment of C code with data declarations and several assignment statements. The

variables a, b, c, x, y, and z all become data locations in memory. In most cases data are kept

relatively separate from instructions in the programs memory image. In the ARM processor,

arithmetic and logical operations cannot be performed directly on memory locations. While some

processors allow such operations to directly reference main memory,

ARM is a load-store architecturedata operands must first be loaded into the CPU and

then stored back to main memory to save the results.

e.g)C Fragment code

int a, b, c, x, y, z;

x_(a_b)_c;y_a*(b_c);z_(a

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The zero (Z) bit is set when every bit of the result is zero.

The carry (C) bit is set when there is a carry out of the operation.

The overflow(V) bit is set when an arithmetic operation results in an overflow.

Instruction Sets in ARM

Following figure summarizes the ARM move instructions. The instruction MOV r0, r1 sets the value of r0to the current value of r1. The MVN instruction complements the operand bits (ones complement) duringthe move.

Fig: ARM data Instructions

LDRB and STRB load and store bytes rather than whole words,while LDRH and SDRH

operate on half-words and LDRSH extends the sign bit on loading. An ARM address may be 32 bits long. .The ARM load and store instructions do not directly refer to main memory addresses,

since a 32-bit address would not fit into an instruction that included an opcode andoperands. Instead, the ARM uses register-indirect addressing.

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C assignments in ARM instructions

We will use the assignments of Figure 2.7. The semicolon (;) begins a comment after an

instruction, which continues to the end of that line. The statement

x = (a +b)_ c;

can be implemented by using r0 for a, r1 for b, r2 for c, and r3 forx . We also need registers

for indirect addressing. In this case, we will reuse the same indirect addressing register, r4,

for each variable load. The code must load the values of a, b, and c into these registers before

performing the arithmetic, and it must store the value ofxback to memory when it is done.

This code performs the following necessary steps:

ADR r4,a ; get address for a

LDR r0,[r4] ; get value of a

ADR r4,b ; get address for b, reusing r4LDR r1,[r4] ; load value of b

ADD r3,r0,r1 ; set intermediate result for x to a + b

ADR r4,c ; get address for c

LDR r2,[r4] ; get value of c

SUB r3,r3,r2 ; complete computation of x

ADR r4,x ; get address for x

STR r3,[r4] ; store x at proper location

Flow of Control

The B (branch) instruction is the basic mechanism inARM for changing the flow of control.

The address that is the destination of the branch is often called the branch target.

Branches arePC-relativethe branch specifies the offset from the current PC value to the

branch target.

The offset is in words, but because the ARM is byteaddressable, the offset is multiplied by four

(shifted left two bits, actually) to form a byte address.

Thus, the instruction

B #100

will add 400 to the current PC value.

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Implementing an if statement in ARMWe will use the following if statement as an example:

if (a < b)

{

x = 5;

y = c + d;

}

else x = c d;

The implementation uses two blocks of code, one for the true case and another for the false

case. A branch may either fall through to the true case or branch to the false case:

; compute and test the condition

ADR r4,a ; get address for a

LDR r0,[r4] ; get value of a

ADR r4,b ; get address for b

LDR r1,[r4] ; get value of b

CMP r0, r1 ; compare a < bBGE fblock ; if a >= b, take branch

; the true block follows

MOV r0,#5 ; generate value for x


STR r0,[r4] ; store value of x

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ADR r4,c ; get address for c


ADR r4,d ; get address for d

LDR r1,[r4] ; get value of d

ADD r0,r0,r1 ; compute c + d

ADR r4,y ; get address for y

STR r0,[r4] ; store value of y

B after ; branch around the false block

; the false block follows

fblock ADR r4,c ; get address for c


ADR r4,d ; get address for d

LDR r1,[r4] ; get value of d

SUB r0,r0,r1 ; compute c d


STR r0,[r4] ; store value of x

after ... ; code after the if statement

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