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An of ficial publ ication ofMANU – International Council for Man and Nature

ESSENCEInternational Journal for

Environmental

Rehabilitation and

Conservation

An Open Access Peer

Reviewed Journal

ISSN: 0975 – 6272

VOLUME: VI

Number: 2

June 2015

Publication: Half Yearly

Proceeding of National Conference on Science & Technology

for Indigenous Development in India

(September 28-30, 2015)

Organised by

The Indian Science Congress Association: Haridwar Chapter

&

Faculty of Engineering & Technology

Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India



Content / Vol. VI [2] 2015

`

Content

1.

Page No.

Biodiversity and distribution of Bacillariophyceae flora of the Vindhyan River of

Indian Subcontinent

Verma, Jyoti; Gopesh, Anita and Nautiyal, Prakash

1 - 8

2. Use of biodegradable alkaline salt in exhaust dyeing process of cotton fabric with

direct dye

Rastogi, Shivi and Jain, Bhavya

9 - 13

3. Ayurvedic drugs production in indigenous system in modern days - Review for

GMP perspective

Kumar, Amit and Singh, Arjun

14 - 27

4.

Cyclic voltammetric and antimicrobial studies of Co(II) and Fe(III)

dibenzotetrazaanulene [12] complexes

Tevatia, Prashant; Kumar, Anuj; Sweety and Singh, Randhir

28 - 34

5. Human Rights to Consumed Water, Environmental Protection: Present and

Future

Agarwal, Sangeeta; Pal, Sohan and Tyagi, Rashmi

35 - 42

6. Study of Zoning: An Operational Research Approach

Rudraman

43 - 49

7.

Effect of Pinus Roxburghii Bark Extract on Alternaria species

Srivastava, Archana

50 - 53

8. Effect of drying on the quality of essential oil of Ocimum ameri canum L.

Bhatt, Sunita; Kunwar, Gitu; Tewari, Geeta; Rani, Akanksha and Bisht, Mamta

54 - 62

9. Threat to Food Security: Himalayas grappling in present scenario of unavoidable

Climate Change

Rawat, Jaiyati and Rawat, Laxmi

63 - 70

10. Wireless real time heart monitoring system synced with android application

Som, Pritha; Bhowmick, Sutanni and Ray, Oindri

71 - 78

11. Science and Technology for indigenous development in India

Sharma, Aditi

79 - 85

12. Tree Borne Oilseed (TBOs): Competitive Source for Biodiesel in Rural India

Arora, Gurveen and Kumar, Dinesh

86 - 93

ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation

Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [ISSN 0975 - 6272]

[www.essence-journal.com]




13. A comparative study on gain enhancement techniques of leaky wave antenna

Pandey, Namita; Chauhan, Anjali and Agrawal, Rahul

94 - 100

14. Use of marginal materials in road works

Swami, R. K. and Arun, Uma

101 - 104

15. Funari a Hygrometri ca extracts with activity against plant pathogenic fungi

Al ternari a species

Srivastava, Naina

105 - 112

16. Exploring potentials of science & technology for research in swaryogic science

Giri, Rakesh

113 - 115

17. Metamaterial based antenna for 10.0 GHZ Frequency

Ghosh, Devankar; Kher, Sakshi and Kumar, Nitin

116 121

18. Gesture Controlled Quadcopter

Vishwas, Shivam; Arora, Rishabh; Bhaskar, Nikhil; Lal, Suraj Kr; Bhandwal, Mohit

122 - 125

19.

Gesture Controlled Gimble for Quadcopter

Gaur, Vivek; Mishra Abhishek; Aquil, Manal; Thapa, Himanshi and Verma,

Rahul Kumar

126 - 129

20. A study of Role Conflict and Occupational Stress in Relation to Quality of Life of

Married Working Women

Kumar, Arun

130 - 140

21. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of the leaves of plant Casearia

tomentosa

Shukla, Abha; Tyagi, Ritu

141 - 147

and Shukla, Rishi Kumar

22.

Metamaterials: Characteristics, Structures And Applications

Badoni, Anumeha; Belwal, Pravesh and Kumar, Nitin

148 - 154

23. Optimal Design of UWB Antenna Using Differential Evolution

Agarwal, Ankit, Srinivas, K. and Gupta, M. S.

155 - 160

24.

Genotoxicity due to Chromium -Mitotic effects in Vigna angulari s (L.) Gaertn.

(Adzuki Bean)

Kumar, Anil; Dhingra, G. K. and

161 - 168

Gupta, Shalabh

25.

Environmental conditions for the conservation of wildlife and its anthropogenic

responses in Himachal Pradesh

Pal, Anil; Goswami, D.C. and Pal, Brijesh

169 - 179

26. Sex and altitude based study on leaf related parameters in Zanthoxylum Armatum

Roxb.

Gupta, Shalabh; Kumar, Anil and

180 - 183

Paliwal, Ajai Kumar




27. Synthesis and Characterization of ZnO Thin Films Fabricated by Sol-Gel

Method

Pathak, Trilok Kumar; Pal, Pankaj K.; Gupta, Himanshu; Matta, Gagan; Kumar,

Ajendra; Kumar, R. and Purohit, L. P.

184 - 188

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2

region for the first time. The present study also

assumes significance in light of the river

linking programmes like the Ken - Betwa link,

especially in view of the climate change threat.

The knowledge on their floristic composition

and distribution will help to understand their

use as environmental indicators.

Study area

The rivers selected in Vindhya were located

between 23o30’ to 26

o N, 78

o30’ to 82

o30’E

(Table 1). The Vindhya rivers Ken, Paisuni and

Tons flow north from low (north of Narmada,

around Tropic of Cancer) to high latitude along

southern fringe of the Indo-Gangetic Plains.The Ken and Paisuni are right-bank tributaries

of the Yamuna River, while Tons that of the

Ganga. Ken (340 km) and Tons (305 km) were

relatively larger drainage compared to the

Paisuni (100 km) having an average gradient of

0.91 m km-1

, 2.0 m km-1

and 1.02 m km-1

,

respectively. The land is primarily used for

agriculture along the banks of the Ken and the

Tons River. Patches of forest (Shorea robusta)

occur in case of the Ken River. In case of the

Paisuni river the headwaters is covered by

forest and only lower stretch of the river is

used for agriculture. Cement and stone

quarrying industry exist in the Vindhya region

though none were located in the immediate

vicinity of the sampling stations. Except for the

mouth zone these rivers vary topographically.The Physico-chemical characteristics were also

studied from these rivers (Table1 &2).

Materials and method

One time intensive sampling during stable flow

(November to May) was deemed suitable for

present study as the rivers are in floods during

monsoon; mid June to mid September. Benthic

diatoms were obtained from 11 stations on 3

rivers (from source to mouth) in the Central

highland region. Diatom samples were

collected by scraping the cobble surface with a

brush from an area of 3 x 3 cm2 and preserved

in 4% formaldehyde. Samples were treated

with Hydrochloric acid-peroxide, washed

repeatedly and mounted in Naphrax. Each slide

was examined under bright field by

PLANAPO x100 oil immersion objective to

record the flora. Identifications were made

according to standard literature (Schmidt 1874-

1959, Hustedt 1931-1959, Krammer & Lange-Bertalot 1991, 1999, 2004, Lange-Bertalot

2001, Metzeltin & Lange-Bertalot 2002,

Krammer 2003, Lange-Bertalot et al. 2003,

Werum & Lange-Bertalot 2004, Metzeltin et

al. 2005). The permanent mounts have been

adequately stored at the Aquatic Biodiversity

Unit, Department of Zoology, H. N. B.

Garhwal University, Srinagar where

preparation of the slides and their microscopic

examination was undertaken.

Results

The diatom flora of Vindhya rivers consisted

of 293 species and 49 genera. The Vindhyan

rivers examined during present study consisted

largely of Pennale elements. Centrale species

were few and belonged to the suborder

Coscinodiscineae, Family Thalassiosiraceae( Aulacoseira 1 species; Cyclotella 2 species)

and Melosiraceae ( Melosira 1 species). Rest 46

genera and 289 taxa were Pennales.

Numerically, suborder Araphidineae

comprising family Fragilariaceae (6 genera, 38

taxa) and Raphidineae consisting family




3

Achnanthaceae (4 genera, taxa), Naviculaceae

(30 genera, 183 taxa) and Bacillariaceae (4

genera, 35 taxa) accounted for a large

proportion (Table 3). The remaining few taxa

belonged to Eunotiaceae, Epithemiaceae and

Surirellaceae. The study on floral composition

has thrown up some broad regional and local

patterns of distribution.

River systemRivers/ Stations

with acronymLatitude (N) Longitude (E)

Altitude

(m asl)

Distance from

source (Km.)

Yamuna Ken River

(lower Shahnagar K1 23°59´ 80° 15’ 45” 400 ca.10

stretch) Panna K2 24°43´18" 80° 11’ 25” 200 142.5

Banda K3 25°29´24" 80° 19’ 16” 140 267.5

Chilla K4 25° 46´ 54 80° 32’ 08” 100 340

Paisuni River

Anusuya P1 25° 08´ 14 80° 51’ 01” 160 10

Chitrakut P2 25° 13´ 54 80° 54’ 36” 140 26

Purwa P3 25° 16´ 17 80° 52’ 28” 100 42

Ganga Tons River

(middle Amdara T1 24° 00’ 80° 26’ 21” 400 20

stretch) Maihar T2 24° 16´ 35 80° 48’ 53” 400 56

Satna T3 24° 34´ 07 80° 54’ 36” 323 98

Chakghat T4 25° 03´ 28 81° 42 ‘21” 100 232.5

Table 1: Geographical co-ordinates of the sampling stations in

different rivers of the Central Highland Rivers

Stream/ River AT (oC) WT (oC) C V (cm s-1) pH C (µmho cm-1) DO (mg l-1)

Ken 11 - 32 15 – 31 0-42 7.0-7.5 165-420 8.6-10.7

Paisuni 10 - 40 16 – 30 2.8-40 7.0-7.7 170-440 8-11.5

Tons 17 - 33 18-33 1.5-35 7.0-7.8 160-420 8.2-10.5

Table 2: Physical and chemical characteristics (minimum

and maximum) at different stations of the Central

Highlands region (AT, Air temperature; WT Water

temperature; CV, Current velocity; C, Conductivity;

DO, Dissolved oxygen).

GENERA K P T

THALASSIOSIRACEAE

1. Aulacoseira 1 1

2.Cyclotella 1 1 2

Genera/Species 2/2 2/2 1/2

FRAGILARIACEAE

3. Diatoma 2 1 4

4.Fragilaria 1 1 2

5.Staurosira 1 2 1




4

6.Synedra 13 14 15

7.Tabellaria 1 1


EUNOTIACEAE

8. Eunotia 3 4 4


ACHNANTHACEAE

9. Achnanthes 1 1

10. Achnanthidium 8 11 10

11.Planothidium 3 5 3

12. Cocconeis 6 3 3


NAVICULACEAE

13. Amphipleura 1

14. Amphora 10 8 8

15. Anomoeoneis 1 1

16. Brachysira 1 2 2

17.Caloneis 5 3 5

18.Cymbella 21 22 20

19.Cymbopleura 12 6 10

20. Encyonema 4 4 4

21. Diploneis 5 5 4

22.Frustulia 1

23.Gomphocymbelopsis 1 1

24.Gyrosigma 2 2 3

25.Gomphonema 11 10 1226. Mastogloia 1

27. Navicula 27 28 29

28. Navicula sensu lato 3 4 3

29. Adlafia 1 1 2

30. Aneumastus 2

31.Craticula 4 3 3

32. Diadesmis 1 2 1

33.Fallacia 1 1 2

34.Geissleria 1 1 1

35. Hippodonta 1 2

36. Luticola 6 3 7

37.Placoneis 2 1 2

38.Sellaphora 5 5 5

39. Neidium 2 4 2

40.Pinnularia 3 7 3

41.Scoliopleura 1

42.Stauroneis 2




5

Genera/Species 26/133 26/128 23/131

EPITHEMIACEAE

43. Epithemia 1

44. Rhopalodia 1 2


BACILLARIACEAE

45. Bacillaria 1

46. Denticula 1 1 1

47. Hantzschia 1 1

48. Nitzschia 21 20 25


SURIRELLACEAE

49.Surirella 8 7 5


TOTAL Genera/Species 42/205 42/202 39/211

Table 3: The number of species occurring in various genera

recorded from the Vindhyan Rivers

Discussion

The centric diatoms comprise just 1% of the

total flora (3 taxa). The araphids accounted for

10.5% (38 spp.) and the raphids (mono and

biraphids) accounted for fourty two genera

with two hundred fifty eight taxa (80%)

however monoraphids accounted for 8% (26spp.). The major share in floristic composition

was family Naviculaceae (62%), Bacillariaceae

(12%) and Fragilariaceae (9.5%) from Central

Highland. Navicula (32), Cymbella (31) ,

Gomphonema (15) and Cymbopleura (14) were

species rich genera in family Naviculaceae,

Synedra (19) in family Fragilariaceae and

Nitzschia (32) in family Bacillariaceae. The

Vindhya was richer in Navicula sensu stricto,

Nitzschia and Cymbella sensu stricto. Navicula

sensu lato had highest number of species in the

flora reported from Bombay and Salsette (24

spp. Gonzalves and Gandhi 1952-1954),

Mysore State (11 spp. Gandhi 1958) and south

India (20 spp. Krishnamurthy 1953) compared

to only few (9 spp.) from U. P. in the Gangetic

Plains (Singh 1961-62). However, flora was

quite different in these regions as Bombay and

Salsette in the west had more species of

Neidium and Stauroneis in case of

Naviculaceae, while Achnanthes in case ofAchnanthaceae and Eunotia in case of

Eunotiaceae, the dominant families. In south

India including the Mysore State and U. P.

most of the flora belonged to Naviculaceae.

Nitzschiaceae was conspicuously absent from

Bombay and Salsette Islands. Investigations in

the Central Highland revealed 293 diatom taxa

and 49 genera from 11 sites. Naviculaceae

(62%), Bacillariaceae (12%) and Fragilariaceae

(9.5%) dominate the flora, respective genera

being Navicula sensu stricto, Nitzschia and

Synedra. This flora was quite different from

the flora from other parts of the India.




6

Acknowledgement

The academic support by the Head,

Department of Zoology, H.N.B. Garhwal

University and University of Allahabad,

Allahabad is acknowledged.

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Rastogi & Jain/Vol. VI [2] 2015/9 – 13

10

finishing. In fact, in practical estimate it is

found that about 33% industries are involved in

dyeing.

Direct dyes are normally applied from a neutral

or slightly alkaline bath containing an

electrolyte (dye bath assistant e.g., sodium

chloride or sodium sulfate). The inorganic salt,

such as sodium chloride or sodium sulphate,

for dye transfer and penetration into the fibre,

and inorganic alkali, such as sodium

bicarbonate, sodium carbonate or sodium

hydroxide, for dye-fibre reaction, are required

in substantial quantities to accomplish the

dyeing process. The use of these salts,electrolytes and alkali is drained which

contributes to environmental pollution. The

effluent treatment is expensive and produce

highly concentrated solid wastes. Therefore,

the better approach would be to improve the

textile processing chemistry for reducing the

discharge pollution.

Now at the use of inorganic salts in dyeing are

replaced by using biodegradable alkaline salts

which are commonly used in the detergent and

the cosmetic industries as chelating agents.

“Biodegradable means capable of being

decomposed back into elemental components

by biological agents, especially bacteria.

Biodegradability is associated with the use of

an item as a nutrient source by some organism

within the environment”. Tetrasodium ethylenediamine tetraacetate (sodium edate) is a

biodegradable alkaline polycarboxylic salt and

has been studied as an alternative to inorganic

salt and alkali in dyeing of cotton by exhaust

method.

This present study showed the result where

Magnesium acetate tetra hydratehave been

used in the exhaust dyeing of cotton with direct

dye to improve effluent quality by replacing

the traditional inorganic salt and alkali.

Materials and Method:

Material: A commercially available cotton

fabric of fabric count 85.6 X 48.4 and direct

dye were used in this study. Magnesium

acetate tetrahydrate [(CH3COO2)2.Mg.4H2O],

Sodium chloride (NaCl) and Sodium carbonate

(Na2CO3) were used as analytical grade.

Method: The fabric was first scoured then

used for dyeing. First sample was dyed with

the commercially used inorganic salts viz.

Sodium chloride (NaCl) and Sodium carbonate

(Na2CO3). Second and third sample were dyed

with Magnesium acetate tetrahydrate

[(CH3COO2)2.Mg.4H2O] with varying

concentration of 30g/l and 40 g/l respectively.

The dyed fabrics were rinsed with cold water

then with hot water, then soaped at 50˚C (15min), and then rinse with hot water until dye

desorption stopped. Finally, the fabrics were

washed with cold water and oven dried.

Testing: The dye effluent of all three samples

were first cooled at room temperature and then

PH, Total solid (TS), Total dissolved solids

(TDS), Total suspended solids (TSS) and color

unit were determined as per American Public

Health Association, Washington, 1998. And

the dyed samples were determined for K/S

value by the use of CCM (Computer Color

Matching System), Colorfastness to washing

(ISO-105-C10-A1), to rubbing (IS-766), to

ironing (IS-689-1988) and to light (IS- 2454).




11

Result and Discussion

Effect of dyeing using biodegradable salts versus conventional salts on effluent

Comparative effect on pH

This table shows the effect of biodegradable

salt on pH in of conventional used salts and

biodegradable salts in direct dyeing, and the

results shows that when magnesium acetate

tetrahydrate alkaline salt used in dyeing at

30g/l it increases the pH of effluent slightly

but it decrease the pH of dyeing effluent or it

is moves towards neutrality of water if we

use magnesium acetate tetrahydrate at 40g/l

concentration.

Dye Chemical concentration TS (mg/l) TSS (mg/l) TDS (mg/l)

Direct dye

Sodium chloride 20g/l

Sodium carbonate 10g/l

37600 6900 30700

Magnesium acetate tetrahydrate 30g/l 46000 100 45900

Magnesium acetate tetrahydrate 40g/l 51600 2600 49000

Table 2: Comparison table of effect of magnesium acetate

tetrahydrate and conventional salts on TS, TSS and

TDS

This comparative analysis shows a higher

change in the TS, TSS, and TDS of effluent

assessed after dyeing. The sample using

biodegradable salt in dyeing showed drastically

decreases in the TSS present in effluent but it

increases the value of TDS and TS.

Dye Chemical concentration Color unit (Hzn)

Direct dye



250

Magnesium acetate tetrahydrate 30g/l 80

Magnesium acetate tetrahydrate 40g/l 99


tetrahydrate and conventional salts on color unit.

This table depicted that the use of magnesium

acetate tetrahydrate highly decreases the

presence of color unit in the effluent in

comparison to the conventional dyed sample

effluent. Thus we can say that the dye was

absorbed by the fabric better due to the use of

the magnesium acetate tetrahydrate during

dyeing procedure.

Dye Chemical concentration pH

Direct dye



9.83

Magnesium acetate tetrahydrate 30g/l 10.00



tetrahydrate and conventional salts on pH




12

Effect of dyeing using biodegradable salts versus conventional salts on dyed samples

Comparative effect on k/s value

Dye Chemical concentration K/S

Direct dye Sodium chloride 20g/l


12.05




tetrahydrate and conventional salts on K/S

It is clear from the table that the color yields of

the dyed fabrics from biodegradable salts and

conventional salt. Comparable change in the

color yield was observed in dyed samples

treated with biodegradable salt. However, the

magnesium acetate tetrahydrate gives the

higher color yield at both the concentration i.e.

30g/l and 40g/l with direct dye.

Comparative effect on colorfastness

Dye Chemical concentration Ironing Fastness Rubbing Fastness Light

FastnessDry Wet Dry Wet

CC SC CC SC CC SC CC SC

Direct dye



5 4-5 4 1 5 5 5 3-4 3-4

Magnesium acetate

tetrahydrate 30g/l

5 4-5 4 1 5 4-5 5 3-4 4

Magnesium acetate

tetrahydrate 40g/l

5 5 4-5 1 5 4-5 5 3-4 4


tetrahydrate and conventional salts on ironing,

rubbing and light colorfastness.

DYE Chemical concentration WASH FASTNESS

CC SC

W ACR P N C ACE

Direct dye Sodium chloride 20g/l


3 3 5 5 4 2 4

Magnesium acetate

tetrahydrate 30g/l

3 3 3-4 5 4 1 4

Magnesium acetatetetrahydrate 40g/l

3 3 4-5 5 3 1 4-5


tetrahydrate and conventional salts on washing

colorfastness.




13

Table no 5 and 6 shows the comparative

analysis of colorfastness of fabrics dyed with

conventionally used salts and biodegradable

salt. Results showed that there is no effect or

slight effect on the colorfastness properties of

the treated samples. Only in case of washing

colorfastness noticeable staining was found

when samples dyed with magnesium acetate

tetrahydrate.

Conclusion

This research has revealed that the

biodegradable alkaline salt i.e. magnesium

acetate tetrahydrate can effectively use for

direct dyeing of cotton fabric by exhaust process of dyeing to reduce the dyeing effluent

pollution. There was also the higher increase in

color yield without any change in colorfastness

properties of the dyed samples in comparison

to conventional direct dyeing methods.

References

Braimah J. A., “The Effect of Electrolytes on

Direct Dyes for Cotton”, Department ofTextile Science & Technology,

Department of Chemistry, Ahmadu

Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.

Christie, R.M. (2007): Environmental aspects

of textile dyeing, Woodhead publishing

limited and CRC press LLC.

Khatri, A. and Mazhar Hussain Peerzada

(2011): “Improved Reactive Dye-

fixation in Pad-Steam Process of

Dyeing Cotton Fabric Using

Tetrasodium N, NBis

carboxylatomethyl L-Glutamate”.

Khatri, A. “Use of Biodegradable Organic

Salts for Pad-Steam Dyeing of Cotton

Textiles with Reactive Dyes to Improve

Process Sustainability”, IPEDR vol.18

(2011) © (2011) IACSIT Press,

Singapore.

Moore, S. B.: “Low toxicity, biodegradable

salt substitute for dyeing textiles:

magnesium acetate in direct or reactive

dyeing of cotton”, Burlington ChemicalCo., Inc., Burlington, NC.

Thetas, P. (2013): “A Comparison of

Conventional and Biodegradable

Chelating Agent in Different Type of

Surfactant Solutions for Soap Scum

Removal”, World Academy of Science,

Engineering and Technology 76.

Trotman, E.R. (1970): Dyeing and chemical

Technology of textile fiber, Charles

Gribbin and Co. Ltd. London, 4th

edition, 1-5.

Vatsala, (2007): Text book of textile and

clothing ICAR.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Units_of_textile_

measurement



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Kumar & Singh/Vol. VI [2] 2015/14 – 27

15

a view to maintain the uniform standards in

preparation of drugs and to prescribe the

working standards for compound

formulations including tests for identifying

purity and quality of the drugs.

Phytochemical research work has been

encouraged by establishment of Central

Drug Research Institute (CDRI), Lucknow

and Central Institute of Medicinal and

Aromatic Plants (CIMAP), Lucknow.

National Chemical Laboratory Pune,

Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu,

Hyderabad and Johrat are working in this

field. Pharmacopoeial Laboratory forIndian Medicines established at Ghaziabad

is serving as a center for standard setting

cum drug testing laboratory for Indian

medicine including the Ayurveda.

Similarly, the Central Council of Indian

Medicine was established for working on

Ayurvedic, Siddha and Unani system of

medicines. Besides, National Institute of

Ayurveda was established in 1976 at Jaipur

(Rajasthan) in collaboration with

Government of Rajasthan which is working

as a national centre for promoting the

Ayurveda.

Traditional systems of medicine have become

a topic of global importance. Current estimates

suggest that, in many developing countries, a

large proportion of the population reliesheavily on traditional practitioners and

medicinal plants to meet primary health care

needs. Although modern medicine may be

available in many countries, herbal medicines

or phyto-medicines have often maintained

popularity for historical and cultural reasons,

concurrently, many people in developed

countries have begun to turn to alternative or

complementary therapies, including medicinal

herbs.

The medicinal properties of plant species have

made an outstanding contribution in the origin

and evolution of many traditional herbal

therapies. These traditional knowledge systems

have started to disappear with the passage of

time due to scarcity of written documents and

relatively low income in these traditions. Over

the past few years, however, the medicinal

plants have regained a wide recognition due to

an escalating faith in herbal medicine in viewof its lesser side effects compared to allopathic

medicine in addition the necessity of meeting

the requirements of medicine for an increasing

human population. Through the realization of

the continuous erosion of traditional

knowledge of plants used for medicine in the

past and the renewed interest at the present

time, a need existed to review this valuable

knowledge of medicinal plants with the

purpose of developing medicinal plants sectors

across the different states in India. Our major

objectives therefore were to explore the

potential in medicinal plants resources, to

understand the challenges and opportunities

with the medicinal plants sector, and also to

suggest recommendations based upon the

present state of knowledge for theestablishment and smooth functioning of the

medicinal plants sector along with improving

the living standards of the underprivileged

communities. The review reveals that northern

India harbors a rich diversity of valuable

medicinal plants, and attempts are being made




16

at different levels for sustainable utilization of

this resource in order to develop the medicinal

plants sector.

Commenced with a small and traditional

production of ayurvedic drugs, now vaidyas

are stepping towards social and rural

development by adopting scientific

methodology. Now vaidyas has had the exalted

vision to bring Ayurveda to society in a

contemporary form and to unravel the mystery

behind haloed and revered Indian Indigenous

system of medicine by exploring selecting

indigenous herbs. The ancient ayurvedic

literatures are scientifically validating bysubjecting the formulations to modern

pharmacological/ toxicological safety test and

clinical trials to create new drugs and

therapies. Healthy life relies on the proper

union of body, senses (sensory & motor), mind

and soul.

Objective of Review

1.

To study the fundamental concepts ofAyurvedic drugs preparation in modern

era.

2. To spread awareness among

practiceners and drugs manufacturer

and Quality chemist, Scientists.

3. To support for the Ayurvedic drug

preparation in India in modern era.

Materials and method

For this study ayurveda text has been used to

evaluate the concepts. The text from

brihattrayee i.e. Charaka Samhita, Sushruta

Samhita and Ashtanga Sangraha, Ashtanga

hridaya and their respective commentaries in

Sanskrit as well as Hindi which were easily

available. Also text from laghutrayee i.e.

Madhava Nidana, Bhav Prakash, Vriksha

Ayurveda have been used. Various related

websites have been searched. Also collected

from some Ayurvedic manufacturing units. As

Ayurvedic approach to therapeutics includes

quartet-viz.

1- Physician

2- Drugs

3- Medical attendant

4- Patient itself

Ayurvedic System in Ancient Day’s

Also according to Righved drugs has the same

importance for physician as a king has for his

state. The physician who knows about these

combinations and can provide to the patients

by considering there needs of that era will be

considered best physician as –

;=ks"k/kh% leXer jktku% lferkfooA

foiz% l mP;rs fHk"kx~

j{ksgk·ehopkru%AA

As according to CHARAK SAMHITA

SUTRA STHAN, the emphasize may be given

mainly to drug which has its own importance

in various forms.

i×pfo/ka d"kk;dYiufefr A

r|Fkk&Lojlk%] dYd%] J`r%] 'khr%]

Qk.V'psfr A ¼p0lw0 4@4½

In the Charak era only five preparations were

predominately in use concerning to patient and

its disease.

A. Location and surroundings- According to

our Ayurvedic text the site should be-

1) Holy place

2) At east or north direction of city




17

3) Away from all types of fear and evils

B. Buildings- during ancient days the

considerable points were-

(1) Proper ventilation

(2) Strong and lengthy walls(3) Having images of Shiva & Parvati

(4) The working directions were determined as

follows:-

What was the wisdom behind selecting specificdirection for specific work is to researched out.

Ayurvedic System Modern Day’s

But as the demand of Ayurvedic preparation

increased with the change of time, the drug

formulation viz. vati, churna, sneh kalpna,

sandhan kalpna, panchkarma kalpna also were

took place. Further modification in these

kalpnas were also done as preservatives are

used in kwath kalpna, also fat are converted

further into asavas and aristas to fulfill the

needs of large population. To sale in large

quantity these drugs can be stored for long

time under controlled condition through

collection, selection, dispensing etc. by

different unit. Today it is not possible to bring

the whole ayurvedic approach under full

control of physician as it was in ancient time.

So to improve quality, quantity etc. of the

drugs, pharmacies and other units are

developed. For compliance of good

manufacturing practices in Ayurveda, the

manufacturing plant should have adequate

space for-

1-Receiving and storing raw materials

2-Manufacturing process area

3-Quality control section

4- Finished goods, packing & storage.

5-Office

6-Rejected goods and drug store and general

requirements

But now some other criteria are also followed

which are as under-

Location and surrounding are so situated and

have such construction as to avoid

contamination from open sewage, drain, public

lavatory or any factory which produces

disagreeable or obnoxious odour or fumes or

excessive soot, dust or smoke etc.

But now days the buildings used for factory are

such as to permit production of drugs under

hygienic conditions and must be free from

cobwebs and insects, rodents. They have

adequate provision of light and ventilation. The

floor and walls should not damp or moist. The

premises used for manufacturing, processing,

packaging and labeling must be in conformity

with the provision of Factory Act.

The location choose so as to be-




18

A. Compatible with other manufacturing

operations that may be carried out in the

same or adjacent premises.

B. Working space must be provided

adequately with to allow orderly and

logical placement of equipment and

materials to avoid the risk of mix up

between different drugs.

C. The flooring shall be smooth & even and

shall be such that as not to permit retention

or accumulation of dust or waste products.

D. The fire safety measures and proper exits

must be there.

Water supply- pure and potable quality ofwater must be used. Adequate provision of

water for washing the premises are also be

made. Disposal of water-From the

manufacturing sections and labs the waste

water and the residues which might be

prejudicial to the workers or public health

must be disposed of after suitable treatment as

per guidelines of pollution control authorities

to render them harmless.

Stores-proper ventilated free from dampness

and independent adequate space for storage of

different types of material and finished

products is essential with a view to stability of

the drugs.

General perspectives of Modern Pharmacy

Now a day’s pharmacy has utilized modern

empirical and scientific system under

traditional norms to rediscover comprehend

and validate ayurved’s miracle secrets. Cutting

edge technology is employed to create

pharmaceutical grade of ayurvedic products.

Now the pharmacies are producing quality

phyto - pharmaceutical drugs .To monitor

quality the principals of good manufacturing

practices (GMP), good packaging practices

(GPP), good laboratory practices (GLP),good

agricultural practices (GAP), good harvesting

practices (GHP), are rigorously and

meticulously followed in the manufacturing of

efficient and pristine quality ayurvedic

medicines. Now a day’s PLC controlled herbal

extraction plant commissioned in the pharmacy

is used for extracting from the various parts of

the medicinal plant like leaves, flower, seeds,

barks, roots and rhizomes.

SCADA technology is being used under

controlled environmental condition oftemperature and pressure. The extract

concentration is achieved under vacuum drying

preserving the maximum valued contents of

the herbs. To put it succinctly, this unit extracts

the product with maximum recovery of the

active ingredients in the extract since thermal

degradation is totally avoided.

Ayurvedic medicines with several quality

circles and special project terms working on

total quality management (TQM) projects

make quality a mission and a byword at

modern pharmacy. The manufacturing

facilities of today’s pharmacy include to high

light the prominent, automatic, high speed

spray drug, pilot extraction plant and main

extraction plant. The fluid bed processor for

rapid fluidization and tablet compressionmachines having an hourly capacity of lacks

tablet further expedite the production process.

The high speed mixture, grinder and fluid bed

techniques tends for uniform homogenization

of the product and the cleaning ,crushing and

pulverizing equipments make raw material




19

available in adequate and superior quality

dimensions. The most automated and

sophisticated packing section at today’s

Ayurvedic pharmacy includes automatic PLC

managed packing machine (approx 300 bottles

/minute) and blister pack facilities. Today the

ayurvedic pharmacy has well established utility

center having generator, boiler having

composite capacity, steam generation with

softener and cooling towers and a reciprocal air

compression.

Some important manufacturing processes and

equipments used in Ayurvedic pharmacy in

modern days – Swaras formation – Juice isextracted

Kalk – i.e. paste formation by different matters

Decocation / Shrat – mixture of raw material

and water is boiled till it remains one fourth of

the initial state and shodhan , marasna, jarana,

morchana, sanskar, formation of koopy pakva

rasayna, parpati kalpana, choorna kalpana,

sneha kalpana, sandhan kalpana etc. otherimportant preparation.

Anjana/ Pisti: Kharel/ ball mill, sieves/ shifter

Churna: Grinder/ disintegrator/ pulverizer,

powder mixer, sieves/ shifter.

Ark: Maceration tank, distillation plant, liquid

filling tank with filter/ filter press, visual

inspection box.

Manufacturing Areas

Now a day’s manufacture of sterile Ayurvedic

drugs, separate enclosed areas specifically

designed for the purpose are in use. These

areas are provided with air locks for entry and

are essentially dust free and ventilated with an

air supply. For all areas where aseptic

manufacture are carried out, air is filtered

through bacteria retaining filters (HEPA

Filters) the pressure higher than in the adjacent

areas are provided. The filters are checked for

performance on installation and periodically

thereafter the record of checks is also

maintained. All the surfaces in sterile

manufacturing areas are designed to facilitate

cleaning and disinfection. For sterile

manufacturing routine microbial counts of all

Ayurvedic, drug manufacturing areas are

carried out during operations. Results of such

count against established in-house standards

and record are also maintained. Raw Materials

All raw materials procured for manufacturing

are stored in the raw materials store. The

manufacture based on the experience and the

characteristics of particular raw material used

in ayurveda, decide the use of appropriate

containers which would protect quality of raw

material as well as prevent it from damage due

to dampness, microbiological contamination or

rodent and insect infestation, etc. If certain raw

materials require such controlled

environmental conditions, the raw materials

stores may be sub-divided with proper

enclosures to provide such conditions by

suitable carbonization. While designing such

containers, cabins or areas in the raw materials

store, care may be taken to handle thefollowing different categories of raw material:-

1. Raw material of metal/mineral origin.

2. Fresh Herbs.

3. Plant extracts and exudates/resins.

4. Dry Herbs or plant parts.




20

5. Raw material from animal source.

6. Excipients etc.

7. Volatile oils/perfumes & flavours.

Each container used for raw material storage

shall be properly identified with the labelwhich indicates name of the raw material,

source of supply and will also clearly state the

status of raw material such as `UNDER TEST’

or `APPROVED’ or `REJECTED’. The labels

shall further indicate the identity of the

particular supply in the form of batch No. or

lot No. and the date of receipt of the

consignment.

All the raw materials shall be sampled and got

tested either by the in house Ayurvedic,

experts (Quality control technical person) or by

the laboratories approved by the Government

and shall be used only on approval after

verifying. The rejected raw material should be

removed from other raw material store and

should be kept in separate room. Procedure of

`First in first out should be adopted for rawmaterials wherever necessary. Records of the

receipt, testing and approval or rejection and

use of raw material shall be maintained.

The following test are performed in this stage-

S.

No.Tests

1.

Description

Colour

Odour

Taste (if necessary)

Identification

Macroscopic

Microscopic

Powder analysis

2.

Foreign matter

Loss on drying at 1050 C

Total - ash

Acid - insoluble ash

Water soluble ash

Sulphated ash

pH value

Volatile Oil(if any)

3.

Particle size Bulk density

Tap density

4. Water -soluble extractives

5. Alcohol -soluble extractives

6.TLC/HPLC/HPTLC-Profile with marker

(where ever possible)

7.

Assay-for Constituents (Marker, Major

compounds like Alkaloids,

flavonoids/saponins compounds

8.

Test for heavy/toxic metals Lead

Cadmium

Mercury

Arsenic

9.

Microbial contamination Total viable aerobic count

Enterobacteriaceae

Total fungal count

10.

Test for specific Pathogen E coli

Salmonella spp.

S.aureus

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

11.

Pesticide residue Organochlorine pesticides

Organophosphorus pesticides

Pyrethroids

12. Test for Aflatoxine (B1,B2,G1,G2)

For extraction and mid products-during

extraction the extract is collected at various

time interval and the same test as mentioned

above along with shelf life study are performed

with the extract.

For final product –final analysis is carried out

for different products like powders, Bhasmas,

tablets etc. in different steps-

S.

No.

Tests

1. Description

2. Colour

Odour

Taste

3. Loss on drying at 105 oC

Total- ash

Acid insoluble ash




21

Total solid

pH

Volatile oil

Water -soluble extractives

Alcohol -soluble extractives

4.. Weight/ml.

Refractive index at 250C

Viscosity

Iodine value (where ever applicable)

Saponification value

Acid value

Total fatty matter

5. Test for heavy/toxic metals Lead

Cadmium

Mercury

Arsenic

6. Microbial contamination Total viable aerobic count

Total enterobacteriaceae

Total fungal count

7. Test for specific pathogen E. coli

Salmonella spp.

S. aureus

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

8. Pesticide residue

Organochlorine pesticides

Organophosphorus pesticides

Pyrethroids

9. Test for aflatoxine (B1,B2,G1,G2)

10. TLC/HPLC/HPTLC-Profile with marker

(where ever possible)

Assay-for Constituents (Marker, Major

compounds like Alkaloids,

flavonoids/saponins compounds

11. Tablets/Capsules: Uniformity of weight

Disintegration time

Friability(if tablet)

Hardness if tablet)

Preservative(if any)

Binders(if any)

Diluents(if any)

12. Shelf life.

Batch Manufacturing Records

The license maintain batch manufacturing

record of each batch of Ayurvedic drugs

manufactured irrespective of the type of

product manufactured (classical preparation or

patent and proprietary medicines).

Manufacturing records are available to provide

an account of the list of raw materials and their

quantities obtained from the store, tests

conducted during the various stages of

manufacture like taste, colour, physical

characteristics and chemical tests as necessary

or indicated in the approved books of

Ayurveda mentioned in the First Schedule of

the Drugs and Cosmetic Act, 1940 (23 of

1940). These tests include any pharmacopoeial

test adopted by the manufacturer in the raw

material or in the process material and in the

finished product. These records are signed by

Production and Quality Control Personnelrespectively. Details of transfer of

manufactured drug to the finished products

store including dates and quantity of drugs

transferred along with record of testing of the

finished product, if any, and packaging,

records are maintained. Only after the

manufactured drugs have been verified and

accepted quality are allowed to be cleared for

sale. The record of date, manpower, machine

and equipments used are maintained.

Precautions against microbial

contamination and mix

Manufacturing operations are carrying out in a

separate block of adequately isolated building.

Pressure differential in the process area are

used. a suitable exhaust system is provided.

Laminar flow sterile air systems for sterile products are designed. The germicidal

efficiency of UV lamps is checked and

recorded indicating the burning hours or

checked using intensity. Expert technical staff

approved by the Licensing Authority checks




22

and compare actual yield against theoretical

yield before final distribution of the batch.

Packaging Material

All packaging material such as bottle jars etc

are stored properly and tested for its bursting

strength and for its weight by using following

machines:-

1. Electronic GSM test/weighing balance

2. Intelligent bursting strength tester

3. And the extracts are converted into granules

by electro lab peristaltic pump.

Quality Control

License is given to provide facility for qualitycontrol section in his own premises or through

Government approved testing laboratory. The

test is done as per the Ayurvedic

pharmacopoeial standard. Where the tests are

not available, the test is performed according

to the manufacturer’s specification or other

information available. The quality control

section verify all the raw materials, monitor in

process, quality checks and control the quality

of finished product being released to finished

goods store/ware house. Preferably for such

Quality control there is a separate expert. The

quality control section has the following

facilities:

1. More than 150 sq. feet area for quality

control section is provided

2. For identification of raw drugs, reference

books and reference samples

manufacturing record are maintained for

the various processes.

3. To verify the finished products, controlled

samples of finished products of each batch

are kept for 3 years.

4. To supervise and monitor adequacy of

conditions under which raw materials,

semi-finished products and finished

products are stored.

5. Manufacturers who are manufacturing

patent proprietary Ayurvedic medicines

provide their own specification and control

references in respect of such formulated

drugs.

6. The record of specific method and

procedure of preparation, that is,

"Bhavana", "Mardana" and "Puta" and the

record of every process carried out by the

manufacturer is maintained.

7. The standards for identity, purity and

strength as given in respective

pharmacopoeias of Ayurvedic medicines

published by Government of India are

complied with.

8. All raw materials are monitored for fungal,

bacterial contamination with a view to

minimize such contamination.9. Quality control section have a minimum of

1. One person with Degree qualification

in Ayurveda as per Schedule II of

Indian Medicine Central Council Act,

1970 (84 of 1970) of a recognized

university or Board.

2. Also Bachelor of Pharmacy,

Pharmacognosy and Chemistryassociated with the quality control

section.

Mainly Drugs are checked for its quality by

three departments

1. Department of Botany

2. Department of chemistry




23

3. Department of microbiology

Some instrument used by today’s pharmacy to

control of the modern Ayurvedic pharmacy are

as follows

1. Disintegration test machine

2.

Friable test apparatus – to find how much it

breaks in the transport which should not be

more than 1%.

3. I R moisture balance (infrared) – with in 15

min. it tells moisture content

DIGITAL AUTOMATIC TAP/BULK

DENSITY TEST APPARATUS

4. Bulky density apparatus – in this it is seen

that how much the drug becomes dense

when the specific quantity of the drug is

pulled within given time limits

5. Muffle furnace – to find out total ash

after ignition




24

6. Vaccume Drying Oven/ LOD (Loss in

drying)

7. Sieve shaker – to find in how much mess

churna sieves

8. Vaccum Dessicator – silica is kept to

absorb moisture

9. Ultra-Violet-flourescent-analysis-cabinet

10. U.V. Lamp (U.V. fluorescence analysis) –

measurement of hydrogen ions to find RF

11. Double distillation unit for water (KMNO4

used as germicide)

12. Water bath to concentrate

13. Ethanol recovery (residue settle down)

14. Oxalate assembly (ten times more

distillation than ethanol recovery takes

place)




25

15. Rotatory vaccume evaporator

16. Polarimeter to find out optical rotation

17. Clevenger for essential oil extraction

18. HP-TLC for Separation, Identification and

assay

Some Instruments are used against

microbial contamination are as follows

1. Laminar air flow (LF) – inoculation poring,

sampling, sticking, spreading are done hyper

filter is used

2. Autoclave – to sterile the media steam is

used here, plate growth is discarded and fungus

etc., are removed

3. Water bath – 1. to melt media , 2. for growth

of bacteria

4. U.V. - VIS spectrometer for concentration of

solvent

5. Hot air oven pipettes etc. are sterile kept at

150-1800C for three hours




26

6. Incubator – to grow bacteria, pathogens are

mainly tested for TAMC (total aerobic

microbial content)

7. Refrigerator –

8. BOD incubator- to test growth of mould andyeast etc. kept at 25

0C for 7 days

9. Fumigator (fumes are checked and

formaldehyde is used)

10. Anaerobic jar – anaerobic bacteria are

grown as clostridium

11. Digital colony counters

12. Antibiotic zone reader

13. Strainer

14. Mixture

15. Magnetic stirrer - to melt media with hot

plate

16. Centrifugal

17. Electric balance for weighing

All process controls as required under master

formula including room temperature relative

humidity, volume filled, leakage and clarity are

checked and recorded.

Conclusion

Yes it is well and good that by using all this

modern methodology we can save time that is

large preparation in less time and the needs of

large population are fulfilled, also preparation

becomes more hygienic than used in ancient

days, preparation can be kept for larger

duration and can be made more useful having

some other advantage which suits modern

day’s life. Vaidhyas can make stronger

preparation and have greater variability in their

treatment approach because here they have to

make their effective combination and not just

proceed symptomatically. Also modern

techniques are some but dehumanizing today’s

practice of medicine breaking the relationship

between human and nature. Different methods

of Aushadhi preparation are adopted thenreturn in our text just to increase popularity etc.

which deteriorates the quality of medicine.

Medicinal of properties of instruments metal

are also not considered mainly stainless steel

instruments are used. So today there is need to

adopt modern methodology with considering

more and more minute, comprehensive

analysis and explanation with proper

reasoning, without ignoring the holistic

approaches of Ayurveda.

References

Dhiman, A.K. (2005): Wild Medicinal

Plants of India. Bishen Singh

Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun.

WHO (1999): Monographs on selected

medicinal plants, Vol. I, 1-3, WHO,

Geneva.Ch.Su.1/15 Charaka Samhita English

translation by R.K. Sharma & R.K.

Bhagwan Dash by publisher

Choukhambha Sanskrit Series office,

Vol. I.

Chandra, P. Kala, Pitamber, P. Dhyani and




27

Bikram, S. Sajwan (2006): Developing

the medicinal plants sector in northern

India: challenges and opportunities,

Journal of Ethnobiology and

ethnomedicine, 2:32.

Patwardhan, B., Mashelkar, R.A. Traditional

medicine-inspired approaches to drug

discovery: can Ayurveda show the way

forward. Drug Discov. Today; p. 1-8.

Dhalwal, K., Birada, Y.S., Shinde, V.M.,

Mahadik, K.R., Rajani, M. (2008):

Phytochemical evaluation and

validation of a polyherbal formulation

using HPTLC. Phcog Mag: 4 Suppl 14;89-95.

Mukherjee, P.K., Wahile, A. (2005): Integrated

approaches towards drug development

from Ayurveda and other Indian system

of medicines. J Ethnopharm; 103: 25-

35.

Therapeutics Letter 25 (2009): Herbal

medicines An Evidence Based Look

Available.

1998:http://interchange.ubc.ca/jauca.

Mohapathra, P, Shirwaikar A. Aswatha Ram

HN. Standardization of a Polyherbal

Formulation. Phcog Mag. (1998); 4

suppl 13: 65-69.

Nesari, T., Bhagwat, B.K., Johnson, J., Bhatt,

N.S., Chitre, D. (2002): Clinical

Validation of Efficacy and Safety of

Herbal Formula. J Herb

Pharmacotherapy; 4 suppl 4:1-12.

Chaudhri, R.D. (2004): Editor in Herbal Drug

Industry. Eastern Publishers. New

Delhi. p. 513.

Patwardhan, B., Warude, D., Pushpangadan,

P., Bhatt, N. (2005): Evid Based

Complement. Alternate Med. 4: 881.Chaudhri, R.D. (2003): editors in Herbal Drug

Industry. 1st ED. Eastern Publishers.

New Delhi. p. 513.

WHO (2001): general guidelines for

methodologies on research and

evaluation of Traditional Medicine

World Health Organisation. Geveva; p.

4-9.

Indian Pharmacopoeia (1996): 3rd ed. Vol. 2

Controller of Publications. Government

of India. New Delhi.



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complex

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Tevatia et al. /Vol. VI [2] 2015/28 – 34

29

charge transfer (MMCT) transition (Malik et

al., 1983; Ma et al., 2006 and Verani et al.,

2000) whereby an electron is transferred from

an Fe (II) to Fe(III) center. The MMCT

transition is not possible in the oxidized Fe (II)

- Fe (III) or reduced Fe (II) - Fe (I) states

resulting in loss of the blue coloration making

this compound brown and white respectively.

The significant roles played in living systems

by metal ions depend on their confinement

within approximately planar tetradentate

totally enclosed macrocyclic systems which are

themselves, highly conjugated species. Much

of the mystique associated with the binding ofmolecular oxygen by naturally occurring heme,

has been removed by successful challenge to

this field (Lonibala et al., 2006; Soderberg,

2008; Nunez et al., 2010 and Chen et al.,

2012). The ability of synthetic macrocyclic

complexes to mimic the properties of naturally

occurring macrocyclic systems is now well

recognized. Keeping all views, in this

communication, synthesis, characterization and

electrochemistry of Dimethyl-dibenzo [b,h]

tetraphenyl-2,3,8,9-tetraazacyclo dodeca -1, 3,

7, 9 - tetraene macrocyclic complexes of

Fe(III) and Co(II) complexes have been carried

out.

Materials and methods

The elemental (C, H, N) and mass spectral

studies of these macrocycles were carried outat Central Instrumental Laboratory (CIL)

Panjab University, Chandigarh (Eager

Xperience and TOF MS ES+6018e3). The

molar conductance of these macrocycles

complexes was recorded on Auto ranging

Conductivity/TDS Meter (TCM 15+). The

electronic and IR spectra of these macrocyclic

complexes were recorded on Double Beam

Spectrophotometer (Shimadzu 2450

spectrophotometer) in methanol and

Schimadzu-8400S double beam

spectrophotometer by KBr DRS method

respectively. The electrochemical studies of

these macrocyclic complexes were carried on

the Platinum electrode (0.031 cm2) using Auto

lab Metrohm 663 VA Stand Instrument. Tetra

ethyl ammoniumperchlorate (TEAP) used as

supporting electrolytes. The pre-treatment of Pt

electrode was carried out before every

experiment.Preparation of the Macrocyclic complexes

The macrocyclic complexes have been

synthesized according to the literature method

using 2 moles of 3,4 - diaminotoluene (0.244

g), 2 moles of benzyl (0.420 g) and 1 mole of

iron (III) chloride (0.162 g) (Tevatia et al.,

2014 and Singh et al., 2002).

O

O

NH2

NH2

Ph

Ph

N

N N

N

Ph Ph

Ph Ph

Me

M22

MCl2.xH2O

M = Fe(III) and Co(II)

Cl

Cl

Me Me

Fig. 1: The synthesis scheme of these tetra-

azamacrocyclic complexes

Macrocyclic

complexes

>C=N

str.

C=C str.

(Aromatic)

C―H

str.

(Methyl)

M―N

str.[FeC42H32 N4Cl2]Cl 1645 1235,

1125, 7802935 495

[CoC42H32 N4Cl2] 1630 1355,1230,865

2985 515

Table 1: Physical properties of tetra-

azamacrocyclic complexes ofFe(III) and Co(II).




30

Results and discussion

IR spectra

The IR spectra of these macrocyclic complexes

showed a strong band near 1620-1650 cm –1

due to C=N group. The other characteristic

bands for these macrocyclic complexes

observed in the region 1230-1370 cm-1

, 1050-

1260 cm-1

, 690-890 cm-1

and 2930-3000 cm-1

may be assigned for the vibrations of aromatic

rings and C-H stretching of CH3 group

respectively (Ma et al., 2006; Chaudhary et al.,

2002 and Prasad et al., 2007). The other

absorption characteristics appeared in the

region 520-490 cm-1 may be assigned for ν(M-

N) vibrations. The IR data for these complexes

is given in table 2.

Complexes Colour Molar

conductance

(ohm-1cm-

2mol-1)

M.P.

(0C)

Mol. Wt. C

(found)

(%)

H

(found)

(%)

N

(found)

(%)

[FeC42H32 N4Cl2]ClLight

yellow65 230 755

67.65

(65.21)

4.24

(3.39)

7.42

(7.16)

[CoC42H32 N4Cl2] Brown 30 220 72269.81

(68.73)4.43

(4.73)7.75

(8.16)

Table 2: IR data of tetraazamacrocyclic complexes of Fe(III) and Co(II)

Electronic spectral studies

The electronic studies of these macrocyclic

complexes were carried out in methanol. The

observed data for these macrocyclic complexes

are given in the following table 3. On the basis

of results, the octahedral geometry has been

assigned for both tetraazamacrocyclic

complexes. The ligand field parameters studies

for these macrocyclic complexes (Dq, B' and β)

have been calculated for these macrocyclic

complexes using Orgel energy and Tanabe-

Sugano diagrams using ν3/ν1 and ν2/ν1 ratio.

The nephelauxetic parameter (β) was

calculated using the relation. β = B' / B where

the values of B for free metal ions are taken as

Fe (III) = 1153 cm-1

and Co(II) = 971 cm-1

(Chandra and Kumar, 2013). The calculated

values of nephelauxetic parameter (β) of these

macrocyclic complexes are given in table 3.

Complexes

Electronic SpectraStereoche

mistry

Ligand Field Parameter

Energy

(cm-1

)Transition

Dq

(cm-1

) ν3/ ν1 B' (cm-1) β

[C42H32 N4FeCl2]

Cl

27983 5T2g(D) →5Eg(D)Octahedral 1756 1.3 1035 0.76

[C42H32 N4CoCl2] 15635

14575

23356

4T1g(F) → 4T2g(F)4T1g(F) → 4A2g

4T1g(F) → 4T1g(P)

Octahedral 975 1.5 956 0.81

Table 3: Electronic spectral data of tetra-azamacrocycliccomplexes of Fe(III) and Co(II).

Mass Spectra

The mass spectrum of Fe(III) macrocyclic

complex [FeC42H32 N4Cl2]Cl showed molecular

ion peak (M+1) at m/z 756 and other peaks at

m/z 684 and 669 which may be assigned to the

cleavage of CH3 and Cl units respectively.

Co(II) macrocyclic complex [CoC42H32 N4Cl2]

showed molecular ion peak (M+1) at m/z 723

and other peaks at m/z 651 and 636 assignable




31

to the cleavage of CH3 and Cl units (Chandra

et al., 2013).

Electrochemical studies

Cyclic voltammetry of these macrocyclic

complexes have been carried out in DMSO

containing 0.1M TEAP as supporting

electrolyte. Cyclic voltammograms of these

macrocyclic complexes are shown in fig. 2. In

this communication, the diffusion coefficient

(D0) and heterogeneous electron transfer rate

constant (K 0) for these macrocyclic complexes

have been calculated with the help of

Nicholson and Kochi methodologies (Anuj et

al., 2015 and Nicholson and Shain, 1964). Thecyclic voltammogram (Fig. 2a) of Fe(III)

macrocyclic complex at 200 mVs-1

scan rate

exhibited two anodic peaks corresponding to

the cathodic peak and one anodic peak without

corresponding cathodic peak. The first redox

process of Fe (III) macrocyclic complex is a

reversible redox couple Fe+2

/Fe+1

corresponds

to peak separation ∆E = -0.07 V and formal

potential E1/2 = -0.95 V while the second redox

process is a quasi-reversible with the

corresponding to peak separation ∆E = 0.15 V

and formal potential E1/2 = 0.65 V for the

couple, which is also supported by the peak

current ratio (i pa/i pc) that is close to unity. The

cyclic voltammogram (Fig. 2b) of [Co(II)L]

complex showed a reversible redox couple

L/L-1

corresponding to peak separation ∆ E = -0.13 V and formal potential E 1/2 from -1.01 V

at 200 mV s-1

scan rate. The reversibility of

this couple is also supported by the ratio i pa/i pc

that is close to unity while the second redox

couple for Co+2

/Co+3

is found at formal

potential +0.80 V with peak separation ∆ E =

0.20 V. This redox process is the

quasirreversible as also indicated by the peak

current ratio i pa/i pc. The redox process,

Co+2

/Co+1

of this macrocyclic complex is also

found the quasirreversible redox process,

supported by corresponding peak separation

∆ E and the peak current ratio. Further, the

plots of i p against v1/2

were found to be linear,

indicating that the redox process was

controlled by diffusion, following the Randles-

Sevcik equation for reversible electrochemical

reactions.

i = -2.69 × 105 n

3/2AD

1/2cv

1/2

Where n is the number of electrons transferred,A is the area of the electrode, D is the diffusion

coefficient, c is the analyte concentration and v

is the scan rate.

The diffusion coefficient (D0) and

heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant

(K 0), as calculated are in the order D0

Co(II)

(2.11× 10-5

cm2/s) > D0

Fe(III) (1.7 × 10

-5cm

2/s)

and K

0

Co(II) (5.41 × 10

-3

cm/s) > K

0

Fe(III) (3.41 ×10

-3cm/s).

.

(a)




32

(b)

Fig. 2: Cyclic voltammograms of (a) Fe(III) and (b) Co(II)macrocyclic complexes.

Biological activity

The antimicrobial activities of these

macrocyclic complexes of Fe(III) and Co(II)

were studied by agar well diffusion method.

The microbial cultures for these macrocyclic

complexes were adjusted to 0.5 McFarland

standards, which are visually comparable to a

microbial pathogen suspension of

approximately 1.5 × 108 cfu/ ml. Now 25 ml of

agar media was poured into petri plates and

was swabbed with 100 µl microbial inoculums

of the test microorganisms and kept for 20

minutes. A 6 mm well was cut at the centre of

the all agar plates and were filled with test

complexes (Asiri et al., 2011; Al-Bishri et al.,

2011; Hunter et al., 2004 and Cushine et al.,2005). Solvent medium was used as a negative

control where as media with Gentamycin used

as positive control. After 24 h of incubation at

37ᵒC each plate was observed for the

measurement of diameter at inhibition zone and

in case for fungus, inhibition zone was

measured after 48 h of incubation at 28ᵒC.

Antimicrobial activity of these macrocyclic

complexes were evaluated by measuring the

zone of growth inhibition against the test

organisms with zone reader (Hi Antibiotic

Zone Scale) (Mallie et al., 2005; Chohan et al.,

2004; Roy et al., 1999 and Tagg and Giben,

1971).

The tetraazamacrocyclic complex of Co(II)

showed maximum zone of inhibition against E.

coli (20 mm) followed by S. aureus (14 mm),

B. subtilis (15 mm) and P. aeruginosa (16

mm). Fe(III) macrocyclic complex exhibit

maximum zone of inhibition against E. coli (18mm) followed by B. subtilis (16 mm) and S.

aureus (16 mm), P. aeruginosa (15 mm).

Against fungal pathogen C. albicans,

macrocyclic complexes of Fe(III) were found

most effective (18 mm) followed by the Co(II)

macrocyclic complexes (17 mm) as showed in

fig. 3.

Complex

(100 mg/ml)

Diameter of inhibition zone (mm)

E.

coli

P.

aerug

inosa

B.

subtil

is

S.

aure

us

C.

albican

s

[C42H32N4FeCl2]

Cl18 15 16 16 18

[C42H32N4CoCl2] 20 16 15 14 17

Gentamycin 24 24 24 24 20

Table 4: Antimicrobial activity of the

synthesized macrocyclic complexes

Fig. 3: Graphical presentation of antimicrobial activity of these

macrocyclic complexes against pathogens

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Fe(III)

Co(II)

Gentamycin




33

Conclusions

In this communication, tetraazamacrocyclic

complexes of Fe(III) and Co(II) have been

synthesized by the template method using 2,4-

diaminotoluene and benzyl. The spectral

studies have confirmed the octahedral

geometry for these tetraazamacrocyclic

complexes. Cyclic voltammetric studies also

showed the interesting results for their unusual

oxidation state and also showed the

heterogeneous rate constant found in the order

K 0Co(II) > K

0Fe(III). These macrocyclic

complexes have shown good promise for

antimicrobial activity against both Gram +veand Gram –ve bacteria.

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to CSIR New Delhi

for financial support in the past projects and

support is also acknowledged for completion

the studies from SAIF Panjab University

Chandigarh.

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Reddy, P. M.; Rohini, R.; Krishna, E.R.; Hu,

A. and Ravindra, V. (2012): Int. J. Mol.

Sci. 13, 4982-4992.

Malik, W. U.; Bembi, R.; Singh, Randhir;Satya P.; Taneja and Raj, Deo (1983):

Inorg. Chim. Acta. 68, 223.

Ma, W.; Tian, Y.; Zhang, S. and Wu, J. (2006):

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Verani, C. N.; Rentschler, E.; Weyhermuller,

T.; Bill, E. and Chaudhuri, P. (2000): J.

Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans., 251–258.

Lonibala, R. K.; Rao, T.R. and Babitadevi,

R.K.(2006): J. Chem. Sci. 118, 327.

Soderberg, B.C.G. (2008): Coord. Chem. Rev.

252, 57.

Nunez, C.; Bastida, R.; Macias, A.; Valencia,

L.; Ribas, J.; Capelo, J. L. and Loderio,

C. (2010): J. Chem. Soc., Dalton

Trans., 2010, 39, 7673–7683.

Chen, Y. F.; Liu, M.; Mao, J.W.; Song, H.T.;

Zhou, H. and Pan, Z.Q. (2012): J.

Coord. Chem. 65, 3413–3423.

Tevatia, P.; Sweety; Anuj; Randhir, S. (2014):

J. of App. Chem., (IOSR-JAC), 7, 51.

Singh, R.; Kumar, P.; Singh, K. and Kumar. J.

(2002): Electrochem. 18, 543.

Ma, W., Tian Y.P., Zhang S.Y., and Wu J.Y.

(2006): Trans. Met. Chem. 31, 97.

Chaudhary, A.; Dave, S.; Swaroop, R. and

Singh, R. V. (2002): J. Ind. Chem. Soc.

79, 371.

Prasad, R. N.; Gupta, S. and Jangir, S. (2007):

J. Indian Chem. Soc. 84, 1191.

Chandra, S. and Kumar, A. (2013): Spectral, J.

Spectrachim. Acta A: Mol. and Biomol.

Spectro. 102, 250-255.

Chandra, S.; Bargujar, S.; Nirwal, R. and

Yadav, N. (2013): J. Spectrachim. Acta

A: Mol. and Biomol. Spectro. 106, 91-

98.

Anuj, K.; Sweety; Prashant, T.; Mohit, A. and

S. Randhir (2015): IJPC. 05, 4.




34

Nicholson, R. S. and Shain, I. (1964): Anal.

Chem. 36, 706.

Asiri, A.M.; Khan, S.A. and El-Hallag, I.S.

(2011): J. New. Mater. Electrochem.

14, 251.

Al-Bishri, H. M.; El-Mossalamy, E.H. and El-

Hallag, I.S. (2011): J. Korean Chem.

Soc. 55, 169.

Hunter, T. M.; Paisey, S. J. and Park, H.

(2004): J. Inorg. Biochem. 98. 713.

Cushine, T. P. T. and Lamb, A. J. (2005): Inter.

J. Antimicrob. Agents. 26, 343.

Mallie, M.; Bastide, J. M.; Blancard, A.;

Bonnin, A.; Bretagne, S.; Cambon, M.;

Chandenier, J.; Chauveau, V.; Couprie,

B. and Piens, M.A. (2005): Inter. J.

Antimicrob. Agents. 25, 321.

Chohan, Z. H.; Pervez, H.; Rauf, A.; Khan, K.

M. and Supuran, C. T. (2004): J. Enz.

Inhib. Med. Chem.19, 417.

Roy, T. G.; Hazari, S. K. S.; Dey, B. K.;

Chakraborty, S. and Tiekink, E. R.

(1999): Met. Based Drugs. 6, 345.

Tagg, J. R. and Giben, Mc. (1971):Appl.

Microbiol. 21, 943.



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36

Drinking Water Act charged the EPA with

responsibility for developing drinking water,

regulations to protect the public health. In

1975, the EPA published the interim primary

drinking water regulations and the secondary

regulations become effective from January 19,

1981. The international standards were first

published by the world health organization26

(WHO) in 1958. In the present study water

samples were collected from four different

locations of Chhoyya Nala of Hapur district.

Chhoyya Nala is the main drain of Hapur city

which are carrying industrial and domestie

waste water of city.In developing countries 95% of the used water

is not subject to cleansing treatment before it's

released to surface waters. So we must look

into all aspects of water uses to ensure the

quality of water available for all the present

and future needs. Owing to population

explosion pressure, pollution of water

resources is increasing3. At least 30000 human

deaths are caused daily by contaminated water

and poor sanitation16

. More than 1.7 billion

people have no direct access to potable water,

this number is likely to double within the next

25 years (ICMR, 1975).

Methodology

The bulk of the data used in this paper was

derived from archival sources and content

analysis of different research findings in

relation to environmental problems due to

impacts of human production and consumption

activities in India. In this present study

sampling station is Chhoyya Nala (Hapur)

which divided in to four sample points in

sequence near by asoda, near by Jasroop

Nagar, near by Ganeshpura and near by

Ramgari respectively. All sample points were

situated approximately equal distance from

each other having different pollutional

condition. Various water samples were

collected for analysis and sample points are

referred as SP1 to SP4.

S.

No.

Sampling

pointLocation (Area) Description

1 SP1 Near by Asoda SW

2 SP2 Near by Jasroop Nagar

SW

3 SP3 Near by Ganeshpura SW

4 SP4 Near by Ramgari SW

Table 1: Sampling points of Chhoyya Nala

*SW-surface water

Physico-chemical Parameters and analysis

of trace metal

Some of the physco-chemical characteristics

were analyzed in the field just after collection

and remaining parameters were estimated on

laboratory of chemistry of department, SSV

S.

No.Parameter

Technique

UsedEquipments

1 TDSEvaporating

filtrate

-------------------------

-

2 phosphate InstrumentalUV-VISSpectrophotometer,

SL-157, Elico

3Oil and

Grease

Liq. & Liq.

Extractionmethod

-------------------------

-

4 Turbidity Instrumental Nephelometry CL-52D, Elico

5 Free CO2 Titrimetric --------------------------

6Total

Coliform(MPN) Method

-------------------------

-

7 Vanadium Instrumental

UV-VIS

Spectrophotometer,SL-157, Elico

8 Mercury Instrumental

UV-VIS

Spectrophotometer,

SL-157, Elico




37

All values are in mg/L except Turbidity and Total Coliform

Table 2: Analytical technique and instruments used inthe analysis

College, Hapur. All techniques and methods

followed for collection, preservation and

analysis by adopting standard methods of

APHA.


In the present research study various physico-

chemical parameters such as turbidity, TDS,

phosphate, vanadium, Mercury, Total

Coliform, Oil and Grease and Free CO2 were

determined. It is concluded that the water

sample from various sample points, during the

monitoring period have been found to contain

all trace metals above permissible limits. This

study indicated that the Chhoyya Nala main

drain of Hapur city were not found good and

should not be used for irrigation without prior

treatment and it is recommended that water

analysis should be carried out from time to

time to monitor the rate and kind of

contamination.Turbidity

Turbidity reflects the transparency in water.

Turbidity in water is the reduction in

transparency due to the presence of particulate

matter such as clay, slit and microscopic

organisms. As per BIS standered the desirable

and permissible limits are 5 and 10 NTU,

respectively. In all the samples of surface

water turbidity more than the maximum

permissible limit of BIS.

In 2013-14, during summer, turbidity for

surface water maximum 360.38 NTU at SP2

and minimum 180.54 NTU at SP1. During

winter, turbidity for surface water maximum

370.53 NTU at SP2 and minimum 122.73 NTU

at SP3.

Total Dissolved Solids

Total dissolved solids are a measure of total

inorganic substances dissolved in water. TDS

indicates the general nature of water quality.

According to the desirable limit standardized

by BIS standard, TDS is 500 mg/L and

permissible limit in the absence of alternate

source is 2000 mg/L. The TDS values at all

surface water sample points SP1, SP2, SP3 and

SP4 are exceeded the permissible limit

according to BIS. In all the sample points TDS

of surface water varied from 990 mg/L to 1240mg/L.

In 2013-14, during summer, total dissolved

solids for surface water maximum 1230 mg/L

at SP1, SP3 and minimum 1020 mg/L at SP2.

During winter, total dissolved solids for

surface water maximum 1240 mg/L at SP1 and

minimum 1012 mg/L at SP4.

Phosphate Mostly waters, especially waste water

phosphorus is present almost exclusively in the

form of phosphates. During the study, in

surface water Phosphate content was very high

in all the sample points i.e., SP1, SP2, SP3 and

SP4. Due to direct industrial effluent discharges

into Chhoyya Nala the phosphate value is

higher than permissible limit of BIS.

In 2013-14, during summer, phosphate for

surface water maximum 42.14 mg/L at SP3 and

minimum 30.11 mg/L at SP4. During winter,

phosphate for surface water maximum 42.87

mg/L at SP3 and minimum 32.77 mg/L at SP4.




38

Free CO2

Free CO2 concentration was noticed in surface

water. During the study in different year the

value of Free CO2 of surface water samples

were recorded from 4.16 mg/L to 6.26 mg/L.

Free CO2 is a good indicator of water

contamination. If free CO2 increases in water

bodies it indicates the contamination load.

During summer in 2013-14 Free CO2 for SP1,

SP2, SP3 and SP4 was 5.25 mg/L, 5.95 mg/L,

5.83 mg/L and 4.53 mg/L respectively, and in

winter Free CO2 for SP1, SP2, SP3 and SP4 was

5.26 mg/L, 4.86 mg/L, 4.53 mg/L and 4.41

mg/L respectively.

Oil and Grease

During the study Oil and Grease was noticed in

surface water sample points SP1, SP2, SP3 and

SP4 of Chhoyya Nala. During the study in

different year the value of Oil and Grease of

surface water samples was recorded from

110.22 mg/L to 301.38 mg/L.

During summer in 2013-14 Oil and Grease forSP1, SP2, SP3 and SP4 was 150.77 mg/L,

230.22 mg/L, 301.38 mg/L and 270.21 mg/L

respectively, and in winter 2012-13 Oil and

Grease for SP1, SP2, SP3 and SP4 was 181.41

mg/L, 257.28 mg/L, 120.61 mg/L and

300.85mg/L respectively. Result showed in

2013-14 during summer the maximum Oil and

Grease was 301.38 mg/L and during winter the

maximum Oil and Grease was 300.85 mg/L.

Total Coliforms

During the study of surface water samples,

Total Coliform was noticed in surface water

sample points from Chhoyya Nala i.e., SP1,

SP2, SP3 and SP4. The Total Coliform are the

indicators of water contamination.

During summer in 2013-14 total coliform for

SP1, SP2, SP3 and SP4 was 190 MPN, 790

MPN, 160 MPN and 605 MPN respectively

and in winter 2013-14 total coliform for SP1,

SP2, SP3 and SP4 was 410 MPN, 682 MPN,

380 MPN and 502 MPN respectively. Result

showed in 2012-13 during summer the

maximum total coliform limit was 790 MPN

and during winter the maximum total coliform

was 682 MPN.

Vanadium

Vanadium is a potential hazardous pollutant

and most of the toxic effect of vanadium are

carcinogenic in nature, irritant to respiratory

organs and eyes, lung damages, nervous

disorders, rorethroat, Wilson’s disease.

Vanadium is reported to affect plant life as it

gets accumulated in the leaves and roots and

decrease the productivity of plants. The major

sources of vanadium are glass, ceramics andsteal industries. During the study of ground

water and surface water in 2013-14 the

concentration of vanadium was not detected.

Mercury

Mercury concentration was noticed in surface

water ranged 0.10 mg/L to 0.81 mg/L.

according to BIS standard the desirable limit

of Mercury content is 0.001 mg/L beyond this,

the water become toxic.

During summer in 2013-14 Hg for SP1, SP2,

SP3 and SP4 was 0.22 mg/L, 0.20 mg/L, 0.19

mg/L and 0.20 mg/L respectively, and in

winter 2012-13 Hg for SP1, SP2, SP3 and SP4

was 0.10 mg/L, 0.21 mg/L, 0.22 mg/L and 0.22




39

mg/L respectively. Result showed in 2013-14

during summer the maximum Hg was 0.22

mg/L and during winter the maximum Hg was

0.22 mg/L.

S.No. ParametersRange in SW

(SP1-SP4)

BIS

standard

1 Turbidity (mg/L)122.73 –

370.531

2 TDS (mg/L) 1012 – 1240 500

3 Phosphate (mg/L) 30.11 – 42.87 Nil

4 Free CO2 (mg/L) 4.41 – 5.95 Nil

5Oil and Grease(mg/L)

120.61– 301.38

Nil

6Total Coliform(MPN/100 mL)

190 – 790 Nil

7 Vanadium (mg/L) ND 0.20

8 Mercury (mg/L) 0.10 – 0.22 0.001

ND : Not Detected

Table 4: Comparison of surface water qualityat studied area with drinking water

Conclusion and Suggestions

It is beyond doubt that after the Independence

of India, number of laws enacted by legislature

but the State has failed to discharge its

responsibility. Lack of implementation of

environmental protection laws is the main

reason for non-implementation of the principle

of Sustainable Development. Number of

Environmental protection laws have been

passed by legislature according to the

Constitutional demand but in reality the

principles are just on papers2. Lack of

incorporation of Sustainable Development in

India is one of the reasons for deterioration of

the environmental status in India10

.From this study, it may be concluded that the

pollution in surface water has been increased. As

a result of these investigations the following

tentative suggestion may be offered to safeguard

the quality of environment, ground water and

surface water of the Hapur city.

There should be some restrictions on all

industries not to dispose off their solid or

liquid waste directly into the sewage.

The heavy load of industrial waste tends to

make the lands barren. Specific lands for the

disposal of these wastes should be

compulsory.

It is suggested that, except few parameters

most of the parameters are within the

permissible limits of BIS standards but could

exceed any time. So careless disposal of the

water should be discouraged and there is a

need for each industry to install a waste

treatment plant with a view to treat wastes before being discharged into the sewage.

Develop a workable model for treatment of

both effluent and emissions starting from

source up to the final approach.

Programme like safe water Project should be

started by municipality so that local people

will be aware about the pollution and

safeguard the quality of water.

As not only government but every citizen

also could play an important role in abating

contamination in ground water and surface

water. So the problem of contamination

required closely coordinated series of

legislative, administrative and technical

measures.

It is very necessary to control water

contamination, if not, then in future we willnot have a drop of pure fresh water. So that

people may understand the value of ground

water and surface water

Public awareness programmes about the

pollution should be launched with strong

emphasis on the effects of pollution on




40

personal and community health. Periodically

industrial pollution information must be

published by environmental public

organizations.

Utilizing audio and video media, hording,

workshops, seminars and presentations by

the experts for informing the common people

about contaminated water diseases so that

they take precaution to save themselves from

these diseases.

The government has to ensure that all new

and existing industries have adequate sites

facilities for treatment and removal of toxic

material from the contaminated water oreffluents.

Water and sewerage pipelines should not be

in close vicinity to prevent cross

contamination and there should be no

leakage within the distribution system and no

mixing of drinking and sewerage water.

More treatment plants are needed, which

should be located at shorter distances from

the consumer’s end, and water treatment

plants should be run by experts and well

trained persons.

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Sinadinovska Shumar, A. and Donev, D.

(2010): Municipalities contribution in

sustainable development as a part of the

philosophy for sustainable

development: humanistic paradigm of

existence, Books of Proceedings: May

Conference on Strategic Management

MKSM 2010, Srbija, Kladovo : 18-23.

WHO (2004): “Guidelines for drinking water

quality” World Health Organization,

Geneva, Switzerland, 3rd edition.

World Water Day report (2004): United

Nations Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organization.



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Abstrac

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Rudraman/Vol. VI [2] 2015/43 – 49

44

local network policy problems. In most cases it

will consume less time and effort that an

attempt to use a global model.

Zoning Criteria

Demand Equity

In the context of providing services, of equity

asserts that the entire population of potential

clients be treated as equally as possible in

terms of the quality of service they get. In

other words, subpopulations of customers shall

not be deprived by the service provider.

Apply the equity criterion to a service network

will imply that the performance measures by

which the quality of service is evaluated be

more or less equal in each sub zone practical

realization of this criterion could be

accomplished by partitioning the network into

sub network that are more or less equal in the

proportion of demand they generate.

The sample network G exhibited in Figure 1

Network G consists of 9 nodes and 16 links.

The nodes have been numbered arbitrarilyfrom 1 to 9. The figures near the links

designate the length of the links (either

distance units or travel time units). We will

denote them l (i, j) where i and j are node

numbers. The fractions near the nodes indicate

the proportions of the total demand generated

in the particular nodes. These are denoted by

hj, j=1… 9.

Suppose that we want to partition G into two

sub networks, G1 and G, where the only

guiding criterion is equity. We will certainly

not recommend that node 2 and 9 constitute G1

while all the rest of the nodes be assigned to G2

since such partitioning will load 81% of the

local demand G2 rather, we will try to mark

nodes such that their accumulated demand will

be close to 50% for example G1 = (1, 2, 3, 4);

G2 = (5, 6, 7, 8, 9). This partitioning will split

the demand will split the demand between the

two networks in a ratio of 48.5 to 51.5.

Figure 1: A sample network G.

The principle of equity can be quantitatively

formulated as follows: Let M be the desired

number of sub networks. Perfect equity 1 and

obtained if each sub network incurs 1/M

fraction of the total demand Denoted. We may

allow a certain deviation from, say 10%. Then

a sub network is feasible if the accumulated

demand from, say 10%. Then, a sub network is

0.9 h. In other words, let Gi be a proposed sub

networks of G let α be the allowed deviation

0<α<1. We turn now to the second criterion.

Contiguity

A basic principle in zoning is contiguity. A sub

network of contiguous if it is possible to travel

from every node in the sub network to every

other node in it without crossing another sub

network. In other words, there should be at

least on path between any two nods of sub

network such that a server will be able to travel

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Rudraman/Vol. VI [2] 2015/43 – 49

45

between the two nodes on that path without

having to go through another sub network.

This is not to say that this path is necessarily

the shortest one. It may very well be that the

shortest path will across another network, but

there is at least one more path that is under the

sovereignty of the said networks therefore

contiguity is satisfy.

The major reason is that it allows the sub

network management to move its servers along

the network without having to get permission

or to coordinate the move with foreign

authorities. Thus, dispatching patrolling, and

repositioning policies can be devisedindependently.

One possible way to illustrate contiguity is by

constructing a square matrix whose elements

are binary, namely, zero or ones. The rows and

the columns correspond to the nodes of the

network. A 0 element designates that there is

no direct link between two nodes; a 1-element

marks a direct link. A subset of nodes is

contiguous if one can move along 1-element in

the matrix without exiting the subset. The

matrix is symmetric in a non directed network.

Compactness

An intuit interpretation of the notion

compactness is that the edges of a zone are not

too remote from each other. In partitioning a

planar area (rather than a network)

compactness can be measured by any of three

measurements.

1. Resemblance of the zone to a square.

2. Resemblance of the zone to a circle.

3. “Reasonable” distance of the population

from the center of the zone.

In network partitioning, managements related

to a planar area dopology do not adhere to the

notion of a network. But still it is imperative to

maintain a certain the nodes of a zone. This

can be obtained by imposing a length

constraint on the shortest distance between any

two nods that are considered candidates for

belonging to the same zone.

Table 1 displays the shortest distance between

any two nodes of network G. Based on this to

be we can impose an orbitrary length beyond

which two nodes cannot be part of the same

zone.

Node 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 - 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

2 1 - 0 1 1 0 0 0 1

3 1 0 - 1 0 1 1 0 0

4 0 1 1 - 1 0 1 1 0

5 0 1 0 1 - 0 0 1 1

6 0 0 1 0 0 - 1 0 0

7 0 0 1 1 0 1 - 1 0

8 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 - 1

9 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 -

Table 1: A contiguity martrix

Enclaves

During the process of zoning we have to make

sure that we do not create enclave is a node, or

a subset of nodes that cannot constitute an

independent zone because of the equity

criterion. On the other hand a the node cannot

be connected to other “fee” nodes for

noncontiguity reasons. Thus they might remain

“Orphans” if the zoning process proceeds

without being interrupted.

For example, suppose we selected nodes 3 and

7 in G to farm a zone, where the equity



Rudraman/Vol. VI [2] 2015/43 – 49

46

criterion is 0.25±0.03 of the total demand.

These two nodes comply with the equity

criterion since they consume together 23.5% of

the demand. However, we are left with node 6,

the load of which is 12.5%, but node 6 cannot

be connected to any other free node should be

wish to preserve contiguity, no need to

mention that it cannot form a zone of its own.

Thus, node 6 becomes an enclave and this is

undesirable.

Natural Boundaries

Natural and geographical boundaries can

certainly impose constraints on a zoning

process. However, we claim that such boundaries are inherent to the network

topology, because the link lengths do not read

as aerial distances but they do reflect the

realistic access time to a node. Therefore, we

are not required to incorporate such extra

measures into the zoning algorithm.

Additional Criteria

There could be some additional terms that anetwork planner would be required to accede

to under certain circumstances. Take for

instance administrative boundaries. Another

criterion is related to the characteristics of the

region being partitioned. It is therefore

recommended to account for the characteristics

of the region before a “mechanical” zoning

process is executed. When these or similar

criteria are being examined, one has to

distinguish between mandatory requirements

and optimal requirement. Mandatory

requirement posses a constraint that must be

followed. In a way, a mandatory requirement

can sometimes facilitate the compulational

complexity of a zoning algorithm because it

usually splits the problem into a number of

smaller problems, each of which can handled

more easily.

An optional requirement is unlikely to

facilitate the solving process it is more likely to

complicate it. The planner has to solve the

constrained model as well as the unconstrained

one is order to provide the decision maker with

the “cost” of the additional requirement, cost in

this respect is a decrease in performance.

Nonetheless, with the fast advance of

computing technology, running an algorithm

for a number of times under varied constraints

is usually not infeasible. We turn now tointroducing a zoning selection algorithm.

An algorithm for zoning selection

Zoning selection process have been applied

mostly for area districting. An elaborate

algorithm for such cases is provided by

Garfinkel and Nemhauser. When network

zoning is considered, however, some of the

guiding criteria have to be modified. For thenotion of compactness is expressed in distance

measurement rather than in area topology, the

notion of contiguity is expressed by

connectivity of nodes rather than by having

common borders.

Let us try to partition network G of figure 1.1

in to your zones. We impose the following

constraints.

Equity: The ‘ideal’ demand generated in

each zone would be 25% however, we

allow for 2.5% deviation, namely, an

acceptable zone may generate demand

ranging from 2.5% to 22.5% of the total

demand.



Rudraman/Vol. VI [2] 2015/43 – 49

47

Contiguity: Contiguity must be maintained

for each zone.

Compactness: The shortest distance

between any two nodes in a zone should

not exceed 10 units of time.

Here enclaves must be avoided during the

application of the algorithm. Suppose these are

the only restrictions imposed on the zoning

process. Let us now illustrate the algorithm.

The partitioning process consists of two major

phases. Phase I determines all the possible

zones that comply with the requirement listed

above. Since this phase identifies all the

possible zones, upon completion of Phase I, we

may very well face redundancy. Let us start,

then, with node 1. It is linked to node 2,

together they accumulate 27% of the total

demand. They do not violate compactness, nor

do they enclave any node, thus (1, 2) constitute

a feasible zone we cannot add any more node

(1, 2) since any additional node that is linked

either to 1 or to 2 will path the demand beyondthe tolerated limit which is 27.5%.

By similar arguments, nodes (1, 3) form a

feasible zone that cannot be further augmented.

Let us turn now to node 2. We do not have to

examine the combination of 2 and 1 becomes

this has already been covered. New feasible

zones are, therefore, (2, 4) and (2, 5, 9). When

node 3 examined the only new feasible zone is

(3, 6). Here again the zone (3, 7) could be

feasible in terms of quilts (23.5%), contiguity,

an compactness. However, if this zone is

established, node 6 becomes an enclave.

Hence, we have to exclude (3, 7) from the set

of feasible zones.

Table 2 summarizes the final results of phase I,

namely, the set of all feasible zones. In column

(a) we have numbered the zones; arbitrarily

column (b) designates the numbers of the zone.

Column (d) calculates the amount of deviation

of example, a zone whose accumulated

demand is 26% will yield.

Column (e) displays the largest shortest

distance, namely, the shortest distance between

the most remote nodes within a zone. The table

is divided into sections. Each section is

associated with another ‘root node’ namely a

node from the the search for feasible zones

begins. The “root node” determines the sectionnumber in column (f).

Phase I terminates when a complete set of all

the feasible zones is identified and a conclusive

table lists all of them.

In phase II we have to selected of zones that

covers all the nodes, but each node is a

member of only one zone. Before proceeding,

we have to select an objective function that wewish to optimize.

There is no rule stating an ultimate object

function. In fact, since all the zones listed in

the above table abide to all the constraints, we

may select one of the constraint on equity or on

compactness and strive to optimize it. Suppose

we choose to optimize compactness. This can

be achieved by selecting zones that will

minimize the sum of shortest distance between

the most remote nodes within all zones

selected. In other words, we wish to minimize

a sum of elements from column (e) of Table 2.

Another object could be to optimize equity.

Two classic versions of this objective function

are the minisum and minimax. In the minisum



Rudraman/Vol. VI [2] 2015/43 – 49

48

we minimize the total relative deviation of

demand [column (d)] of the zones selected.

The minimax criterion is to select the zones

such that the worst case of maximum relative

deviation is as good as possible.

Suppose minimize the total relative let us try to

devise a feasible partitioning. We start at the

first section of the Table 2 namely, all the

zones whose root node is node 1. We call this

set of zones list 1. Among them, zone 2, is

preferred since it incurs a deviation of 0.4 in

column (d). So we mark zones 2, tentatively, as

a candidate zone, and we record that nodes 1

and 3 are now covered. Since node 2 is notcovered, we have to select a zone from the

second section list 2, while avoiding double

coverage. A preferred candidate is zone 3,

whose deviation equals 0.2. The list of covered

nods now includes (1, 2, 3, 4).

Zone

no

(a)

Nodes

(b)

Demand

(%)

Relative

deviation

(d)

Largest

shortest

distance

(e)

Section

list (f)

1 1, 2 27 0.8 5 12 1, 3 24 0.4 3 -

3 2, 4 24.5 0.2 4 2

4 2, 5, 6 26 0.4 8 -

5 3, 6 22.5 1.0 6 3

6 4, 5, 9 24.5 0.2 8 4

7 4, 7 25 0 9 -

8 4, 8 24 0.4 8 -

9 5, 8, 9 25.5 0.2 8 5

10 6, 7 26 0.4 3 6

11 7, 8 26 0.4 6 7

Table 2: List of feasible zones

The next not yet covered node is 5, so we turn

to the fifth section list 5 of the table and addzone 9 to our candidate set. The covered nodes

are (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9). We now have to

examine node 6 and select zone 10 to the

candidate partitioning. All the nodes are now

covered and the partitioning is mutually

exclusive. The candidate zones are (2, 3, 9,

10), the total deviation is 1.2, hence the

average deviation is 1.2|4=0.3. If we apply

minimax criterion the objective function value

is max (0.4, 0.2, 0.2, 0.4) = 00.4. Next, we

have to backtrack and try to omit zones and

add alternate zone in order to check whether a

better partitioning does exist. We will save

rather the trouble of going backward, and

instead we will start again from the beginning.

Suppose we select zone 1 as a starter then

nodes 1 and 2 are covered, so we move to

section 3 and pick zone 5. We now have nodes

(1, 2, 3, 6) already covered. In fact, we do not

have to proceed after selecting zone 5 since theinterin accumulated deviation is already 1.8 for

zones 1 and 5.

Therefore, it is obvious that the entailed

partitioning cannot be better than the first one.

Since we cannot find any additional

partitioning that will cover node 1, we may

terminate phase II and conclude that zones (2,

3, 9, 10) constitute the optimal partitioning. It

can be verified that this is also the optimal

solution with the minimax criterion.

Suppose we opt to minimize the total shortest

distance [column (e)]. Our selection process

will undergo the following steps.

1. Select zone 2; covering (1, 3)

2. Add zone 3; accumulated coverage (1, 2, 3,

4, 5, 8, 9)


4)

4. Add zone 10; full coverage, average

shortest distance is 18/4 = 4.5

5. Try zone 1; covering (1, 2)



Rudraman/Vol. VI [2] 2015/43 – 49

49


6)

7. Try to add either zone 6 or zone 8 since

there is a tie here, however, we may stop

the trial at this point since the intern

accumulated distance is already 19.

8. Cheek whether there is an additional

starter, since there is not one, the process

terminates.

Eventually, both optimizations of equity and

compactness have provided the same

partitioning. Thus, however, is not necessarily

the case a more complex problem is

encountered. Generally speaking, by

comparing the results of a number of

optimization processes, one can learn the

“price” paid in one criterion in order to

optimize another one.

The zoning process that is presented above was

performed mainly by observation.

References

Isakson Hans R. (2004): Analysis of the Effect

Of Large Lot Zoning. The Journal Of

Real Research Vol26, No. 4 PP-397-

415.

Heitzer, Franz (2004): From Based Zoning

PAS Quick Notes No.-1, American

Planning Association.

Journal Of Operational Research Society

(1985), 36,433-450,Issn 0160-5682

Regina Benveniste (1985): Solving the

Combined Zoning and Location

Problem for Several Emergency Units

University of Southampton.

Some Problems in the Theory of Intra Urban

Location, Operation Research Vol 91,

No. 5 PP 695-721 Hayden Dolores

2003.

W.H. Marlow (2012): springer Mathematics

Sale.



Effect

Srivasta

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The De

comprisendophy

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Volume V

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Archana Srivastava/Vol. VI [2] 2015/50 – 53

51

compositions, hair fixing and nail polishing

preparations. It is used in preparation of

ointments and plasters and in many products

such as chewing gum, polishes, and varnishes,

but is a common cause of contact allergy. The

resin is applied to cure boils (Rajbhandari,

2001) and administered orally to combat

gastric troubles Manandhar, 2002. The resin is

useful in adhesives, printing ink, electric

isolation, paper, soldering flux, varnish and

matches. In printing ink industry rosin gives

adhesiveness, surface smoothness, hardness,

antiblocking and other properties. Resin has a

good electric isolation, being used as oil incables for high voltage electricity. In soldering

process, rosin is used to get rid of oxide

compounds in the surface of metal, synthetic

rubber and chewing gums (Wiyono, 2006).

Pinus plant

Disease symptoms

Alternaria fungi belonging to Deuteromycetes

are widespread in nature and pathogenic to

agricultural crops whether during their growth

or storage due to the production enzymes such

as cellulose, lipase, and protease (Fatiha1 et al

2014).

Materials and Method

Collection of Plant Material Fresh healthy

leaves were collected from different locations,

washed with tap water; surface sterilized with

2% sodium hypo chlorite for 5 min and washed

thoroughly 2-3 times with sterile distilled

water then shade dried. Dried leaves were

pulverized in electric blender to obtain fine

powder.

Preparation of Plant Extracts The powdered

leaves extracted with sterile distilled water at

room temperature at different level of

concentrations i.e. 25 g in 100 ml, 50 g in 100

ml, 75 g in 100 ml and 80 g in 100 ml. Then

extracts were filtered through double layered

muslin cloth and finally through Whatman

filter paper No.1. Extracts were stored at 4°C

in pre-sterilized flasks until use. Plant Pathogenic Fungi A. solani (leaf blight

pathogen were isolated from diseased parts of

host and pure cultures were maintained on

PDA slants.

Bioassay of Plant Extracts Bioassay was

carried out in PDA. Control received the same

quantity of water. To avoid bacterial

contamination, antibacterial substance was

used. Inoculum discs of 5 mm diameter,

obtained from 7 day old healthy growing

fungal cultures of A. solani were transferred to

flasks containing medium with and without

plant extracts aseptically. The flasks were

incubated at 25 ± 2°C for 7days. On incubation



the myc

for eac

weighed

determin

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by the fo

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myceliu

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trol

Inhibition of

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on mycelia

on (percent

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fungal acti

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nosperm

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52

l., 2003.

ivity of

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Earlier

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ic fungi



Archana Srivastava/Vol. VI [2] 2015/50 – 53

53

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D. (2006): Chemical compositions of

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Morphology and physiological

characters of Alternaria alternata

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(2011): A comparison of the antifungal

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Mishra, R. K. and Gupta, R. P. (2012): In vitro

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Plant Res. 6(45): 5658-5661.



Effect

Bhatt, S

Received

Abstrac

The genfamily c

herbs an

medicin

agent in

reduces

long ter

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drying o

of Ocim

Ranikhe

Fresh a

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sample

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f drying

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spondence:

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umaun Univ

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n the qu

ar, Gitu;

015 Acce

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cimum oil

and as a

products.

e content

plant, the

termine th

compositio

anum coll

and). Aeri

O. ameri

Clevenger

e analyzed

ompounds

anum were

bisabole

ole <1,8->ied sampl

ity of bisab

rcent of cin

tional Jou

54 – 62]

y, D.S.B.

rsity, Nainital

ail.com

lity of es

ewari, Ge

ted: Novem

Lamiaceaespecies of

is used in

flavoring

As drying

nd allows

purpose of

effect of

and yield

cted from

l part of

anum was

apparatus.

y GC and

n the fresh

bisabolene

ne<( E )-γ->

(9.14%).s showed

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ta; Rani,

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words:

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2005). Mos

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velli et al .,

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d Bisht, M

cember 31,

amphor (3m 0.10% to

ied sample

cimum a

un-drying;

olene

cess that is

volume oquences fo

o, J.B. 20

nsportation

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t of the her

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of micro

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(Crivelli

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2002). D

tion and C

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.34%). Th0.66% (v/w

respectivel

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essential

for reducti

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0). There

and storag

l plants bec

space (Tan

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l 2007) bec

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et al ., 2

be perfo

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l characteri

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pending o

onservatio

N 0975 - 6272

w.essence-jou

54

oil) for

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L.|

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]

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Bhatt et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/54 – 62

55

sources of heat and use of energy, the

drying method can be performed either by

natural or artificial method. It reduces the

enzymatic activity by inhibiting chemical

reactions such as hydrolysis, oxidation, and

fermentation (Costa et al ., 2005). Many

drying methods such as convection oven

drying, freeze-drying, microwave drying

etc. are also used to preserve medicinal

herbs (Harbourne et al ., 2009).

Ocimum americanum L. commonly called

as Ocimum canum Sims. belonging to the

family Lamiaceae [Wealth of India] is a

wild herb with a distinct mint flavor, hairyleaves and scented flowers that is native to

tropical Africa [Steel J. 2006 ] and is useful

for its antimicrobial, antioxidant,

antihelmintic and anti diabetic activities

(Khare, C.P., 2007). Fresh lamiaceae herbs

as spearmint usually contain 75–80%

water, and the water levels needs to be

lowered to less than 15% for their

successful preservation (Dìaz-Maroto et

al ., 2002). Drying may improve the herb

quality such as appearance and aroma due

to the loss of volatile compounds or the

formation of new volatile compounds

through desertification or oxidation

reactions (Hossain et al ., 2010).

(Nykanen and Nykanen, 1987) have

reported that the total yield of essential oilsdecreased between 36–45% in sweet basil

during drying at ambient temperature. Di

Cesare et al ., (2003) observed microwave

drying to retain high percentages of

characteristic volatile compounds

(eucalyptol, linalool, eugenol, and

methyleugenol) in basil (Ocimum

basilicum L.) compared to samples dried

by air-drying and freeze-drying with

blanching, except freeze-dried unblanched

leaves.

Baritaux et al ., (1992) found that the

contents of methyl chavicol and eugenol

decreased during drying, however, the

levels of trans-bergamotene, linalool and 1,

8 - cineole significantly increased in basil

(Ocimum basilicum L.). Some more reports

are available on the effect of drying

processes on Calendula essential oil from

Nigeria (Okoh et al ., 2008) , Mentha from Norway, Nigeria and Egypt (Rohloff et al .,

2005). In Mentha longifolia, the yield of

dried plant material was more than that of

fresh plant material (Asekun et al ., 2006).

Shade dried and sun dried leaves of

Plectranthus glandulosus showed

difference in their chemical composition

(Katamssadan et al ., 2014). These

investigations revealed that the chemical

composition of oil varied with temperature

and humidity conditions. Selection and

optimization of drying methods could help

in minimizing the loss of volatiles and also

maintain the quality of the medicinal

species. After surveying literature, it was

observed that different drying methods like

sun drying, shade drying, oven drying, fireheat drying etc. have been used to dry

different aromatic and medicinal plants, but

to the best of our knowledge, no work has

been reported, on the impact of drying on

the chemical composition of O.

americanum from India. Therefore, the



Bhatt et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/54 – 62

56

purpose of this study is to investigate the

effect of different drying on yield and

chemical composition of O. americanum

and find out the ways to obtain optimum

active constituent condition.


Collection of plant material

Fresh O. americanum plants at flowering

stage were harvested from the field of

Ranikhet, Uttarakhand in September 2014.

A fraction of plant material was sun dried.

Botanical identification of plant was done

at C.C.R.A.S. Thapla. Voucher no.

(24660).

Isolation of essential oil

Fresh and sun dried plant material was

sliced into small parts and 500 gm of each

sample was extracted by using hydro

distillation technique in a glass Clevenger

apparatus for about 4 hours. The extracted

crude oil was stored in glass vials and

excess moisture was dried over anhydroussodium sulphate. The sealed glass vial was

stored in BOD incubator.

Analysis of the essential oil

A Shimadzu 2010 auto system GC fitted

with Rtx-5 MS and FID detector was used

to analyze the oil. Carrier gas was the

N2/air with linear velocity of 30.0 cm/sec.

Column temperature was set at 50°C for 2

min, then programmed until 210°C at a rate

of 3°C/min with hold time of 2 min, and

finally increased to 280°C at the 10°C/min

rate with 11 min hold time, using N2 at 3

mL /min column head pressure as carrier

gas, Injector and detector (FID, Flame

ionization detector) temperatures were

260°C and 270°C respectively. Injection

mode, split; split ratio 110.0, volume

injected, 1 μl of the oil. The GC-MS used

was Auto system 2010 GC (MS Serial

Number: 1009701) capillary column (30 m

× 0.25 mm, 0.25 μm film thickness).

Column temperature was set at 50°C for 2

min, then programmed until 210°C at a rate

of 3°C/min with hold time of 1 min, and

finally increased to 280°C at the 10°C/min

rate with 7 min hold time, using N2/Air as a

carrier gas. Injector temperature was 260˚c

and 1.0 uL in n- hexane. Split ratio 110.0

Relative percentage amounts of theessential oil components were evaluated

from the total peak area (TIC) by apparatus

software.

Identification of the components

Identification of components in the oils

was done by comparing their mass spectra

and retention time with literature data and

by computer matching with NIST and

WILEY library as well as by comparison of

the fragmentation pattern of the mass

spectral data with those reported in the

literature (Adams, 2007).

Results and Discussion

The GC and GC/MS results revealed that

there was a difference in the chemical

composition of oils after drying. Oil yield

of fresh and sun dried material was also

significantly different .with values ranging

from 0.10% for the fresh herb to 0.66%

(v/w) for the sun dried material. During

drying process the amount of essential oil

can decrease from 2.55% to 1.94% (Halva,

1987). Whereas, in our study, the yield of



Bhatt et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/54 – 62

57

essential oil from sun dried plant material

was greater than that from the fresh plant.

Total number of components in the oil of

fresh and sun dried O. americanum were

48 and 116 respectively. The chemical

composition of fresh aerial parts and sun

dried of O. americanum is listed in Table 1.

The major compounds in fresh sample of

O. americanum were bisabolene <β>

(29.06%), bisabolene <( E )-γ-> (17.49%),

cineole <1,8-> (9.14%), methyl chavicol

(7.56%), ocimene <( Z )- β -> (7.18%),

germacrene D (5.80%) farnesene <( E )-β>

(4.09%) and caryophyllene <( E )->(2.61%).The chemical characterization of O.

americanum showed the presence of

camphor (60%) (Xaasan et al ., 1981),

trans-β-ocimene (29%) and 1, 8-cineole

(41.3%) (Tchoumbougnang et al ., 2006),

citral (62.43%) (Saeio et al . 2011) and ( E )-

methyl cinnamate (95.8%) (Vieira and

Simon, 2000).

After sun drying and the major compounds

of the same were cineole <1,8-> (17.86%),

camphor (38.34%), bisabolene <β>

(7.77%) and copaene <α-> (3.99%).

Our results showed that sun-drying caused

significant loss of some major components

like bisabolene <( E )>-γ-> (17.49% to 0%),

methyl chavicol (7.56% to 0.01%),

ocimene <( Z )-β-> (7.18% to 0%), eugenol

(2.68% to 0%) and sesquisabinene (2.12%

to 0%). . Drying also brought about

significant appearance of some components

in oil after sun drying which were totally

absent in the fresh oil like camphene (0%

to 1.93%) and 1-octen-3-ol (0% to 1.10%)

in sun dried sample.

In Mentha longifolia, the yield of dried

plant material was observed to be more as

compared to fresh plant material. In a

previous investigation, the oil of fresh plant

material contained 92.6% of

monoterpeinoids and major compounds

were pulegene (35.0%), menthone (31.1%)

and 1,8- cineole (13.0%). On the other

hand, in sun dried plant material,

percentage of monoterpenoid was 91.8%

and major compounds were menthone

(38.3%), pulegone (20.2%) and 1,8-cineole(16.6%) (Asekun et al ., 2006). Oven dried

(45˚C) Rosemary resulted in loss of 7.25%

volatile components, while microwave

drying causes 61.5% loss of volatile

component in the same plant (Jaganmohan

et al ., 1998).

The present study indicated that there is

loss of some components during drying

whereas appearance of some components

also occurs in drying. In O. americanum

collected from Ranikhet, concentration of

camphor increased significantly (0.08% to

38.34%). Fresh plant contains high

concentration of methyl chavicol and

linalool. Methyl chavicol is suspected to be

carcinogenic and linalool is used as a scent

in perfumed hygiene products and cleaningagents and also in mosquito repellent

products, thus it is good to use the plant to

obtain the above benefits. On the other

hand, camphor has stimulant, antiseptic,

decongestant, anesthetic and insecticidal

properties and hence it is an important



Bhatt et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/54 – 62

58

constituent of many medicines and is used

for the treatment of cough, pain and skin

irritation. The oil yield increased by drying

and the quality of the volatile constituents

was also maintained thereby also

increasing the commercial potential of the

herb.

S. No. Name of compound RT RI

calculated

RI Adams O. americanum

Fresh Sun-dried

1. Isovalerate <ethyl-> 4.39 822 849 0.57 2.17

2. Hex-(3 Z )-enol 5.71 864 850 - 0.01

3. Thujene<α-> 7.70 936 924 - 0.05

4. Pinene<α-> 7.95 942 932 - 0.02

5. Camphene 8.54 958 946 - 1.93

6. Sabinene 7.96 984 969 0.17 0.01

7. Pinene<β-> 8.10 986 974 0.82 0.21

8. 1-octen-3-ol 9.77 992 974 - 1.10

9. 3-octanone 10.06 999 979 - 0.04

10.

Myrcene 8.64 1002 988 - 0.5611. Octanal<n-> 9.30 979 998 - -

12. Phellandrene-α 10.74 1015 1002 - 0.10

13. Hexenyl acetate<(3 Z -> 10.94 1020 1004 - 0.05

14. Terpinene<α-> 9.67 989 1014 0.05 -

15. Cymene<p-> 10.05 1035 1020 0.04 -

16. Limonene 11.75 1039 1024 - -

17. Cineole<1,8-> 10.38 1041 1026 9.14 17.86

18. Ocimene<( z )-β-> 10.53 1011 1032 7.18 1.54

19. Ocimene<( E )-β-> 12.76 1059 1044 - 0.07

20. γ-Terpinene 13.14 1071 1054 - 1.28

21. Sibinene hydrate<cis-> 13.56 1080 1065 - 0.25

22. Mentha-2,4(8)-dinene<p-> 11.42 1037 1085 0.08 -

23.

Linalool 13.85 1087 1095 0.28 0.3524. Menth-2-en-1,ol<cis-para-> 14.93 1111 1118 - 0.07

25. Sabinol<trans-> 12.10 1046 1137 0.10 -

26. Camphor 15.29 1119 1141 0.08 38.34

27. Isoborneol 18.21 1183 1155 - 0.02

28. Terpineol(δ) 16.58 1119 1162 0.22 -

29. Borenol 18.10 1181 1165 - -

30. Menthol 18.49 1189 1167 - 0.03

31. Terpinen-4-ol 16.92 1192 1174 - 0.06

32. Terpinol<α-> 19.49 1208 1186 0.04 0.26

33. Methyl chavicol 17.88 1184 1195 - 0.01

34. Octanol acetate 20.20 1227 1211 7.56 -

35. Frenchyl acetate<endo-> 20.54 1235 1220 - -

36.

Neral 21.06 1246 1235 - -37. Geranial 22.84 1286 1264 - -

38. Anethole<( E )-> 23.50 1301 1284 - -

39. Copaene<α-> 27.44 1407 1345 - 0.02

40. Eugenol 24.81 1331 1356 2.68 -

41. Copaene<α-> 25.27 1343 1374 0.17 3.99

42. Bourbonene<β-> 25.60 1400 1387 0.65 0.08

43. Elemene<β-> 25.93 1358 1389 0.28 -

44. Methyl eugenol 28.78 1425 1403 - 0.06

45. Gurjunene<α> 28.82 1426 1409 - -



Bhatt et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/54 – 62

59

46. Caryophyllene<( E )-> 27.13 1385 1417 2.61 0.04

47. Cymene<2, E -dimethyl-p-> 29.49 1442 1424 - -

48. Copaene<β-> 29.67 1447 1430 - 0.02

49. Gurjunene<β-> 29.75 1449 1431 - -

50. Bergamotene<α-trans> 27.78 1453 1432 0.17 1.42

51. Sesquisabinene 30.29 1408 1440 2.12 -

52. Humulene<α-> 30.65 1471 1452 - 0.75

53.

Farnesene<( E )-β-> 28.74 1424 1454 4.09 0.3454. Caryophyllene<9-epi-( E )-> 30.94 1438 1464 - -

55. Germacrene-D 29.76 1484 1484 5.80 0.90

56. Bisabolene<β-> 31.24 1489 1505 29.06 7.78

57. Amorphene<δ-> 31.40 1472 1511 0.26 -

58. Cubebol 32.19 1534 1514 - -

59. Sesquiphellandrene<β-> 31.53 1492 1521 0.05 -

60. Cadiene<δ-> 33.51 1542 1522 - 0.03

61. Bisabolene<( E )-γ-> 32.47 1516 1529 17.49 -

62. Nerolidol 35.07 1583 1531 - -

63. Spathulenol 35.68 1598 1577 - -

64. Caryophyllene oxide 33.75 1603 1582 1.31 1.46

65. Viridiflorol 36.18 1612 1592 - -

66.

Fokienol 37.29 1642 1596 - 0.1067. Humulene epoxide ΙΙ 34.75 1631 1608 0.96 0.19

68. Murrola-4,10(14)-dien-1-pentol 38.58 1649 1630 - -

69. T-murrolol 38.08 1663 1644 - -

70. Eudesmol<β-> 38.38 1671 1649 - -

71. Cadinol<α-> 38.55 1676 1652 - -

72. Thujopsanone<3-> 38.89 1685 1653 - -

73. Bisabolol<α-> 37.71 1705 1685 - 0.05

74. Shyobunol 39.96 1713 1688 - -

75. Bergamotol<( Z )-α-trans-> 34.34 1564 1690 0.19 0.28

76. Mintsulphide 41.54 1759 1740 - 0.15

77. Bisabolenal<β-> 39.17 1485 1768 0.36 -

78. Hexadecanoic acid 49.12 1989 1959 - 0.03

% oil identified 95.83 84.08Table 1: Comparative essential Oil Composition of Ocimum

americanum Collected From Different Sites

05

1015202530354045

FreshSun dried

Fig. 1: Comparison

between essential oil

composition of fresh and

sun dried aerial parts of O.

americanum.



Bhatt et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/54 – 62

60

Acknowledgement

The authors are grateful to the Department of

Science and Technology, New Delhi for

financial support under DST INSPIRE

fellowship, Dr. Chitra Pande, Professor,

Department of Chemistry, D. S. B. Campus,

Nainital for her sincere guidance, constant

support and encouragement during the present

research work and Head, Department of

Chemistry, Kumaun University Nainital, for

providing necessary laboratory facilities.

References

Adams, R.P. (2007): Identification of

essential oil components by Gas

Chromatography/ Mass

Spectrometry. 4th

ed. Allured

Publishing, Carol Stream, IL.

Asekun, O.T., Grierson, D.S., Afolayan,

A.J. (2006): Effect of drying

methods on the quality and quantity

of the essential oil of Mentha

longifolia L. subsp. capensis. Journal of Agricultural and Food

Chemistry. 101:995-998.

Baritaux, O., Richard, H., Touche, J.,

Derbesy, M. (1992): Effects of

drying and storage of herbs and

spices on the essential oil. Part I.

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64

persistent changes in the Climatic pattern have

led to decrease in area under irrigation,

resulting in low crop productivity and also a

shift in forest biodiversity. Forest, soil and

water conservation are the important issues

which has to be taken care of in order to reduce

future endangerments. Climate Change has

posed new challenges to natural resource

management and livelihood and particularly to

‘Food Security’.

Keywords: Climate Change | Himalaya |

Food Security | Agriculture

Introduction

Human civilization has always been dependent

on nature and its resources and when they

acquired traditional knowledge and skills, they

adopted agriculture as their basic necessity and

a mode of endurance. This human necessity by

the passage of time linked them to other parts

of ecosystem which itself undergo changes or

alterations in order to serve mankind and above

all various forms of nature (Wood, 1993).Overall, agriculture can be related as a crucial

part of biodiversity through which people get

nurtured and is itself nurtured by the people

(FAO, 1995). Thus we can consider agriculture

as an eminent part of our ecosystem which

helps us to thrive and fulfils our resource

dependency.

The mystique feature of Himalayan agrarian

system is its significant diverseness and a

prominent level of self-sufficiency which in

turn act as a basis for sustainable development

and food security. The Himalayas have a

complete different biodiversity and human

acculturations (Xu et al., 2007). The crop

production is completely dependent upon the

existing climatic conditions of the region and

not on the markets. This is because of the

traditional skills that the people of the

Himalayan region have acquired and have

adapted and have included their agrarian

system in the form of their culture. However,

reacting to changes is the human tendency

which he has brought in his culture also, either

they are positive or negative (Maikhuri et al.,

1999). The positive changes lead to food

security and the negative ones lead to the

insecure part which may prove calamitous.

Climate Change has now been reckoned as a

‘threat’, and there are surmises that changingclimatic patterns may lead to the issues of food

security. Climate Change, also cited as a man-

made environmental challenge (Sharma and

Chauhan, 2011), is now aiming the agrarian

system to the level of vulnerability. Studies

have shown that in a few years, direct and

unfathomed impacts of changing climate will

be discernible on agriculture (Scott et al.,

1990). The Himalayan communities which are

completely dependent on their traditional

cropping system are the most vulnerable to this

scenario. Results of changing climatic patterns

may lead to water scarcity, lack of fodder

which will lead to less domestication of

animals used in agriculture, low soil fertility,

lessened traditional crop production etc.

(Rawat, 2013).Water in the Himalayas is present in the form

of snow or ice or wetlands, aquifers etc.

(Vaidya, 2011) but the Himalayan cropping

system is basically centred on rainfed system.

But the rising climate issue will lead to

increase in temperature and less precipitation,




65

affect on soil fertility, reduced groundwater

reserves and rapid floods and droughts, thus

inducing a threat to food security. However, it

is expected that some Himalayan areas will

experience an increased water supply and

others will get reduced water supply (Vohra,

1981). The changes in the timing and intensity

of Monsoons will cause increased runoff thus

causing rapid erosions leading to deterioration

of the fragile balance of Himalayan ecosystem

with its agriculture and biodiversity related to

it (Singh et al., 2011).

The Himalayas that have huge area reserved in

the form of permafrost (Li and Chen, 1999), isnow found to be shrinking and it is found to

have impact on hydrology of the area, the flora

and fauna and above all biodiversity of the area

which in turn will directly or indirectly effect

the food chain and regional water resources of

the people of the Himalayas (Trisal and

Kumar, 2008). On the other hand, increased

warming will cause species shift (Telwala,

2011), increased occurrence of pests and

diseases, change in species composition etc.

(Tse-ring et al., 2010) and hence will affect

food security of the people of the area by

affecting the biodiversity and ecosystem

functioning (Schutze and Mooney, 1994), and

also causing a negative effect on the

productivity and health of the crops of the

region. Further rise in temperature may alsoresult in decline of various traditional crop

varieties and plantations of crops from

lowlands thus threatening regional populations

and agriculture activities (Higgins et al., 2003;

Nogues- Bravo et al., 2007; Telwala et al.,

2013).

Global climatic change is predicted to affect

Himalayan ecosystem by inducing shifts in

intensity and timing of climatic systems of the

Himalayas (Xu et al., 2007). However, humans

have been adapting to these recurrent climatic

changes either they are natural or human

induced (Smithers and Smit, 1997). Studies

have shown that the relaying impacts of

changing Climate are uneven for the

Himalayan region and the communities

associated with it, thus making the people of

the area more prone to the impacts of Climate

Change (Bryan et al., 2009; Parmesan and

Yohe, 2003). Since, the mountain communitiesare completely dependent on nature for their

sustenance, with respect to rainfed agriculture,

thus making their livelihood more vulnerable

and extremely sensitive to any change in

Climate (Ramay, 2011; ICIMOD, 2011).

The direct impacts of Climate Change can be

marked on the Himalayas and studies have

shown observations regarding changes in the

phenology of the crops in response to changes

in Climatic conditions which involve early

ripening of seeds and growth of crops which

earlier were not possible to grow in extreme

conditions of the Himalayan regions (Root and

Hughes, 2005; Dye and Tucker, 2003).

Increase in temperature may affect pollination

and hence affecting the ecosystem functioning

of the area which may lead to the extinction ofthe native species or loss of genetic diversity of

the mountainous regime (Halpin, 1994; Singh

et al., 2010; Thomas, 2005; OECD, 1996). The

other study suggests the adaptation of other

species in place of native ones by either

replacing the original ones by competing them




66

or by adapting the rigorous climate of the

Himalayas (Street and Semenov, 1990).

Agriculture, land use and food security for the

Himalayan regions have been examined by

Ghosh and Shama (2011). With the rise in

frequency of unfavourable changes in the

Himalayas, and because of the resource

dependency of the people of the hills on

agriculture and non-agriculture systems, the

livelihood of the people is in threat (IPCC,

2007a, b; Kreutzmann, 1993). These

conditions are more aggravated by lack of

sufficient agricultural land holdings, climatic

stresses, lack of irrigation, barriers to market participation, decline in good agriculture land

etc., are some of the challenges to households

of the mountains which are dependent on

agriculture and livestock production, which

play an important role in food security and are

meant to be affected (Goodall, 2004;

Hoermann et al., 2010; Tulachan, 2001;

Fischer et al., 2002a; Singh et al., 2011).

But the question to the arising threat and

factors related to Food Security related to

climate change are still open to the debate

(Iqbal et al., 2011). The climatic factors have

lead to observations of either decline in the

growth of crop production, crop substitution

(Chand et al., 2008), land conversion from

traditional farming in the Himalayas to cash

crop farming (Xu et al., 2006; Chen, 2007;Tulachan, 2001) or migration leading to

abandoning of agricultural lands (Khanal and

Watanabe, 2006).

Conclusion

Since there is a limited knowledge regarding

the level of uncertainties of the impacts of

changing Climate on the Himalayas, the actual

situation cannot be magnified without

scientific investigations and approaches. The

problem can be solved if we consider local

knowledge, culture and local people’s

perceptions to the changing climate and its

relation to the agricultural activities of the

people of the mountains regarding to their food

security. Thus a serious assessment is required

to make strategies to help the Himalayan

communities to get adapted to the changing

Climate scenario, by their vast knowledge and

skills. However, the Himalayan communities

have sustained a long way in the changingenvironments but they are themselves

unknown about the worst challenges that they

may have to face in near future and that is why

proper strategies and focus is urgently required

in the Himalayan region relating to

unavoidable Climate issues and upcoming

threat to Food security.

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Som et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/71 – 78

72

implications on the human body. In extreme

cases of arrhythmia, stroke or cardiac failure

can occur.

An ambulatory ECG monitoring system

allows patients to keep continuous track of

their ECG which is a graphic tracing of thevoltage generated by the cardiac muscles

during heartbeat. A typical cardiac cycle is

depicted by the PQRST waveform. The first

deflection, P, is due to atrial contraction and

is hence, known as atrial complex. The Q, R,

S, T deflections are due to ventricular activity

and are together referred to as the ventricular

complex. The detection of the QRS complex

is most important as it bears information

about the heartbeat rate. In this system there

will be a continuous monitoring of the heartsignals through measurement and processing

of the ECG trace, which eventually will be

compared with the tolerable range. In case of

any abnormalities alert signals will be sent

via android application.

Methodology

This System will consist of several modules.

These Modules are:

Sensor Module

Processor and Microcontroller Module

Wireless Module and API (Application

Program Interface) Module



Som et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/71 – 78

73

Block wise detailed analysis: Sensor

module

Each of the cell membranes that form the

outer part of the heart is associated with some

amount of charge which is depolarized

during every heartbeat. The depolarizationfollowed by re-polarization of these cell

membranes result in variation of electric

potential. For the purpose of sensing we will

use Electric Potential Integrated Circuit

(EPIC) sensors. It is an advanced version of

EPS (Electric Potential Sensor) and has been

developed by Plessey Semiconductors [1].

The EPIC sensor is an electric field sensor

that measures electric field changes in thehuman body, i.e. it measures

electrophysiological signals. The electrode

surface of the detector is coated with passive,

thin dielectric in order to avoid the use of

electrically conductive gel. Hence, EPIC is

said to be a dry sensor[10].

The sensor is an

ultra high impedance sensor that acts as a

highly stable, extremely sensitive, digital

voltmeter that can measure electric potentialin the scale of mill volts (mV). The sensor

can be used in contact as well as non-contact

mode. Although for recording ECG signals,

contact mode is preferred[8].

As an insulated,

active electrode sensor, it requires no

resistive contact with the source and relies on

the displacement current through the

capacitive-coupled thin dielectric electrode

coating. The ECG trace ideally requires twosensors to measure electric signals from parts

of the body on opposite sides of the heart. So,

we will use two sensors, one placed on the

right chest and the other on the left chest. The

ECG signal obtained from the sensor will be

a low voltage signal that is produced in a

high offset and noisy environment. Removal

of a major part of this noise is important

before amplification of the required signal as

amplification of unwanted signals may lead

to a loss of the low voltage ECG signal. The

signal that is received from the sensors need

to be pre-amplified before any further signal processing. The pre-amplifier will have low

voltage gain and high input impedance. It

will be directly coupled with the sensor

electrodes to provide optimal low frequency

response as well as to minimize charging

effects on coupling capacitor from input bias

current.

Processor & microcontroller module

Typically, ECG signal is characterized bymaximum amplitude of 1-2 mV and a

bandwidth of 0.05Hz to 150Hz. The signals

from the electrodes are highly affected by

noise. Since the acquired signal has noise

super-imposed on ECG signal, a differential

amplifier with high Common Mode

Rejection Ratio (CMRR) will be used to

remove the common mode noise at the input

terminal itself.

The differential amplifier that will be used is

an INA321 instrumentation amplifier. The

INA321 family provides low-cost, low-noise

amplification of differential signals with

micro power current consumption of 40μA

and shutdown current of less than 1μA.

INA321 provides CMRR of approximately

94 dB extended up to 3 kHz, the INA321

rejects the common-mode noise signalsincluding the line frequency and its

harmonics. The instrumentation amplifier

therefore will eliminate the DC offset of the

human body. It is also capable of removing

the interference picked up from the AC



Som et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/71 – 78

74

mains (Power Line Interference), although in

this module we use a battery.

The MSP430 is the family name of the ultra-

low power 16-bit mixed-signal RISC

processors from Texas Instruments. MSP430

microcontroller has three operationalamplifiers OA0-OA2. Op -Amp OA0 will be

used to obtain a low pass filter circuit. The

low pass filter here will act as an anti-aliasing

filter which restricts the signal of higher

frequency (greater than 150Hz) to the further

stages of the circuitry. The output signal from

the OA0 will be 500x amplified. Due to such

a large amplification factor, the output will

be sensitive to variations in the electrode-to-skin contact resistance. These variations will

lead to a low frequency noise known as the

baseline wander[6]

. This low frequency noise

can be removed by using OA1 integrator

circuit. This circuit will integrate the DC

content of the 5x amplified ECG signal and

feed it back to the INA321.The sampled ECG

waveform will still contain some amount of

distortions. This will be removed by digitallyfiltering the samples

[7]. A low-pass FIR filter

with pass-band upper frequency of 6 Hz and

stop-band lower frequency of 30 Hz will be

implemented in this application. The filter

coefficients will be scaled to compensate the

filter attenuation and provide additional gain

for the ECG signal at the filter output. This

will add up to a total amplification factor of

greater than 1000× for the ECG signal. TheFIR filtering is implemented on-chip.

The programming of the microcontroller will

be done with a JTAG connector. There is

provision for UART connection out from the

microcontroller board. The ECG signal

derived from the circuit will transmitted to a

Bluetooth transceiver unit CC2541 using the

UART connection. The programming of the

microcontroller itself will be done using C

language along with development tools. The

number of heart beats per minute will be

calculated using a three beat average. Two

variables in the C main function,i.e.

, counterand Pulse period, will accurately track the

time scale. Each output sample from the QRS

discriminator will be compared against a set

threshold to detect the presence of a beat.

Pulse period is incremented by one during

every sample period. The threshold levels of

the PQRST deflections will be set according

to convention and any variation of the

measured ECG trace from the ideal values

will transmit an alarm signal wirelessly to the

user’s phone.

The R-R interval bears information about the

heartbeat rate which is checked against the

normal range of 50-100bpm in the MSP430.

The absence of the P deflection may be an

indication of atrial fibrillation. Baseline rise

of the ST segment is an indicative of

myocardial infarction. ST segmentdepression is an indicative of ischemia. The

variation of PQRST is to be monitoring by

comparison in the MSP430 C program to

predict possible occurrence of these

conditions.

Wireless module and API

For the purpose of wireless transfer

Bluetooth is preferred over Zigbee as mobile

phones are usually incorporated with aBluetooth module. CC2541

[5] is a low power

Bluetooth device from Texas Instruments. It

combines an RF transceiver unit with an

industry-standard enhanced 8051 MUC and

has a programmable flash memory, 8kB

RAM, besides other powerful features. The



Som et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/71 – 78

75

output from the MSP430 will be fed into

CC2541 using the UART. The ECG trace

information will be wirelessly transferred

along with the alert signals and calculated

heartbeat rate to the user’s phone. An android

application will be developed using AndroidDevelopment Tool. The main function of the

application will be to display the real-time

ECG trace and the value of the heartbeat rate.

Also, the application will be so configured,

that any deviation from the ideal values will

send alert signals and location information to

two relatives of the user (as mentioned by the

user) as well as the nearby healthcare facility.

Methodology and alogorithm of operationThe Sensor Module will consist of the EPIC

(Electric Potential Integrated Circuit)

Sensors. The ECG trace ideally will require

two sensors to measure electric signals from

parts of the body on opposite sides of the

heart. So, in this system two sensors will be

used, one placed on the right chest and the

other on the left chest. The acquired signal

will have noise super-imposed on ECGsignal; therefore a differential amplifier with

high Common Mode Rejection Ratio

(CMRR) will be used for removal of noise at

input terminal. The differential amplifier that

will be used is INA321 instrumentation

amplifier which will remove the dc offset of

the human body as well as the interference

picked up from the ac mains. The processor

module of the system will consist of processor MSP430 which contains three

operational amplifier 0A0-0A2 that will give

1000x amplified ECG signal. Further the

amplified ECG signal will be used for

comparison. Programming of microcontroller

will be done using C language. Each output

sample will be compared against a set

threshold value. The threshold value will be

set in accordance to convention and any

deviation of the output samples from the

ideal value will lead to wireless transmission

of alert signal to user’s phone. In this system

the wireless module will consist of a low power Bluetooth device from Texas

instruments (CC2541). Using an android

application which will be developed with the

help of android development tool, the alert

signals as well as location information will

be sent to registered relatives of user and

nearby healthcare facility.

Step 1: Two EPIC sensors measuring heart

signals from left and right side of chest and pre-amplification stage.

Step 2: Output signals from EPIC fed to

differential amplifier INA321

instrumentation amplifier to remove noise

signals superimposed on ECG signals.

Step 3: Signal from INA321 fed to processor

MSP430 for further noise removal, signal

amplification and comparison with threshold

limits (as programmed within the processor).

Step 4: Deviation of output values from ideal

values leads to wireless transmission of alert

signals to user’s phone via Bluetooth

CC2541.

Step 5: Android application present in user’s

phone sends alert signals and location

information to relatives and doctors.

As we can see from the Fig 3.3 the time

interval required by different segments are

different, more in case of ventricular

tachycardia. Moreover it is evident from the

Fig 5 - Graph 2 as well as from Fig 6 values

on the graph that in case of ventricular

tachycardia that the P wave is present for

negligible time interval or more generally we



Som et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/71 – 78

76

can say that QRS complex is not preceded by P waves.

MSP430 will be programmed with this

normal ranges incorporated within the

program .The input ECG signal from the

sensors will be measured for the time interval

of the different segments for comparison.

Deviation will result in signals sent to

Bluetooth module.

Fig 6 shows the graph comparing different

heart beat rate. The R-R interval of ECG

gives the heart rate value, thus for

comparison of heart rate the R-R interval is

measured and compared in MSP430.

Fig 5: Graph 1:- Normal ECG, Graph 2:- ECG showing ventricular trachycardia



Som et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/71 – 78

77

ConclusionThe two sensors of the system will be fitted

on the left and right side of the body

respectively .The feed from the sensors will

be given to the central unit which will

contain the processor and the Bluetooth

transceiver. The entire unit will be fitted

upon a belt and can be easily worn below the

chest by the user. This system has very low

power requirements as the componentsrequired to build the system like processor

MSP430 and Bluetooth module

CC2541operate on low power. The entire

system will provide a non invasive, cost

effective and portable healthcare unit for

patients which hopefully will reduce mishaps

due to delay in treatment

References

EPIC Sensors in Echocardiogram

Measurements, Kureon Esa,Oulu

University of Applied Sciences,

Autumn – 2013.

INA321 Micro Power Single-Supply CMOS

Instrumentation Amplifier data sheet

(SBOS168),U. Rajendra Acharya, A.

E. Spaan, J. Suri, and S. M. Krishnan(2007): Advances in Cardiac Signal

Processing. Springer.

Heart-Rate and EKG Monitor Using the

MSP430FG439-Murugavel Raju,

MSP430FG439 Mixed Signal

Microcontroller data sheet

(SLAS380)

Texas Instruments, T. (2012): Interfacing

CC2541 to the MSP430.Texas Instruments, CC2541 Data Sheet,

SWRS110D, January (2012): Revised

June 2013

Electrocardiogram (ECG) signal Processing,

Leif Sornmo, Lund University,

Sweden, Pablo Laguna, Zaragoza

University, Spain

Accurate ECG Signal Processing By Ajay

Bharadwaj, Applications Engineer Sr,

and Umanath Kamath, Contingent

Workforce, Cypress Semiconductor

Corp,

Application Report SLAA280A–October

(2005): Revised September 2007



Som et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/71 – 78

78

Single Arm ECG measurement using EPIC,

Application Note #291491,Plessey

Semiconductors

Recommendation for standardization and

interpretation of echocardiogram,

Journal of American College Of

Cardiology, Volume – 49, Issue - (10,

March - 2007)

A low Power wearable physiological

parameter monitoring system,

G.Vinod Kumar, J.Rajnikantha,

IJSRD, Volume -1, Issue - 5,ISSN(online) : 2321-0613



Aditi Sharma/Vol. VI [2] 2015/79 – 85

79

Science and Technology for indigenous development in India

Sharma, Aditi

Received: October 29, 2015 Accepted: November 11, 2015 Online: December 31, 2015

Introduction

Science & technology is widely recognized

as an important tool for fostering and

strengthening economic and social

development of the country. Greater

emphasis is on the development of

indigenous technologies. At the macro level,

S&T management should focus on meeting

the needs of the nation (including industry),

and encompass a wide spectrum of activities,

namely basic research, applied research,

technology transfer, design development,

fabrication, tests and trials, manufacturing,

marketing, maintenance and product support

during the life cycle. At the micro level,

R&D institutions and the academia must

move from R&D to R&D and Engineering so

that the indigenous technology can meet thespecific requirements of the Indian industry.

Four pillars of Indian science and

technology

Science and technology in India rest on four

pillars:

1. Techno-nationalism: In some fields,

despite making every effort, India could

not obtain certain technologies, and the

country had to make do with export

control regimes. In addition, it was

denied so-called “dual-use” technology.

In response, India developed its own

technologies in space, defence, nuclear

energy, and supercomputers, among

others. All were institutionally led,mission-based technology delivery

systems.

2. Inclusive growth: In S&T, where

consideration of the population had been

excluded, it is now included in the

development and growth process. This

means making S&T work on behalf of

the poor of India, combining equity andexcellence, creating products within the

price-performance envelope that are

suited to those at the bottom of the

pyramid and to the needs of India’s

lower-middle class. Discovery,

development, and delivery of drugs and

therapeutics vaccines that are available,

affordable, and accessible to the poor is

one example. The recent launch of the

Nano automobile by Tatas, a low-cost


Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [79 – 85] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]


For correspondence:

Deptt. Of Chemistry N.A.S College, Meerut




80

(US$2500) vehicle for the lower-middle

class, is another example. The green

revolution, which made India self-

sufficient in food belongs to this category

too, since its effect was to include a vast

majority of rural farmers who were

otherwise excluded.

3. Techno-globalism: This refers to the

strong interactions between the

internationalization of technology and the

globalization of the economy, a widening

cross-border interdependence between

individual-based sciences and economic

sectors, and the location of knowledge

production centres in countries that offer

the required skill base at low cost. In

India, this led to multiple offshore R&D

services utilizing India’s low-cost

scientific manpower. This resulted in

Indian S&T talent being used within the

country, rather than outside the country,

to create technology for global players.For example, GE set up its R&D in India

because India offered the highest

intellectual capital per dollar spent.

Taking advantage of this, more than 300

multinational companies have set up their

R&D centres in India, including GE,

IBM, Microsoft, Dupont, Dow, Shell, and

General Motors. Indian scientists and

researchers have created intellectual

property for numerous foreign firms. This

trend toward globalizing R&D is

expanding into other activities, including

diverse types of knowledge process

outsourcing, other IT-based services, and

clinical trials and testing, all at similar

cost advantages.

4.

Global leadership:

Such leadership

demands substantial improvements in the

quality of basic research, creating

‘innovation ecosystems’ comprised of

forward-looking intellectual property (IP)

laws, venture capital, and so forth. The

aim is to see that tomorrow’s Silicon

Valley and Genome Valley are created in

India. This also means that Indian IQ will

not be used just to create IP for

multinational companies (as is implicit in

S&T techno-globalism), but Indian IQ

will generate IP for Indian companies as

they step up their R&D spending by

several orders of magnitude. This

leadership will also coincide with

stronger participation among globally

dispersed Indians and their eventual

return to India, as is already beginning to

happen. It also means that the “brain

drain” phenomenon will be reversed.

What is Indigenous Knowledge?

The increasing attention indigenous

knowledge is receiving by academia and the

development institutions has not yet led to a

unanimous perception of the concept of

indigenous knowledge. None of the

definitions is essentially contradictory; they

overlap in many aspects. Warren (1991) and

Flavier (1995) present typical definitions by

suggesting:

Indigenous knowledge (IK) is the local

knowledge – knowledge that is unique to a

given culture or society. IK contrasts with the

international knowledge system generated by

universities, research institutions and private

firms. It is the basis for local-level decision

making in agriculture, health care, food

preparation, education, natural-resource

management, and a host of other activities inrural communities. (Warren 1991)




81

Indigenous Knowledge is the information

base for a society, which facilitates

communication and decision-making.

Indigenous information systems are dynamic,

and are continually influenced by internal

creativity and experimentation as well as by

contact with external systems. (Flavier et al.

1995: 479)

While using similar definitions, the

conclusions drawn by the various authors are,

controversial in a number of aspects. The

implications of this will be discussed in the

section "Public debate on indigenous

knowledge". Most authors explain their

perception of indigenous knowledge,

covering only some aspects of it.

Why is Indigenous Knowledge Important?

In the emerging global knowledge economy a

country’s ability to build and mobilize

knowledge capital, is equally essential for

sustainable development as the availability of

physical and financial capital. (World Bank,

1997) The basic component of any country’s

knowledge system is its indigenous

knowledge. It encompasses the skills,

experiences and insights of people, applied to

maintain or improve their livelihood.

Significant contributions to global knowledge

have originated from indigenous people, for

instance in medicine and veterinary medicine

with their intimate understanding of their

environments. Indigenous knowledge is

developed and adapted continuously to

gradually changing environments and passed

down from generation to generation and

closely interwoven with people’s cultural

values. Indigenous knowledge is also the

social capital of the poor, their main asset toinvest in the struggle for survival, to produce

food, to provide for shelter or to achieve

control of their own lives.

Today, many indigenous knowledge

systems are at risk of becoming extinct

because of rapidly changing natural

environments and fast pacing economic,

political, and cultural changes on a global

scale. Practices vanish, as they become

inappropriate for new challenges or because

they adapt too slowly. However, many

practices disappear only because of the

intrusion of foreign technologies or

development concepts that promise short-

term gains or solutions to problems without

being capable of sustaining them. The

tragedy of the impending disappearance of

indigenous knowledge is most obvious to

those who have developed it and make a

living through it. But the implication for

others can be detrimental as well, when

skills, technologies, artifacts, problem

solving strategies and expertise are lost.

Indigenous knowledge is part of the lives of

the rural poor ; their livelihood depends

almost entirely on specific skills and

knowledge essential for their survival.

Accordingly, for the development process,

indigenous knowledge is of particular

relevance for the following sectors and

strategies:

• Agriculture

• Animal husbandry and ethnic veterinary

medicine

• Use and management of natural resources

• Primary health care (PHC), preventive

medicine and psychosocial care

• Saving and lending

• Community development




82

• Poverty alleviation

Indigenous knowledge is relevant on three

levels for the development process. It is,

obviously, most important for the local

community in which the bearers of such

knowledge live and produce.

Development agents (CBOs, NGOs,

governments, donors, local leaders, and

private sector initiatives) need to recognize it,

value it and appreciate it in their interaction

with the local communities. Before

incorporating it in their approaches, they

need to understand it – and critically validate

it against the usefulness for their intended

objectives.

Lastly, indigenous knowledge forms part of

the global knowledge. In this context, it has a

value and relevance in itself. Indigenous

knowledge can be preserved, transferred, or

adopted and adapted elsewhere.

The development process interacts with

indigenous knowledge. When designing or

implementing development programs or

projects, three scenarios can be observed:

The development strategy either relies

entirely or substantially on indigenous

knowledge, overrides indigenous knowledge

or, incorporates indigenous knowledge.

Planners and implementers need to decide

which path to follow. Rational conclusions

are based on determining whether indigenous

knowledge would contribute to solve existing

problems and achieving the intended

objectives. In most cases, a careful

amalgamation of indigenous and foreign

knowledge would be most promising, leaving

the choice, the rate and the degree of

adoption and adaptation to the clients.

Foreign knowledge does not necessarily

mean modern technology, it includes also

indigenous practices developed and applied

under similar conditions elsewhere. These

techniques are then likely to be adopted

faster and applied more successfully. To

foster such a transfer a sound understanding

of indigenous knowledge is needed. This

requires means for the capture and validation,

as well as for the eventual exchange, transfer

and dissemination of indigenous knowledge.

Role of science and technology:

Science, technology and innovation plays a

critical role in enhancing economic growth

and contributing to national development. It

is the means by which new products and

services are developed or improved and

brought to the market. However, to make this

contribution, science, technology and

innovation must be integrated in the national

development planning process. Over the

years, the integration of science, technology

and innovation in Uganda’s national

development planning has been implicit.

Intentions to use science, technology and

innovation as the vehicle for economic

growth were evident in the country’s

comprehensive development framework such

as the Poverty Eradication Action Plan (1997

– 2008/09) and the National Development

Plan (2010/11-2014/15). However, strategiesof how to use it to bring about the desired

outcomes of economic growth were lacking.

Developments in science and technology are

fundamentally altering the way people live,

connect, communicate and transact, with

profound effects on economic development.

To promote tech advance, developing

countries should invest in quality education

http://www.worldbank.org/afr/ik/ik-web2.htm

http://www.worldbank.org/afr/ik/ik-web2.htm




83

for youth, and continuous skills training for

workers and managers.

Science and technology are key drivers to

development, because technological and

scientific revolutions underpin economic

advances, improvements in health systems,

education and infrastructure.

The technological revolutions of the 21st

century are emerging from entirely new

sectors, based on micro-processors, tele-

communications, bio-technology and nano-

technology. Products are transforming

business practices across the economy, as

well as the lives of all who have access to

their effects. The most remarkable

breakthroughs will come from the interaction

of insights and applications arising when

these technologies converge.

Through breakthroughs in health services and

education, these technologies have the power

to better the lives of poor people in

developing countries. Eradicating malaria, a

scourge of the African continent for

centuries, is now possible. Cures for other

diseases which are endemic in developing

countries are also now possible, allowing

people with debilitating conditions to live

healthy and productive lives

Government is vigorously pursuing

indigenous Research and Development

(R&D) in various areas of Science and

Technology (S&T) in the country. This has

resulted a strong independent base in R&D

and significant achievements have been made

in the areas of agriculture, nuclear and space

science, electronics, Information Technology

(IT) and defence. Development of critical

technologies in space sector such asindigenous cryogenic engine, air breathing

propulsion, microwave remote sensing, deep

space tracking antenna system etc. and

reactor technology have demonstrated the

focused directions of Indian research.

Development of new affordable indigenous

technologies for public health like vaccine

for Japanese Encephalitis, test for molecular

diagnosis of Thallassemia, test strips for

diabetics, diagnosis kit for TB/H1N1 etc.;

development of seed varieties and post

harvest technologies for better management;

indigenously developed drifter (Pradyu) with

INSAT communication deployed in Bay of

Bengal etc. are some fruitful results. India’s

performance in science sector is promising

and impressive in recent years which are

evident from the fact that India’s position in

research publications has improved from

10th position in 2006 to 9th position in 2010.

India has emerged as the third major country

in nano science and 5th in the world in

Chemistry with respect to scientific publications.

Government has put in several systems to

promote S&T in the country and create a

scientific temperament among people. These

measures include successive increase in plan

allocations for Scientific Departments /

Agencies, induction of new and attractive

fellowships, strengthening infrastructure for

R&D, encouraging public-private R&D

partnerships, launching mission mode

programmes etc. The space science missions

including planetary missions, organizing

National Level Exhibition and Project

Competition under INSPIRE, running an

exhibition train called ‘Science Express’,

observing National Science Day, organizing

regular national workshops etc. provide

excellent opportunities in research for the




84

younger generations of the country and create

scientific temperament and excitement

among people.

Conclusion

Making or manufacturing of any product orservice is not possible unless you know the

science behind it. Product can be easily and

cost effectively manufactured if it is known

fully. This is possible only if it is designed

and developed by self. If the science and

technology in any product is indigenous then

huge money will be saved towards

intellectual Rights. The product suited to

Indian needs can be designed and developed

if indigenization is pressed more

economically. Made in India will go hand in

hand with science and technology for

indigenous India and will give own identity

in S&T and lead India as superpower and

global leader.

Alexander, Steve. E-Commerce. (2006):

from Computers and Information

Systems).

References

Encyclopædia Britannica -

2008.

Bell, M. (1979): "The exploitation of

indigenous knowledge or the

indigenous exploitation of

knowledge. Whose use of what for

what?", Institute of Development

Studies, 10 (2): 44-50

Brokensha, D., Warren, D.M., Werner, O.

(1980): "Indigenous knowledge

systems and development",

University Press of America,

Washington, D.C.

Flavier, J.M. et al. (1995): "The regional

program for the promotion of

indigenous knowledge in Asia", pp.

479-487 in Warren, D.M., L.J.

Slikkerveer and D. Brokensha (eds)

The cultural dimension of

development: Indigenous knowledge

systems. London: Intermediate

Technology Publications

Grenier, L. (1998): Working with Indigenous

Knowledge - A Guide for

Researchers, IDRC, Ottawa

Government of India. Scientific Policy

Resolution. New Delhi. March 4,

(1958): Available at:

<http://nrdms.gov.in/sci_policy.asp>.

King, D. The Scientific Impact of Nations.

Nature (2004): (July 15); 430: 311.

Mashelkar, R.A. (2007): Education for

Innovation: Implications for India,

China and America. DeHaan RL,

Venkatnarayan KJ, editors. Atlanta:

Sense Publications.

Mashelkar, R.A. (2005): India’s R&D:Reaching for the Top. Science;

307:1415-1417.

Mundy, P. and L. Compton. (1991):

"Indigenous Communication and

Indigenous Knowledge".

Development Communication Report

74 (3): 1-3.

National Innovation Foundation website.Available at

<http://www.nifindia.org>.

Nanda, B. R. (2006): "Nehru, Jawaharlal" in

Encyclopedia of India (vol. 3), edited

by Stanley Wolpert. 222–227.

Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31352-9.

Sharma, Shalendra D. (2006):

"Biotechnology Revolution" inEncyclopedia of India (vol. 1), edited

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0684313529


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica




85

by Stanley Wolpert. 154–157.

Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31350-2.

Vrat, Prem (2006): "Indian Institutes of

Technology" in Encyclopedia of India

(vol. 2), edited by Stanley Wolpert.

229–231. Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-

684-31351-0

Rajasekaran, B., D. M. Warren and S. C.

Babu (1991): "Indigenous Natural

Resource Management Systems for

Sustainable Agricultural

Development - A Global

Perspective." Journal of International

Development 3 (4): 387-402.

Tabor, J. A., Hutchinson, C. F. (1994):

"Using Indigenous Knowledge,

Remote Sensing and GIS for

Sustainable Development";

Indigenous Knowledge Monitor Vol.

2, (1) April 1994

Warren, D. M. (1991c): "Indigenous

Knowledge and Sustainable

Development: A Review of Critical

Research Areas and Policy Issues."

International Symposium on

Indigenous Knowledge and

Sustainable Development. Silang,

Cavite, Philippines, September 20-26,

1992.









Arora & Kumar/Vol. VI [2] 2015/86 – 93

86

Tree Borne Oilseed (TBOs): Competitive Source for Biodiesel in Rural India

Arora, Gurveen and Kumar, Dinesh


Abstract

Non-edible oils (TBOs) obtained from seedsof tree species can be used as potential

biodiesel source in rural areas and contribute

towards attaining self-sufficiency. TBOs are

grown in the country under different agro-

climatic conditions in a scattered form in

forests, non-forest areas, waste land, deserts

and hilly areas. The country has enormous

potential of oilseeds of tree origin like mahua

( Madhuca indica), simarouba (Simarouba

glauca), wild apricot ( Prunus armeniaca)

etc. in varied agro-climatic conditions.

Participation of community in growing

selected trees in agroforestry system as a

component and processing of seeds for oil

extraction requires concerted R&D works on

bio-fuel species. Oil obtained from wild

apricot can be used locally for diverse

pharmaceutical, cosmetic, food and allied

industries besides generating revenue for

local communities. Standardisation of

cultivation practices, development of quality

planting material, and establishment of

demonstration plantations need to be focused

upon for mainstreaming TBOs.

In this direction, genotypes of wild apricothave been selected from limited area for the

identification of plants having high seed yield

and oil content.

Key words: Tree Borne Oilseeds (TBOs) |

Transesterification | Wild apricot |

propagation techniques

Introduction

Energy is vital for social and economicdevelopment. High energy prices, increasing

energy imports and to recent petroleum crisis

(Venkataraman, 2004) and the demand for

petroleum diesel is increasing day by day

hence there is a need to find out an

appropriate solution. As the energy demand

increases worldwide, governments are

beginning to explore renewable energy

options. In India, oil provides energy for

95% of transportation and the demand for

transport fuel continues to rise. As per the

third assessment of IPCC, the global oil

demand will raise by 1.68% from 75 million

barrels (MB)/day in the year 2002 to 120

MB/day in 2030 i.e. a tenfold increase.

Energy input in agriculture is also increasing.

Part of this energy should come from

renewable source for continuity for efficient


Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [86 – 93] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]


For correspondence:

Silviculture division, Forest Research Institute,

Dehradun

Email: [email protected]




87

and effective and it can be fulfilled by

biofuels.

Biofuels are being given serious

consideration as potential sources of energy

in the future, particularly in developing

countries like India. Biofuels are a sub-

category of bioenergy, which refers to any

energy sourced from non-fossil biomass used

for heat, electrical power, or transport.

Bioenergy currently accounts for roughly

10% of total primary energy supply globally

but most of this energy is consumed as wood

for cooking in developing countries. Biofuels

make up only a small fraction of current

bioenergy use.

It is increasingly acknowledged that the

biofuels hold the potential to offer a

sustainable energy future which would create

opportunities for achieving environmental

and socio-economic goals of the sustainable

development (US Department of Energy

1998; Kartha and Larson 2000, Hardy 2002).

All fuels can be broadly divided into modern

and traditional biofuels (Rajagopal and

Zilberman 2007; Goldemberg and Coelho

2005). Modern biofuels typically include

liquid fuels (ethanol and biodiesel) and

biogas. The details on biofuel production is

given in Table 1. Ethanol and biodiesel are

the two most common forms of biofuels thatare widely used in the energy sector.

Biodiesel is a clean burning alternate fuel,

both edible and non-edible. It can be used in

compression-ignition (diesel) engines with

little or no modifications .Bio diesel is simple

to use, biodegradable, nontoxic, and

essentially free of sulfur and aromatics. It can

be stored just like petroleum diesel fuel andhence does not require a separate

infrastructure. The use of biodiesel in

conventional diesel engines results in

substantial reduction of unburned

hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and

particulate matters. Its higher cetane number

improves the ignition quality even when

blended in petroleum diesel. The use of

edible oil to produce biodiesel in India is not

feasible in view of big gap in demand and

supply of such oil (Padhi and Singh,

2011).The major source of bio-diesel in India

is non-edible oil seeds (TBOs) and the

technology for its production is indigenously

available. Some of the important TBOs used

in India are Neem ( Azadirachta indica),

Karanj ( Pongamia pinnata), Mahua

( Madhuca indica), Jatropha ( Jatropha

curcas), Kusum (Schleichera), Pilu

(Salvadora oleoides), Bhikal ( Prinsepia

utilis), Undi (Calophyllum inophyllum),

Thumba (Citrullus colocynanthis) , Sal

(Shorea robusta), Jojoba (Simmondsiachinensis), chullu (Prunus armeniaca),

Cheura ( Diploknema butyracea) ,wild walnut

( Aleurites molucana) and Tung (Vernicia

fordii). The oil content varies between 21 to

73% in these species. There are at least four

ways in which oils and fats can be converted

into biodiesel, namely, transesterification,

blending, micro-emulsions and pyrolysis—

transesterification being the most commonly

used method (Ramdhas et al.. 2005, Ma and

Hanna, 1999). Transesterification refers to a

catalyzed (KOH/NaOH) chemical reaction

involving oil/fat (triglyceride) and an alcohol

(methanol/ethanol) to yield fatty acid alkyl

esters (i.e., biodiesel) and glycerol. The main

factors affecting transesterification are the

amount of alcohol and catalyst; reaction

temperature, pressure and time; the contents




88

of free fatty acid (FFAs) and water in oils.

Conversion is complicated if oil contains

large amount of FFA (41% w/w) that will

form soap with alkaline catalyst. The soap

can prevent separation of the biodiesel from

the glycerin fraction (Srivastav and Prasad,

2000).

Biofuel Feedstock Processes

Ethanol Agricultural cropscontaining starch;

sugar;

lignocellulosic

biomass

Fermentation: sugars are converted into ethanol using micro-organisms underanaerobic conditions.

Hydrolysis: the long chains of polymers of starch molecules are first broken

down to simple molecules of glucose and then glucose is fermented to produce

ethanol.

Pretreatment and acid hydrolysis cellulose and hemicellulose in the

lignocellulosic biomass are broken down to simple individual sugars and sugars

are fermented to produce ethanol.

Biodiesel Oilseed crops such

as soybean, canola,

sunflower, palm oil

Transesterification: fat or oil is mixed with an alcohol to form methyl esters

known as biodiesel and glycerol

Biomass, cowdung, animal

carcasses, etc.

Hydrolysis: insoluble organic materials (e.g. lipids, proteins, fats etc.) aretransformed to soluble organic materials.

Fermentation: where soluble organic materials are fermented to acetic acid.

These are converted into a mixture of methane called biogas and carbon dioxide

Table 1: Details on biofuels production by type of biofuels

Tree borne oilseeds are the multipurpose tree

species in agriculture system. TBOs are

cultivated/grown in the country under

different agro-climatic conditions in a

scattered form in forest and non-forest areasas well as in waste land /deserts/hilly areas.

The best characteristic is that it can be grown

and established in the wasteland and have

varied agro-climatic conditions. They are

also of domestic and industrial utility like

agriculture, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, diesel

and substitute, cocoa-butter substitute, carbon

sequestration in wasteland, consumption ofoil etc. besides generating additional

employment for vast rural populations. They

are found in forest and non-forest areas but

are scattered and are not properly collected,

what so ever collected is of poor quality due

to the lack of awareness of their uses. There

is favorable environment for large scale

cultivation of this plant in the country which

will further add not only in the reduction of

biodiesel production cost but will also add to

the food stock of the country. (ICAR-Central

Agroforestry Research Institute report, 2015).

Major Tree Borne Oilseeds (TBOs)

Wild apricot (Prunus armeniaca syn

Armeniaca vulgar is )

Wild apricot belongs to rosaceae family. It is

an endangered plant. Locally called as chullu,

is an important oilseed of tree origin. It is a

hardy plant species and can be grown in most

of the deep well drained soils. Wild apricot is

quite hardy and can be grown in most of the

soils, which are deep and well drained. The

cultivated apricot has its origin in North-

Eastern China, whereas, wild apricot appears

to be indigenous to India. In India it is found

in the dry temperate regions of North-

Western Himalayas particularly in the valleys

of Jammu & Kashmir (especially Ladakh),

Chenab; Kullu and Shimla regions of H.P.

and Garhwal hills of Uttarakhand at altitudes

up to 3000 m. The tree starts flowering aftera gestation period of 4 years. The cultivation




89

needs specific chilling hours ranging from

350-900 hrs below 7oC (45o

Simarouba or the paradise tree, belongs to

family simroubaceae is an ever green multiutility tree. It is a both source of edible oil

and also biofuel. The oil can be used as cocoa

butter substitute/ extenders in confectionary

and bakery industry. The oil cake is valued

organic manure. It could grow under a wide

range of agro climatic conditions like warm,

humid and tropical regions. Its cultivation

depends upon rainfall distribution (around

400 mm), water holding capacity of the soil

and sub-soil moisture. It is suited for

temperature range 10 – 40

F), for proper

foliation and bloom in spring. It comes to full

bearing of fruits from 5-6 years onwards. Oil

content ranged from 50.05 - 57.97%, while

range of stone length, breadth and thickness

was from 14.64 - 26.48, 12.26 - 21.49 and

8.63 - 14.65 mm, respectively. Stone and

kernel weight varied between 66.60 - 295.10

and 18.20 - 68.18 g. Kernel size (length,

breadth and thickness) and weight are most

desirable characters which affect oil

percentage. The oil is used for medicinal,

cosmetic, confectionary purpose and also as

biodiesel source. The cake extraction of oil

can be used as manure and as cattle feed after

detoxification of hydro-cyanic acid.

Ullah et al., 2009 calculated the benefit/cost

ratio of wild apricot in Pakistan was

evaluated for biodiesel produced from wild

apricot kernel oil on laboratory scale. They

found that the cost of biodiesel producedfrom wild apricot kernel oil was 1.2 U.S $L.

This high cost is due to problems associated

with collection of kernels from farmers and

laborious pressing of kernels for oil

extraction. The above estimated price for

wild apricot kernel oil biodiesel appears high

than existing price of high speed diesel (0.70

U.S $/L) in Pakistan. However, the cost of production can be further reduced by

utilizing byproducts of biodiesel such as

glycerin for industrial uses (soap, cosmetics

etc) and kernel cake as animal feed and

preparation of inocula for biofertilizers.

Siamrouba (Simarouba glauca )

0

Cheura belongs to sapotaceae family and

popular known as Indian butter tree and

mainly found in Uttarakhand state. It is a

multipurpose tree. It is a medium size

deciduous tree with straight trunk attaining a

height of 15-22m and girth of 1.5-1.8 m. The

fruit is a berry ,2.0-4.5 cm long , bright green

C, pH of the soil

be 5.5 – 8. It produces bright green leaves

20-50cm length, yellow flowers and oval

elongated purple colored fleshy fruits

(Yadvika et al.., 2004) Its seeds contain

about 40 % kernel and kernels content 55-

65% oil. The amount of oil would be 1000 –

2000 kg/ha/year for a plant spacing of 5m

x5m. It is used for industrial purposes in the

manufacture of soaps, detergents and

lubricants etc. The oil cake being rich in

nitrogen (7.7 to 8.1%), phosphorus (1.07%)

and potash (1.24%) could be used as valuableorganic manure (Yuan et al.., 2008).

Simarouba glauca can easily be propagated

through seeds provided they are sown as

fresh seeds. It is a polygamodioecious tree

and seed-raised plantations result in

segregation of male, andromonoecius and

female plants and in certain instances the

frequency of male plants reaches 60-70%.

Even in female plants, only a few are

generally, heavy bearers.

Cheura (Diploknema butyracea )




90

in colour with three seeds which turns juicy

and grey after getting ripen. The exterior of

the fruit is thick, soft, and rich with glucose

and fragrance. It contains black and sparkling

seeds of 1.5 to 2.0 cm in length which has

almond shaped white coloured kernels inside

itself. Seed coat is thin to thick, woody to

crusty.

Cheura may be propagated through seeds and

cuttings. It is used as food, fodder and

medicines in kumaon hills and kalp-vriksha.

Cheura leaves are used as fodder for animals.

Leaves are also used for biodegradeable

plates for serving food.Useful for preparing

medicines, ointment, candles, cream and

other user-friendly products. Cake is used as

manure and can also has pesticidal

properties. Average fruit yield per annum is

about 100-250 kg/tree.

Jatropha (Jatropha curcas )

Jatropha curcus is a drought-resistant

perennial, growing well in marginal/poor

soil. Jatropha, the wonder plant produces

seeds with an oil content of around 37%. The

oil can be combusted as fuel without being

refined. It burns with clear smoke-free flame,

tested successfully as fuel for simple diesel

engine. The by-products are press cake a

good organic fertilizer, oil contains also

insecticidal properties. Jatropha grows almostanywhere, even on gravelly, sandy and saline

soils. It can thrive on the poorest stony soil.

Its water requirement is extremely low and it

can stand long periods of drought by

shedding most of its leaves to reduce

transpiration loss. Jatropha is also suitable for

preventing soil erosion and shifting of sand

dunes. The seed productivity of Jatrophaunder block plantation varies from as low as

1.5 kg /plant to 5 kg/ plant at 2 m x 2 m

spacing. The plant comes into seed bearing

from the second year onwards and stabilizes

by the 4th or 5th year. Normally, the seed

yield from one-acre plantation is in the range

of 800 – 1000 kg depending on the local

climatic and hydro-geological conditions

(ICAR, 2006 and Rao et al ., 2006).

Recovery of oil from seed of 28 percent, it

would take 3,571 kilograms (kg) of seed to

produce one ton of oil. Assuming a cost of

US$0.11/kg for seed and processing costs of

approximately US$19.60/ton, the overall cost

of production would be approximately

US$407.80/ton, which translates to

US$0.53/liter of biodiesel. The sale of the

glycerin and seedcake byproducts could

optimistically reduce the net cost to

approximately S$0.40/liter. Annual

production of non-edible oil seeds in India is

given in Table 2.

Current scenario of Tree Borne Oilseeds

(TBOs)

At present, the tree borne oilseeds (TBO’s)

contribute an insignificant portion of

vegetable oil production in the country

mainly due to lack of improved varieties,

elite planting material and agronomic

practices. A National Biodiesel Mission,

2009 was launched by the PlanningCommission to cover 2.5 million ha area in

the country, to meet 5 % replacement of the

diesel requirement of the country.

Government of India had fixed the target to

replace 20 % petrodiesel with biodiesel up to

2011-12 by producing 13.38 million tons of

biodiesel annually through plantations of

Jatropha alone in 11.19 million ha. The




91

Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas has

launched biodiesel procurement policy w.e.f.

Type Production

(MT)

Oil%

Neem 500 30

Karanja 200 27-39Pilu 50 33

Ratanjot - 30-40

Jojoba - 50

Bhikal - 37

Wild walnut - 60-70

Undi 04 50-73

Thumba 100 21

Kusum 80 34

Table 2: Annual Production of Non-edible OilSeeds in India (Interim Report of “Auto

Fuel Policy”).01.01.2006 @ 25 / litre through state owned

petroleum companies in 12 states. However,

recently for the XIIth

Under the existing situation of tree borne

oilseeds being of forest origin, the problemsencountered are: collection from scattered

locations, high dormancy and problems in

picking and harvesting in avenue and forest

plantations, non-availability of quality

planting material or seed, limited period of

availability, unreliable and improper

marketing channels, lack of post-harvest

technologies and their processing, non-

remunerative prices, wide gap between

potential and actual production, absence of

state incentives promoting bio-diesel as fuel,

and economics and cost-benefit ratio. At

present, the tree borne oilseeds (TBO’s)

contribute an insignificant portion of

vegetable oil production in the Research and

development on germplasm resources,

identification of elite planting material,

propagation techniques, production

technology for management of large scale

block plantations of single or few species,

performance of progenies under different

agroclimatic situations, the resultant pest and

diseases situation, quality parameters etc.need to be undertaken as a priority.

Promoting TBOs has many benefits to the

country and the environment in terms of

additional supplies of vegetable oils,

employment to needy population, eco-

friendly system, foreign exchange earnings,

diesel substitution and pollution reduction is

required. Table no. 3 explains the integrated

R&D programs for biofuel feedstocks.

Conclusion

Producing biodiesel from tree-borne oilseeds

(TBOs) is seen by many as a win-win

opportunity to solve India’s most pressing

problems. It will stimulate rural development

and will bring rural infrastructure. Better

management of marginal and wasteland can

be helpful with extensive cultivation using

Plan, the Department of

Agriculture and Co-operation, Ministry of

Agriculture, has formulated the Mini Mission

III to promote the oil seeds in addition to

TBOs for biofuel. The aim of Mini Mission

III of National Mission on Oil Seeds and Oil

Palm (NMOOP) from the current year is to

promote 11 tree borne oilseeds (Simarouba,

Neem, Jojoba, Karanja, Mahua, Wild

Apricot, Jatropha, Cheura, Kokum, Tung &

Olive). Moreover, with both National Biofuel

policy (2009) and National Agroforestry

Policy (2014) being launched in the country,

the first policy targets the replacement of

fossil fuels by biofuel to the extent of 5% by2012, 10% by 2017 and above 10% beyond

2017 and the second policy aims at integrated

land use option for livelihood, environment

and energy security.

Problems and priorities of Tree Borne

Oilseeds (TBOs)




92

Modeling Studies Process Technology Agronomy Basic R&D

Life cycle analysis andIndustrial ecologyAspects

Optimization of oilseed processing and extraction

Crop yield analysistesting of localvarieties and hybrids

Fatty acid profilingIdentification and isolationof potential high value

products Net energy and CO2 Development of jatropha

oil purification/refining andother feed stocks for processing

emissions estimationTesting of variousfarming practices (e.g. optimal crop spacing)

Toxicologicalstudies

Ecological riskassessment

Optimization oftransesterification

Development of organicfertilizationschemes

Germplasm bank

Socioeconomic Impactassessment

Construction of integrated pilot plant

Identification of potential pestsand diseases. Start up of a pilotfarm to be integrated with the

pilot plant

Engine performance andemissions testing

Table 3: Integrated R&D programs for biofuel feed stocks

improved, standard and certified planting

material for the sustainable biofuel business.

This will bring boost to processing industries

and plantation, pharmaceutical and other

subsidiary industries. With Clean

Development Mechanism (CDM) companies

in industrialised countries can buy “carbon

credits” from project developers in

developing countries in order to achieve their

own green house gas reduction targets.

Biodiesel could bring agricultural

development and create employment and

income for many of the poor people. At the

same time, it may satisfy a significant part of

the country’s fuel demand, increasing India’s

energy security and saving foreign exchange.Shifting to biodiesel could also reduce

greenhouse gas emissions and urban air

pollution.

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(2008): Plants to Power: Bioenergy to

Fuel the Future. 2008.Trends in Plant

Science, 13 : 421-429.

http://www.icar.org/

http://www.icar.org/



Pandey et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/94 - 100

94

A comparative study on gain enhancement techniques of leaky wave antenna

Pandey, Namita; Chauhan, Anjali and Agrawal, Rahul


Abstract

Over the years, Leaky wave antennas (LWA)

has provided various advantages such as

wide beam scanning, higher gain capabilities

and easy integration with other planar

components. With the advancement of

metamaterial (MTM) technology, various

LWA structures based on composite right/left

handed (CRLH)/ substrate integrated

waveguide (SIW) are investigated for

obtaining narrow beam patterns at broadside.

In this paper, comparative analysis &

overview of various techniques for

improving the gain is presented. The gain

achieved from various techniques lies in the

range of 10 to 18 dBi is reported.

Key words: Composite right/left handed

(CRLH), Half mode substrate integrated

waveguide (HMSIW), Gain enhancement,

substrate integrated waveguide (SIW), leaky

wave antenna (LWA).

Introduction

MTM are effectively artificial structure that

exhibits electromagnetic properties not

commonly found in nature such as negative

values of effective permittivity, permeability

and/or refractive index. Metamaterial have

been found to enhance specific performance

parameters of low & high profile antennas. In

1968, Veselago first investigated the

electrodynamics of hypothetical materials

with simultaneously negative permittivity

and permeability which he called the left

handed materials (LHM). On the basis of

Veselago’s theoretical analysis of LH MTM,

JB Pendry introduced metallic structures with

negative permittivity and a periodic non

magnetic structure of a split ring resonator

with a negative permeability. Recently,Caloz, Iyer and Efeltheriads proposed a

transmission line (TL) approach for LH

MTM.

A LWA is a class of travelling wave antenna

which uses a guiding structure that supports

wave propagation along the length of the

structure, with the wave radiating or

‘’leaking’’ along the structure. Particularly,

planar LWAs configurations with their

advantages of wide beam scanning, higher


Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [94 – 100] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]


For correspondence:

Department of ECE, D.I.T University Dehradun,

India




95

gain capabilities, low profile, simple

fabrication and easy integration with

electronic components have found

applications in various radar and

communication systems at microwave

frequencies.

This paper focuses specifically on

comparison of the gain of different leaky

wave antennas based on CRLH structures.

The CRLH transmission-line based LWAs

can improve boresight gain over a narrow

frequency band when a balanced condition

(when series resonance equal to shunt

resonance) is satisfied. If a CRLH structure is

unbalanced, a stop-band gap region is

generated between the left-handed region and

the right-handed region. The stop-band gap

region is undesirable for the antenna

applications because it prevents the boresight

radiation and thus degrades the boresight

gain at the transition frequency.

Substrate integrated waveguide (SIW) and

half mode substrate integrated waveguide

(HMSIW) have been very popular types of

planar guided wave structures over the past

decade which provides minimum gain of

10dBi. It uses metamaterial radiating

structures by etching interdigital slots on

waveguide surface and ground. In four types

of antennas are analyzed which exhibitvarious features such as balanced or

unbalanced operating schemes, quasi-omni-

directional radiation patterns and

miniaturized size while keeping a high gain.

A leaky wave antenna implemented on a

SIW with inverted v shaped slot which

contributes to the series capacitance and also

act as the radiator, it radiates efficiently with

high gain at the operating frequency based on

CRLH. It gives a gain of 6to 8 dBi in left

hand region and 13dBi in right hand region.

The half mode SIW is a more compact

guided wave structure which preserves nearly

all the advantages of SIW whereas its size is

nearly reduced to half. In this the SIW is cut

into two parts along the symmetry plane,

each of the half SIW is called the HMSIW. A

novel LWA based on the Half mode SIW

technique possessing features such as wide

bandwidth and a conical or quasi omni-

directional radiation pattern is presented in

which provides a gain of 11.1 dBi in H-plane

and 11.4 dBi in E-plane at 26.5 GHz

frequency. A LWA based on CRLH SIW

consisting of two leaky wave radiator

elements featuring boresight gain of 12 dBi

with a variation of 1.0 dBi over the frequency

range of 8.775 to 9.15 GHz is presented.

(a) Prototype of two fabricated CRLH SIW leaky-wave antennas

(b) Prototype of Multilayered CRLH LWA with consistent gain

Fig.1: Prototype of Antenna

(a) Prototype of dual elements based LWA

(b) Photograph of the fabricated antennas using grating cover.

Fig.2: Prototypes of Antenna




96

It Uses LWA based on CRLH SIW which

consists of two leaky wave radiator elements

with different unit cells. The dual element

configuration is proposed to improve the

boresight radiation. Each CRLH based

element is designed using the multilayered

SIW structures consisting of an embedded

patch array and slot array. A LWA for

boresight radiation have also been proposed

based on the different aperture-shaped

structures. A multilayered CRLH based

LWA composed of 15 unit cells with

consistent gain is presented. A multilayered

CRLH based LWA is proposed which

comprises of a SIW with an array of CRLH

unit cells. The CRLH unit cell is formed by a

slot cut on the upper ground of SIW, and a

parasitic patch beneath the slot. The antenna

achieves continuous beam scanning against

frequency and the optimal boresight gain at

the balanced condition frequency. Generally,

a LWA with more unit cells features highergain but this paper shows that, there is a

limitation for gain enhancement with the

increasing of the unit cells. This multilayered

structure offers desired measured

performance with the 3-dBi gain bandwidth

of 47% with the maximum gain of 12.8 dBi.

A novel high gain active antenna array using

dual fed distributed amplifier(DA) based on

CRLH LWA with a maximum gain of 16dBi

is presented, it offers around 7 dBi increase

in gain in comparison to the single-fed DA-

based active antenna. A CRLH microstrip

structure incorporating varactor diodes for

fixed frequency voltage controlled operation.

A 30-cell LWA structure is designed

incorporating both series and shunt varactors

for optimal impedance matching and a

maximum gain of 18dBi at broadside is also

achieved. A planar beam scanning SIW slot

LWAs are proposed for gain enhancement

using a metallic phase correction grating

cover. Two types of grating (type A & type

B) are introduced as the upper layer of the

antenna with an unchanging feeding

structure.

Comparative Study

On comparing various techniques, it is found

that minimum gain achieved is 10dBi using

CRLH/SIW, HMSIW technique while the

maximum gain achieved is 18dBi using

CRLH structure incorporating varactor

diodes. Beam scanning is achieved either by

varying the operating freq. or voltage.

Minimum beam scanning achieved is (-30˚

to+30˚) using metallic phase correction

grating cover technique while the maximum

beam scanning achieved is (-66˚ to 78˚) using

multilayered CRLH/SIW. The technique

providing the maximum gain is better as it

provides angle scanning at fixed frequency as

well as Beamwidth tuning is obtained by

making the structure non-uniform by

application of a non-uniform bias voltage

distribution of the varactors.

Conclusion

In this paper a comparative analysis and

overview of various techniques for

improving the gain of LWA is presented.

Among the different techniques discussed,

CRLH/SIW, HMSIW technique provides a

minimum gain of 10dBi, which emphasizes

on making the structure compact, while the

maximum gain achieved is 18dBi by using

CRLH structure involving varactor diodes

which focuses on achieving the gain at

broadside as well as on optimum impedancematching. Further by implementing metallic




97

phase correction grating cover with a planar

antenna, the gain can be enhanced by 4 to 6

dBi.

TECHNIQUES USED FEATURES GAIN STRUCTURE

1. CRLH/SIW,HMSIW Beam scanning=(-70˚ to

60˚) Operating freq.=(8.6 to

12.8 GHz)

Avg. efficiency= 87%

10dBi

2. CRLH/SIW Beam scanning=(-32˚to

61˚)

Operating

frequency=(31to 41ghz)

6-8dBi

(left hand)

&

13dBi

(right hand)

3. HMSIW Operating freq.=(26.5 to

28GHz)

11dBi

4. CRLH/SIW Beam scanning=(-60˚ to

+66˚)

Operating freq.=(8.775

to9.15GHz)

12dBi

5. Multilayered

CRLH/SIW

Beam scanning=(-66˚ to

78˚)

Operating freq.=(8.0 to

13.0GHz

12.8dBi

6. CRLH[using dual fed

DA amplifier]

Operating freq.=(2.4GHz

ISM band)

16dBi

7. CRLH [using varactor

diodes]

Fixed freq.=(3.33GHz)

Beam scanning=(50˚ to -

49˚)

18dBi




98

References

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electrodynamics of substances with

simultaneously negative values of "ε

and µ,” Sov. Phys.—Usp., 10: 509–

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low frequency plasmons in metallic

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(25): 4773–4776, Jun.

Pendry, J. B.; Holden, A. J. Robbins, D. J.

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“Magnetism from conductors and

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IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech.,

47(11): 2075–2084.

Caloz, C.; Okabe, H. Iwai, T. and Itoh, T.

(2002): “Transmission line approach

of left-handed (LH) materials,” in

USNC/URSI Nat. Radio Science

Meeting (1): 39.

Iyer, A. K. and Eleftheriades, G. V. (2002):

“Negative refractive index MTM

supporting 2-D waves,” in IEEE

MTT-S Int. Microwave Symp. Dig.

(2):1067–1070.

Yuandan, Dong and Itoh, Tatsuo (2011):

“Composite Right/Left-Handed

Substrate Integrated Waveguide and

Half Mode Substrate Integrated

Waveguide Leaky-Wave Structures,”

IEEE Trans. on antenna &

propagation. 59 (3).

Mujumdar, Manisha and Alphones,

Arokiaswami, Cheng, Jin and

Nasimuddin (2014): Compact Leaky

Wave Antenna with Periodical Slots

on Substrate Integrated Waveguide,”

The 8th European Conference on

Antennas and Propagation (EuCAP).

Xu, Junfeng; Hong, Wei; Tang, Hongjun;

Kuai, Zhenqi and Wu , Ke (2008):

Half-Mode Substrate Integrated

Waveguide (HMSIW) Leaky-Wave

Antenna for Millimeter-Wave

Applications,” IEEE antennas and

wireless propagation letters. Vol.7.

Leaky-Wave (2013): Antenna with Improved

Boresight Radiation Bandwidth, IEEE

transactions on antenna and

propagation.

Sutinjo, A. and Okoniewski, M. (2011): “A

surface wave holographic antenna for

broadside radiation excited by a

traveling wave patch array,” IEEE

Trans. Antennas Propag. 59(1): 297–

300.

Gomez-Diaz, J. S.; Alvarez-Melcon, A. and

Perruisseau-Carrier, J. (2012):

“Analysis of the radiation

characteristics of CRLH LWAs

around broadside,” in Proc. 6th Eur.

Conf. on Antennas and Propagation (EUCAP): 2876–2880.

8. Metallic phase

correction grating cover

Beam scanning=

(-30˚ to 30˚)

Operating

freq.=25.45GHz

It enhances

gain by 4 to 6

dBi




99

Gagnon, N.; Ittipiboon, A. and Petosa, A.

(2006): “Design of a leaky-wave

antenna for broadside radiation,” in

Proc. IEEE Antennas and

Propagation Society Int. Symp.: 361–

364.

Cheng, G. F. and Tzuang, C. K. C. (2010):

“Small planar broadside radiation

leaky wave antenna design,” in Proc.

IEEE Antennas and Propagation

Society Int. Symp.: 1–4.

Podilchak, S. K.; Freundorfer, A. P. and

Antar, Y. M. M. (2010): “Segmented

circular strip planar leaky-wave

antenna designs for broadside

radiation and one-sided beam

scanning,” in Proc. IEEE Int.

Workshop on Antenna Technology

(iWAT 2010).: 1–4.

Podilchak, S. K.; Freundorfer, A. P. and

Antar, Y. M. M. (2008): “Planar

leaky-wave antenna designs offering

conical-sector beam scanning and

broadside radiation using surface-

wave launchers,” IEEE Antennas

Wireless Propag. Lett., 7:155–158.

Gagnon, N.; Petosa, A. and Ittipiboon, A.

(2012): “Design of a strip-line

leakywave antenna for broadside

radiation,” in Proc. Eur. Conf. on

Antennas and Propagation (EUCAP):

1–7.

Lovat, G.; Burghignoli, P. and Jackson, D. R.

(2006): “Fundamental properties and

optimization of broadside radiation

from uniform leaky-wave antennas,”

IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag.54(5):

1442–1452.

Paulotto, S.; Burghignoli, P.; Frezza, F. and

Jackson, D. R. (2008): “Full-wave

modal dispersion analysis and

broadside optimization for a class of

microstrip CRLH leaky-wave

antennas,” IEEE Trans. Antennas

Propag.56(12): 2826–2837.

Martinez-Ros, A. J.; Gomez-Tornero, J. L.

and Goussetis, G. (2012): “Broadside

radiation from radial arrays of

substrate integrated leaky-wave

antennas,” in Proc. 6th Eur. Conf. on

Antennas and Propagation (EUCAP):

252–254.

Cameron, T. R.; Sutinjo, A. T. and

Okoniewski, M. (2010): A circularly

polarized broadside radiating

“Herringbone” array design with the

leakywave approach,” IEEE Antennas

Wireless Propag. Lett., 9: 826–829.

Nasimuddin, Nasimuddin; Ning Chen, Zhi

and Xianming, Qing (2012):

Multilayered Composite Right/Left-

Handed Leaky-Wave Antenna With

Consistent Gain,” IEEE Trans. on

antenna and propagation.

Chung-Tse Michael wu and Tatshuo Itoh

(2012):” A High gain antenna array

using dual-fed distributed amplifier-

based CRLH leaky wave antenna,”

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Kaohsiung, Taiwan.

Transmission-Line (2005): Structure as a

Novel Leaky-Wave Antenna with

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Beamwidth,” IEEE Trans. On

microwave theory and techniques.

53(1).




100

Cao , Wenquan; Hong , Wei; Ning Chen , Zhi

Zhang, Bangning and Liu, Aijun

(2014): Gain Enhancement of Beam

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Cover,” IEEE Trans. on antenna and

propagation, 62(9).



Swami & Arun/Vol. VI [2] 2015/101 - 104

101

Use of marginal materials in road works

Swami, R. K. and Arun, Uma


Abstract

Hard stone is being used as a road construction

material for all categories of roads in the country.

Sources of conventionally used hard stone are

depleting very fast and in many parts of the

country, the leads involved are very long. On the

other hand there are different types of soils and

low grade materials available in the country

which may be used to advantage in road

construction.

Introduction

Conventionally, hard stone has been used as

a road construction material for all categories

of roads in the country. Although the hard

stone has all the attributes of a good

construction material, both in regard to

strength and durability, its sources are

depleting fast. Moreover, in many parts of

the country, the leads involved are so long

that they make the construction costs prohibitive. It is not uncommon in in several

areas that leads of the order of 200 kms. are

involved from the nearest hard stone quarry.

Therefore, it is necessary to go in for locally

available low grade materials especially for

low volume roads where the construction

costs have to be kept low.

Pavement Materials

All India surveys carried out for different

types of soils and low grade materials

encountered in the country reveal that there is

a wide variety of soil types as well as gravels,

moorums and naturally occurring soft

aggregates which can be used to advantage in

road construction.

Broadly, the soil types in the country can becategorized as under:


Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [101 – 104] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]


For correspondence:CSIR - Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi



Swami & Arun/Vol. VI [2] 2015/101 - 104

102

a) Lateritic soils

b) Moorums/ red soils

c) Desert sands

d) Alluvial soils

e) Clays including black cotton soils.

Similarly, a wide variety of naturally

occurring low grade materials/ soft

aggregates are available in the different parts

of the country. These can broadly be

categorized as under:-

a) Gravels/ moorum

b) Kankar

c)

Dhandla

d)

Laterite

e) Soft stone/ sand stone

f) Brick- aggregate

Material surveys

The material surveys and related laboratory

investigations constitute an essential part of

any road project. More so, for a road projectwhere use of locally available materials is to

be maximized. The locally available

materials that can be incorporated in the

pavement design should be very thoroughly

and judiciously explored. In this class of

materials are included various types of soils

encountered; sands from streams/river beds

and other sources; moorum which may even

be available at shallow depths below the

ground level or from other quarries; gravels,

well spoils, soft aggregates like laterite,

kankar , dhandla, rivers and- gravel mixes ,

etc. While locations of the PWD/ Zilla

Parishad approved quarries of stone metal

can be obtained from the district

headquarters, the quarries for locally

available materials like the ones listed above,

are generally not known but local enquiries

from villagers etc. can help a great deal in

this regard. Samples of the locally available

materials like lime that could possibly be

used as soil stabilizer should also be

collected.

Special care has to be exercised in collection

of samples of these locally available

materials since these are generally quite

variable in their engineering properties. So

much so, the locally available moorums and

gravels from the same source can give widely

different strength values. This, naturally, has

significant implications in the construction

and performance of roads.

Material testing

The samples of subgrade soils and other

locally available materials collected during

the field surveys should be subjected to the

following laboratory tests:

a) Atterberg limits

b)

Gradation

c)

Compaction test

d) CBR

e) Aggregate Impact Value

In areas infested with harmful salts like

sulphates and containing organic matter,

special tests to determine their approximate

content need to be carried out, in addition to

the above tests.

Suitability Criteria for material:

The samples of soils/ soil-gravel/ aggregates

collected during the material survey are

tested in the laboratory to confirm their

suitability for use in different pavement

layers. The criteria regarding the suitability

of these materials for gradation, plasticity

and strength requirement have been given in

IRC special publication No. 20.



Swami & Arun/Vol. VI [2] 2015/101 - 104

103

In case the available materials meet the

requirements, these can be used as such.

Otherwise, the local materials have to be

processed with a view to improve their

engineering properties so that these can be

incorporated in the lower layers of road

pavements. The various methods which can

be adopted to improve the local soils and

inferior aggregates are as under:-

Selection of StabiliserThe selection of the stabiliser is based on

plasticity and particle size distribution of the

material to be treated. The appropriate

stabiliser can be selected according to the

criterion shown in table 1. Some control over

the grading can be achieved by limiting the

coefficient of uniformity to a minimum value

of 5; however, it should preferably be morethan 10. The coefficient of uniformity is

defined as the ratio of the sieve size throughwhich 60 percent passes to the sieve size

through which 10 percent passes. If the

coefficient of uniformity lies below 5, the

cost of stabilisation will be high and the

maintenance of cracks in the finished road

would be expensive. If the plasticity of soil is

high there are usually sufficient clay minerals

which can be readily stabilised with lime.



Swami & Arun/Vol. VI [2] 2015/101 - 104

104

Type of

stabilisation

More than

25% passing

the 0.075 mm

sieve

Soil

Properties

Less than 25%

passing the 0.075mm

sieve

PI < 10 10 < PI < 20 PI > 20 PI < 6,

PP < 60

PI < 10 PI > 10

Cement Yes Yes * Yes Yes Yes

Lime - Yes Yes No * Yes

Lime-

Pozzolan

Yes - No Yes Yes *

Table 1: Guide to the type of stabilisation likely to be effective

Cement is more difficult to mix intimately

with plastic material but this problem can be

alleviated by pre-treating the soil with

approximately 2 percent lime.

•

Plasticity Product (PP), expressed as product of PI of soil and percentage

fraction passing 75 micron sieve should

not exceed 60

There are many manufactured

commercial products in the market that

claim, when added to the soil in the

proper quantities, improve some

engineering characteristics of the soil

such as strength, texture, workability, and

plasticity. These chemical additives can

be tried for construction of test sections.

Conclusion

• In case the available materials meet the

requirements, these can be used as such.

• The inferior locally available materials

can be improved by using suitablestabilization techniques and used in

lower pavement layers.

Acknowledgement

Authors are thankful to Director, CSIR-

Central Road Research Institute, New- Delhi

for giving permission to publish this paper.

References

1. Rural Road Manual, IRC: SP: 20.

2. Guidelines for soil and granular material

stabilization using cement, lime & fly

ash, IRC: SP: 89-2010.



Naina Srivastava/Vol. VI [2] 2015/105 - 112

105

Funaria Hygrometrica extracts with activity against plant pathogenic fungi

Al ternar ia species

Srivastava, Naina


Abstract

The invitro antifungal activity of Funaria

was studied against test fungi Alternaria

using disc diffusion and direct dilution

methods. Extract treatments reduced the

fungal growth several biomass ranging from

15 to 23%, The alcohol extract was evaluated

for its short-term toxicity. Levels of activity

against the test fungi; the alcohol extract

exhibited maximum activity. Data showed

that all the extracts showed variable

antifungal activity. Among the various

extracts, methanol extract, showed the

antifungal activity resulting in 0–63% and 0-

69% reduction in fungal biomass over

corresponding control treatments,

respectively. The implications of using the

Funaria extracts in controlling Alternaria

species. Therefore, products of bryophytes

deserved to be reliable sources as biocontrol

agents and may play significant roles for

future practical applications in a socially and

ecologically healthy crop management

system.

Keywords: Antifungal agents | toxicity |

Fungal biomass

Introduction

The toxic effect of synthetic chemicals can

be overcome, only by persistent search for

new and safer pesticides accompanied by

wide use of pest control methods, which areeco-friendly and effective (Mohana et al.,

2011). Green plants represent a reservoir of

effective chemo therapeutants and can

provide valuable sources of natural

pesticides. Plant metabolites and plant based

pesticides appear to be one of the better

alternatives as they are known to have

minimal environmental impact and danger to

consumers in contrast to synthetic pesticides.

Alternaria fungus has about one hundred

species, found in various places all over the

world. Many of them are plant pathogens and

cause disease in a wide range of hosts.

Alternaria has an important place among

species of this genus, as it depends on range

of hosts including garden plants, field crops,

vegetables, and ornamentals. The taxon is the

principal causative agent of blight of ripe


Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [105 – 112] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]


For correspondence:

Botany Department, D.A.V (Pg) College, Dehradun




106

tomatoes, brown necrotic lesions on foliage,

black pit disease of potatoes.

Extracts of many plants have been reported

to exhibit antifungal properties under

laboratory (Parekh et al., 2006; Buwa and

Staden, 2006). Pathogenic fungi alone cause

20% reduction in the yield of major food and

cash crops (Agrios, 2000). To avoid the

implication of yield losses due to plant

diseases, variety of control measures

presently are in use. The chemical

compounds are most commonly used for the

controlling of plant diseases. No doubt the

use of chemicals has been found very

effective in controlling plant fungal diseases

but some major problems threaten to limit the

continued use of fungicides. Pathogenic fungi

are the main infectious agents in plants,

causing alterations during developmental

stages including post-harvest but are also

indirectly responsible for allergic or toxic

disorders among consumers because of the production of mycotoxins or allergens

(Dellavalle et al. 2011).Fungal plant diseases

represent an important cause of increased

annual crop losses. More than 70% of all

major crop diseases are caused by fungi

(Agrios, 2005). Alternaria alternata causes

leaf spots and blight on a large variety of

agricultural and horticultural Moreover, A.alternata can also attack a several weeds and

ornamental plants. There is also little doubt

that sensitivity to Alternaria is an important

factor in the induction of allergic rhinitis and

asthma on immunodepressed patients,

especially in children (Kuna et al., 2011)

Generally, the control of plant diseases and

pests is well established with synthetic

fungicides and other agricultural practices

such as crop rotation inter-cropping and

sanitation (Pretty, 2008). However, in the

recent years the farmers all over the world

have reported an efficacy decrease of the

treatments with traditionally used fungicides

to control early blight and other plant

diseases (Fairchild et al., 2013). Furthermore,

the inappropriate use of fungicides, such as

applying increased and more frequent units

(Genet et al., 2006) has resulted on the one

hand in the occurrence of fungal resistance

(Haouala, 2008) and on the other hand in

hazardous effects in human and animal health

and on the environment resulting in

ecological imbalances (Pramila and Dubey,

2004).

Traditionally, because of their antimicrobial

activity, mosses were used as a natural

medicine in Indian culture. Today, mosses

represent interesting tools for

biotechnological use in medicine, agriculture,

and pharmacology. However, although

mosses are becoming increasingly importantin many fields and moss is used as a model

organism for antimicrobial studies. Little is

known about moss-associated

microorganisms, beneficial as well as

pathogenic. The effect of mosses by fungi is

a very frequent though generally neglected

phenomenon. The bryophytes, including

liverworts, hornworts, and mosses, are adiverse group of land plants that usually

colonize habitats with moist or extremely

variable conditions. One of their most

important features is their life cycle, which

involves alternation between a diploid

sporophyte and a dominant, free-living

haploid gametophyte generation. Funaria

hygrometrica is a common type of water

moss which grows on moist, shady, and

damp soil. It can also be found on moist




107

walls and the crevices of rocks and places

where recent fires have taken place. The

plant body is green, soft, and upright.

The rhizoids present in this species are multi-

cellular and branched. They have oblique

septa. The main axis of the plant, which is

upright, bears a set of spirally

arranged, sessile leaves having a clearly

distinguishable midrib. At the apex of the

main plant axis, the antheridium is borne.

This is the male part of the shoot. A lateral

branch from the main plant axis bears the

female shoot archegonium at its meristem.

Materials and Methods

Isolation of pathogens from diseased plant

tissues

Plant infected with disease found during the

survey at field. Surface disinfestations of

tissues selected for isolation work was done

by 1 % sodium hypochlorite. The stems

infected with disease were cut into small

pieces and placed directly on acidified PDA

(Mehrota R.S. and Aggarwal Ashok., 2003).

After a day, colonies of fungi are visible

which was further subjected for the

identification of pathogen. The stems

infected with disease were cut into small

pieces and placed directly on acidified PDA

(Mehrota R.S. and Aggarwal Ashok., 2003).

.Microscopical examination of the pathogenrevealed the pale brown to light brown

conidia produced in long chain of 5,

obclavate, short conical beak at the

tip,smooth surface with several vertical and 8

tranverse septa which is confirmed as

Alternaria species.

Preparation of plant extracts

Dried plant was powdered by using blender,and the powder was used for preparation of

extracts in the organic solvent, viz methanol.

The sample (powder) 100 g each was

dissolved in 400 ml respective solvent using

soaking method and allowed to stand at room

temperature for few days. The extracts

obtained with different solvents were filtered

through Whatman filter paper No. 1. The

medium (PDA) without any phytoextract

served as the control. All the inoculated Petri

dishes were incubated at 25±1°C. The radial

growth of the test fungus was measured in all

the treatments after three days and compared

with the control (Tapwal Ashwani., et al ,

2011). The petriplates were incubated at

room temperature for the growth of

Alternaria. After 3 days, blackish colony

growth was observed in incubated petri

dishes the per cent inhibition of fungal

growth was estimated by using following

formula (Vincet, 1927).

Identification of Isolated Fungi

The fungal isolate from growing culture was

identified by lactophenol cotton blue

staining. Microscopic examination was

carried out after examining the colony

characteristics, while the morphological and

cultural characteristics were observed. The

test fungus were grown and maintained on

potato dextrose agar slants, following

incubation for 5 days, the cultures were eitherutilized or stored until required. The

organisms were sub cultured to obtain pure

colonies and it was done once in every

intervals.

Antifungal assay of plant extracts

A volume of 1 ml of each extract (methanol)

was aseptically poured in respective petri-

plates followed by the addition of 9 ml ofmelted PDA and was swirled gently to

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizoid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicellular_organism


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sessility_(botany)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antheridium

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archegonium

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meristem

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meristem

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archegonium

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antheridium

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sessility_(botany)



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizoid




108

achieve thorough mixing of the contents. A

petri-plate with PDA having no plant extract

was used as control. After the solidification

of the media, pure culture of the isolated

fungi was then transferred aseptically onto

the petriplates with plant extract using a

sterile cork borer of 5.0 mm diameter upside

down right at the centre. Distilled water was

used as negative control. The plates were

then incubated for 48 hours at 27°C. At the

end of the incubation period the zones of

inhibitions were measured to the nearest

millimeter (Andrews et al., 2001). The

inhibition zone is the area surrounding the

hole with no growth of inoculated fungi. For

confirmation of the results each test was

performed in triplicate. The petri plates were

incubated at 27o

Treatments

C and growth (diameter) of

the tested fungi was measured after 24 hrs

and 72 hrs respectively. The radial growth of

the test fungus was measured in all the

treatments after three days and compared

with the control (Tapwal Ashwani., et al.,

2011).The rate of extraction of the fungicide

from the disc is greater than the rate of

diffusion, as the distance from the disc

increases. Zone of inhibition of fungus

growth around eachdisc is measured and the

susceptibility is determined.

Mycelial

growth

(mean)after 48 hrs

in mm

Inhibition

percentage

after 48

Mycelia

dry weight

after 48

hrs in mg

Mycelial

growth

(mean)after 72 hrs

in mm

Inhibition

percentage

after 72

hrs

Mycelia

dry weight

after 72

hrs in mg

control 15 170 15 17015% methanol 12.4 14% 130 10 30% 11025% 10.1 22% 100 9 45% 80

55% 9.5 34% 90 7 59% 7065% 6.4 49% 70 5 67% 56

Table 1: Inhibition of mycelial growth at differentconcentration of methanolic plant extracts

(The inhibitory effects of the methanolic extract on mycelial growth of fungi after inoculation (percent inhibition after 48hrs)

The percent inhibition of mycelial growth

was calculated using the formula:

Percent inhibition = C – T / C Χ 100

where C = Mycelial weight in control and

T = Mycelial weight in treatment.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

control 15 25 55 65

radialgorwthpercentaggeinhibition

percentage inhibition

dry mycelial weight




109

In vitro efficacy of plant extracts on

inhibition of Alternaria alternata against

mycelial growth at different days of interval.

The inhibition of the growth of the

pathogenic fungi is due to the active

ingradients predominantly found in the plant.

The present investigations are in line with the

investigations carried out by other workers

who infer that plant extracts in general have

great potentiallity in the control of fungal

diseases in commercially important crop

plants. These leaf extracts could be suitable

substitute for controlling fungal pathogens.

Treatments Mycelial

growth (mean)after 48 hrs in

mm

Inhibition

percentage

after 48

Mycelia

dry weight

after 48

hrs in mg

Mycelial

growth (mean)after 72 hrs in

mm

Inhibition

percentage

after 72 hrs

Mycelia dry

weight after

72 hrs in mg

control 15 170 15 17015%

methanol14.4 9% 150 10 30% 140

25% 12.1 12% 130 9 35% 11055% 11.5 14% 120 7 39% 9865% 10.4 29% 100 5 57% 96

Table 2: Inhibition of mycelial growth at different concentrationof aqueous Leaf extracts (In vitro screening of plant leafextracts on A.alternata)

(The inhibitory effects of the methanolic extract on mycelial growth of fungi after inoculation (percent inhibition after 72hrs)

It may be concluded that keeping aside the

environmentally hazardous commercial

fungicides, these leaf extracts could be a

suitable substitute for controlling the fungal

pathogens. Many of the existing synthetic

drugs cause various side effects. Hence, drug

development plant based compounds could

be useful in meeting this demand for newerdrugs with minimal side effects (Srivastava et

al ., 2000). The phyto-constituents alkaloids,

glycosides, flavanoids and saponins are

antibiotic principles of plants. These

antibiotic principles are actually the

defensive mechanism of the plants against

different pathogens (Hafiza, 2000).

The differential extracts of plant

demonstrated strong antifungal activitytowards all the pathogenic fungi tested. The

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

control 15 25 55 65

radial mycelial growth

inhibition %

dry mycelial weight




110

highest activity was shown by methanol

extract followed by water. All the solvent

extracts showed activity against fungus .The

differential and moderate activities were

observed against pathogens but the results

revealed that activity of methanol extract was

greater in comparison to the synthetic

standard antibiotic. The antifungal activity of

extracts showed little variation and excellent

reproducibility of zone of inhibition for

selected pathogens. In fungal species, the

inhibition zone diameter was found. The

results were compared with the synthetic

standard antibiotic. The methanol extract

gave strong and promising results in

comparison to the standard. The results also

showed that different solvent extractions

gave different results against the same

pathogens.

Funaria plant

Diseased plant

Fungal growth of alternaria blight

Symptoms of alternaria blight

Botanical extracts with antifungal activity are

being explored in order to make available the

pesticides, which are easily biodegradable,

selective, cheap and can be locally produced,

especially for the farmers who cannot afford

expensive synthetic pesticides. The results

revealed that all of the tested plant extracts at

given concentration inhibited the growth of pathogens Similar results on the efficacy of




111

plant extracts against Alternaria sp. have

been reported by Baraka et al . (2011), Mishra

and Gupta (2012), and Ravikumar and

Garampalli (2013). These are the evidences

from the earlier work that plants possess the

pesticidial activity that can play a pivotal role

in the management of the plant disease which

are cheap, locally available, and

biodegradable and environment friendly.

This study shows optimistic results regarding

the potential of plant species as sources of

plant based products with activity against

plant pathogenic fungi.

References

Mohana, D.C.; Raveesha, K.A. and

Lokanath, R. (2008): Herbal remedies

for the management of seed-borne

fungal pathogens by an edible plant

Decalepis hamiltonii (Wight and

Arn). Archives Phytopathol. Plant

Protect 41(1) 38-49.

Parekh, J.; Karathia, N. and Chanda, S.(2006): Evaluation of antibacterial

activity and phytochemical analysis

of Bauhinia variegata L. bark.

African Journal of Biomedical

Research 9 53-56.

Buwa, L.V. and Staden, J.V. (2006):

Antibacterial and antifungal activity

of traditional medicinal plants used

against venereal diseases in SouthAfrica. Journal of Ethno

Pharmacology 103(1) 139-142.

Agrios, G.N. (2000): Significance of plant

diseases In Plant pathology.

Academic Press London 25-37.

Agrios, G.N., ed. (2005): Plant Pathology.

Fifth edition,

Academic Press. New York. 978-

0120445646N. pp: 633.

Dellavalle, P.D.; Cabrera, A.; Alem, D.;

Larrañaga, P.; Ferreira, F.; Rizza,

M.D. (2011): Antifungal activity of

medicinal plant extracts against

phytopathogenic fungus Alternaria

spp. Chilean Journal of AgriculturalResearch 71(2): 231 – 239.

JeanLuc, Genet; Jaworska, Grazyna; Deparis,

Francine (2006): Effect of dose rate

and mixtures of fungicides on

selection for QoI resistance in

populations of Plasmopara viticola.

Pest management science Volume 62

Issue 2, pp 188-194.

Jules, Pretty (2008): Agricultural

sustainability: concepts,principles and

evidence. Philosophical Transactions

of the Royal Society B: Biological

Sciences 363.1491, pp 447-465.

Tripathi, Pramila and Dubey N. K. (2004):

Exploitation of natural products as an

alternative strategy to control

postharvest fungal rotting of fruit andvegetables. Postharvest biology and

technology, Volume 32 (3), pp 235-

245.

Haouala, R.; Hawala, S.; ElA-yeb, A.;

Khanfir, R. and Boughanmi, N.

(2008): Aqueous and organic extracts

of

Trigonella foenum-graecum inhibit the

mycelia growth of fungi. Journal of Environmental Sciences, Volume 20

(12), pp 1453-1457.

Ramjegathesh, R. and Ebenezer, E. G.

(2012): Morphology and

physiological characters of Alternaria

alternata causing leaf blight diseases

of onion. International Journal of

Plant Pathology, 3(2): 34-44.

Tagoe, D. N. A.; Nyarko, H. D. and Akpaha,

R. (2011): A comparison of the




112

antifungal properties of onion (Allium

cepa), Garlic (Allium sativum)

against Aspergillus flavus,

Aspergillus niger and Cladosporium

Herbarum (2011): Research Journal of

Medicinal Plant, 5(3): 281-287.

Maity, P.; Hansda, D.; Bandyopadhyay, U.

and Mishra, D. K. (2009): Biological

activity of crude extracts and

chemical constituents of Bael Aegle

marmelose (L) Corr. Indian Journal of

Experimental Biology, 47: 849-861.

Eloff, J.N. (1998): A sensitive and quick

microplate method to determine theminimal inhibitory concentration of

plant extracts for bacteria. Planta

Medica 64 (8): 711 – 713.

Andrews, J.M. (2001): Determination of

minimum inhibitory concentrations.

Journal of Antimicrobial

Chemotherapy 48 (1): 5 – 16.

Oboh, I.E.; Akerele, J.O. and Obasuyi.

(2007): Antimicrobial activity of theethanol extract of the aerial parts of

Sida acuta Burm. (Malvaceae).

Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical

Research 6 (4): 809 – 813.

Igbinosa, O.O.; Igbinosa, E.O. and Aiyegoro,

A.O. (2009): Antimicrobial activity

and phytochemical screening of stem

bark extracts from Jatropha curcas

(Linn). African Journal of Pharmacyand Pharmacology 3 (2): 058 –062.

Mehrotra, R. S. and Aggarwal, A. (2003):

Plant Pathology. Tata McGraw-Hill

(P) Ltd., New Delhi, India. pp. 815-

824.

Tapwal, A.; Garg N.; Shipra, Gautam, N. and

Kumar, R. (2011): In vitro antifungal

potency of plant extracts against five

phytopathogens. Brazillian Archives

of Biology and Technology. 54(6).

Vincent, J. M. (1927): Distortion of fungal

hyphae in the presence of certain

inhibitors. Nature. PP. 850.

Srivastava, A.; Shukla, Kumar Y.N. (2000):

Recent development in plant derived

antimicrobial constituents A Review.

J Med Arom Pl. Sci.20: 717-72.

Sarvamangala, H.S.; Goviandaiah and Datta,

R.K. (1993): Evaluation of Plant

Extracts for the Control of Fungal

Disease of Mulberry. Indian

Phytopathology, 46, 398-401.

Baraka, M. A.; Fatma, R. M.; Shaban, W.I

and Arafat, K. H. (2011): Efficacy of

some plant extracts, natural oils,

biofungicides and fungicides against

root rot disease of date palm. Biol.

Chem. Environ. Sci. 6(2): 405-429.

Mishra, R. K. and Gupta, R. P. (2012): In

vitro evaluation of plant extracts, Bio-

agents and fungicides against purle blotch and stem phylium blight of

onion. J. Med. Plant Res. 6(45): 5658-

5661.

Ravikumar, M.C. and Rajkumar, H.G.

(2013): Antifungal activity of plants

extracts against Alternaria solani, the

causal agent of early blight of tomato.

Arch. Phytopathol. Plant Prot. DOI:

10.1080/03235408.2013.780350.



Rakesh Giri /Vol. VI [2] 2015/113 - 115

113

Exploring potentials of science & technology for research in swaryogic science

Giri, Rakesh


In the last three decades, the science and

technology has revolutionized the world in

respect of comforts of mankind. Now-a-days,

the technology has been advanced in

different dimensions of life; viz.

Telecommunications, Agriculture,

Medicines, Surgery, Cinema, Food

Processing, Computer and InformationTechnology etc.

Yoga is an ancient heritage and culture of

India and widely known & recognized all

over the world for its healthful and

therapeutic utility. U.N.O. has celebrated

21st June in 2015 as Ist International Yoga

Day to spread the message of Yoga all over

the world. In the last 2-5 decades, variousHathyogic practices; viz. Asnas, Pranayama,

Satkarmas, meditation etc. have been found

useful for preservation and promotion of

Health as well as management of various

physiological, psychosomatic and

psychological disorders. (Mohan, J., 1996;

Naveen, et. al ., 1997; Malhotra, V. et. al .,

2002; Bijlanni, R.L. et. al ., 2006; Kosuri, M.

& Sridhar, G.R., 2009; Vempati, R. et. al .,

2010)

Swaryogic Science is rarely known to the

World community and need scientific

research for its use in the interest of human

welfare. The modern medical science has thescientific explanation for existence of two

eyes for clear vision of three dimensional

objects; existence of two ears to know the

source and direction of sound; but the

existence of two nostrils instead of one is yet

to be explained. The Swaryogic science has

the answer traditionally for the existence of

two nostrils and their specific functions.

According to Swaryogic science, a man does

not breathe evenly through both the nostrils

but alternately. The micro-sound vibration so

generated as a result of flow of breath is

known as Swara in Swaryogic science. The

functioning state of right nostril with its free

flow of breath is known as Surya Swara;

whereas the functioning state of left nostril is

designated as Chandra Swara. Similarly, the

free flow of breath through both the nostrils


Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [113 – 115] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]


For Correspondence:

Deptt. of H. Concs. & Yogic Science, GKV, Haridwar

E-mail : [email protected]




114

is being designated as Sushumna-Swara.

Moreover, the functioning state of one of the

nostrils can be realized in lateral lying

portion of the body. In addition to this, the

Swaryogic science describes the existence of

five types of breath based on tattwas in Surya

Swara as well as in Chandra swara.

Functioning state of particular swara with

specific tattwa has lot of significance in

preservation and promotion of health,

diagnosis and treatment of diseases,

prediction of death, prediction of weather and

environment, successful accomplishment of

activities of daily regimen, efficiency of

Games and sports etc.

There are descriptions about crude methods

of verification of flow of swara along with a

specific tattwa, but there is not scientific &

digitalizod instrument for 100% accuracy.

These methods are briefed below for

development of scientific instruments and

their standardization :

1. Detection of Tattvas from the shapes

developed through water vapors of

breaths - In this technique, one has to

exhale the breath deeply on the cleaned

mirror and there is development of

various shapes in respect of water

vapors of breath. The result prediction

is as follows :

Shape of Water vapors Ie

(a) Square shaped water vapors Earth element

(b) Half moon shaped water

vapors

Water element

(c) Triangular shaped water

vapors

Fire element

(d) Oval/Circle shaped water

vapors

Air element

(e) Scattered shaped water

vapors or without any shape.

Space element

2. Direction based Tattva and its

Identification - The Swaryogic science

had described identification technique

for Tattva's functioning state on the

basis of direction of breath flow

through a nostril as mentioned below -

Similarly Tattva of a specific nostril is

being identified through taste of salivra

in the mouth as mentioned below :

Taste of Saliva Identification of

Tattva

(a) Sweet taste Earth element

(b) Astringent taste Like a Bitter

guard

Water element

(c) Taste like fruits of neem tree Fire element

(d) Sour taste like a curd Air element

(e) Pungent taste like a chilli with

hotness and bitterness

Space element

3. Breath- Length Based Tattva

Identification - This technique involve

the measurement of length of exhaled

breath through a nostril under the

normal circumstances. The

identification criteria is as follow :

Length of exhaled breath Identification of

Tattva

(a) 12 Angula Earth element

(b) 16 Angula Water element

(c) 4 Angula Fire element

(d) 8 Angula Air element

(e) Almost no breath Space element

4. Tattwas can also be identified on the

basis of variations of temperature in a

breath of a specific nostril. The criteria

is as follow :

Breath Direction Identification of

Tattva

(a) From the center of the nostril Earth element

(b) After touching lower surfaceof the nostrils

Water Element

(c) After touching upper surfaceof the nostrils

Fire element

(d) Breath coming out laterally

and upwardly

Air element

(e) Breath coming out in whirling

motion

Space element




115

Temperature of breath Identification of

Tattva

1 Luke warm temperature Earth element

2 Extremly hot temperature Fire element

3 Slighly cold temperature Air element

4 Cold breath Water element

In view of above mentioned techniques, there

is a need of developing technology and

instruments on the basis of -

1. Chemical technology in respect of

shapes of water vapors of breath.

2. Air-censors based computerized

technology to detect the direction of

breath.

3. pH based chemical technology for

precise detection of taste of saliva and

their standardization.

4. Air intensity based technology to

measure the length of breath.

5. To develop thermometers for

measuring slight temperature variations

in the exhaled breath.

The development of above mentionedtechnology for identification of Tattvas will

verify the traditional and ancient knowledge

of Swaryogic science in respect of existence

of tattvas and will also revolutionize the

Yogic world for their therapeutic use. The

Swaryogic therapy, if combined with

Hathyogic therapy, will improve efficacy of

yogic practices. The above said developmentof technology will open new chapters of

research especially in the medical field.

References

Anurag, Dass, Baba (2003): Swarodaya Ke Char

Ratan. Radhir Prakashan, Haridwar.

Bijlani, R.L.; Gupta, N.; Khera, S.; Vempati, R.P.

and Sharma, R. (2006): The Effect of Yoga

Based Lifestyle Intervention on State and

Trait Anxiety. Department of Physiology,

All India Institute of Medical Sciences,

New Delhi.

Gautam, C.L. (2005): Vradh Shiv Swarodaya,

Sanskriti Sansthan, Bareilly.

Kanan, S.V. (1967): Swar Chintamani, Kanan

Publications, Madras - 28.

Kosuri, M. and Sridhar, G.R. (2009): The Effects

of Yoga Practice in Diabetes for Physical

and Psychologifal Outcomes from Yoga

and Diabetes. Institute of Yoga and

Consciousness, Visakhapatnam, India.

Malhotra, V.; Singh, S.; Tandon, O.P.; Madhu,

S.V.; Prasad, A. and Sharma, S.B. (2002):

Department of Physiology, UniversityCollege of Medical Science, Guru Tegh

Bahadur Hospital, Delhi. Effect of Yoga

Asana of nerve conduction in type 2

diabetes : Indian Journal Physiol

Pharmacol. 46(13) : 298-306.

Mohan, J. (1996): Stress Management and Yoga.

Int. J. Psychology, 31(3-4) : 1818. Nekl,

J.S. 1975, Past, present and future.

Psychotherapy, India. Naveen, Telles; Nagarathna, R. and Nagendra,

H.R. (1997): Yoga Breathing Through a

Particular Nostril Increases Spatial

Memory Scores Without Lateralized

Effects. Vivekananda Kendra Yoga

Research Foundation, Bangalore, India.

Sharma, J.K. (2005): Swarodaya Tantra, Diamond

Pocket Books (Pvt.) Ltd., Delhi.

Vempati, R.; Bijlani, R.L. and Deepak, K.K.

(2009): Department of Phisiology, AIIMS,

New Delhi "The efficacy of

comprehensive lifestyle modification

programm based on yoga in the

management of bronchial asthma : a

randomized controlled trial" BMC Pulm

Med. 30; 9:37.



Ghosh et al. /Vol. VI [2] 2015/116 - 121

116

Metamaterial based antenna for 10.0 GHZ Frequency

Ghosh, Devankar; Kher, Sakshi and Kumar, Nitin


Abstract

In this paper a Microstrip patch antenna

(MPA) based on CRLH metamaterials with

improved Gain is presented. The MPA

consists of a microstrip gap and metal Via,

which behaves as series capacitor and shunt

inductor respectively. The metal Via leads to

negative permittivity while microstrip gap

leads to negative permeability, and the

combination of these two leads to negative

refractive index. In order to improve the gain,

metallic walls are placed at a distance of

“λg/4” from the patch which shows an

improvement in the results as compared to

the structure with no metallic walls. The

antenna is designed at 10GHz frequency with

maximum gain of 11.7dB.

Introduction

It is essential to briefly describe metamaterial before introducing metamaterial based

antennas. Metamaterials are composite

materials that are purposely engineered to

provide material properties that are not

otherwise attainable with ordinary materials.

It is important to know that the properties of

the metamaterials are derived from their

physical structure, not from their chemistry.

Metamaterials were introduced by Veselago,

1967. The utilization of the unusual

properties of the metamaterials in small

antennas is tried here to get an efficient

antenna. The advantage of using

Metamaterial structures in patch antennas is

that enhanced antenna properties can be

obtained as well as size of the antenna can be

reduced for convenience while maintaining a

good radiation performance. For the

proposed antenna a cylindrical via is used

which is the main radiating element of the

antenna.Metamaterial antennas open a way to

overcome the restrictive efficiency

bandwidth limitation for small antennas. Yet

this approach is still far from being mature.

The most recent progress in the developmentof metamaterial-based small antennas can be


Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [116 – 121] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]


For Correspondence:

Department of ECE, DIT University Dehradun



Ghosh et al. /Vol. VI [2] 2015/116 - 121

117

classified in the following four categories

(Dong and Itoh, 2012).

1) CRLH-based or dispersion engineered

resonant antennas. This includes the

antennas with negative-order modes

and zeroth-order resonators. There are

a variety of antennas in this type that

have been developed based on the

engineered dispersion curves (k–beta

diagram) .

2) Miniature antennas based on the

metamaterialloadings, such as the

epsilon/mu-negative materials, high

permeability shells and the magnetic

photonic crystals (MPC).

3) Metaresonator antennas (Alici and

Ozbay (2007), Dong et al., 2012)

particularly or the antennas based on

the split-ring resonators (SRRs) and

complementary split-ring resonators

(CSRRs).

4)

Antennas loaded with metasurfaces(Zhang, et al., 2003 and Dong et al.,

2011) such as the electromagnetic band

gap (EBG) mushroom structures or

patch-type reactive impedance surface

(RIS). They are able to miniaturize the

antenna size, reduce the surface wave

as well as to improve the radiation

characteristics.Theory

Veselago (1968) stated that although LH

materials do not exist in nature, they can be

artificially constructed. In particular,

Veselago concluded that the realization of a

LH Metamaterial will be possible with the

discovery or construction of an isotropic

negative μ material. When Veselago published his paper, materials with μ < 0

were not known to exist. For 30 years,

Veselago’s paper and its theory was not

investigated any further. Interest in

Veselago’s paper and LH materials begin to

materialize when Professor Pendry at

Imperial College demonstrated the first non-

ferrite negative μ Metamaterial based on split

ring resonators (SRRs) in 1998 Pendry’s

SRR was the cornerstone of the first bulk LH

Metamaterial realization by a group at

University of California, San Diego (UCSD)

in 2000 . The UCSD’s LH Metamaterial was

based on combining a SRR (negative μ) with

a metal wire (negative ε).

The SRR based LH Metamaterials only

exhibit LH properties around the resonance

of the SRR. Therefore realiazation of LH

Metamaterials using SRRs are known as the

resonant approach (Eleftheriades et al.,

2002). In terms of microwave engineering

applications, the resonant approach towards

LH Metamaterial is not practical for thefollowing reasons :

• Bulky, not applicable to planar microwave

circuits

• Narrow-band due to requirement of

operation near SRR resonance

• Lossy due to requirement of operation

near SRR resonance

To overcome the drawbacks of SRR based

LH Metamaterials for microwave

engineering applications researchers realized

that backward wave transmission line can be

used to realize non resonant LH

Metamaterials. This transmission line

approach towards LH Metamaterials is based

on the dual configuration of a

RH/conventional transmission line. As

shown in the figure conventional



Ghosh et al. /Vol. VI [2] 2015/116 - 121

118

transmission lines are modelled as unit cells

with series inductance (LR) and shunt

capacitance (CR), while LH transmission

lines are modelled as unit cells with series

capacitance (CL) and shunt inductance (LL).

(a) (b)

(a) RH Transmission Line Unit Cell

(b) LH Transmission Line unit Cell

Fig 1: Transmission Line Circuit Model Unit Cell

The propagation constant for the RH and LH

unit cell are given by equation (i) and (ii)

respectively.

βRH = ω√ …………(i)

βLH = ω√ …………(i)

By plotting a ω-β diagram, commonly

referred to as dispersion diagram, the group

velocity (vg=dω/dβ) and phase velocity

(vp=ω/β) of a material can be directly

observed. The dispersion diagram for the unit

cell are plotted in figure below.

Fig 2: Dispersion Diagram of Unit Cell

The dispersion diagrams of Fig - 2 shows

that vg and vp of the RH transmission line

are parallel (vg.vp>0), while vg and vp for

LH transmission line are antiparallel

(vg.vp<0). Therefore an RH transmission line

supports a forward wave, while an LHtransmission line supports a backward wave.

In addition, the LH transmission line’s

dispersion diagram shows that vg approaches

infinity as frequency increases. However, this

is not physically possible since it violates

Einstein’s special theory of relatively. This

means that a pure LH transmission line is not

possible. Instead, the unit-cell model has to

be modified to account for unavoidable

parasitic effects with any practical realization

of a LH transmission line.

A pure LH transmission line (Eleftheriades et

al., 2002) cannot be physically realized due

to RH parasitic effects. As a result, a LH

transmission line is a more general model of

a composite right/left-handed (CRLH)

transmission line, which also includes RH

attributes. The general model of a CRLH TL

is shown in Fig 3 and consists of a series RH

inductance LR, a series LH capacitance CL, a

shunt RH capacitance CR , and a shunt

inductance LL. A pure LH transmission line

cannot be physically realized due to RH parasitic effects. The propagation constant

for the CRLH unit-cell is given by

βCRLH =S(ω)� ( ∗ ∗ ) + (

∗∗) − ( +

)

where S(ω) = -1, if ω < ωΓ1= min( ,

)

S(ω) = 1, if ω > ωΓ2= max (

,

)

A CRLH unit cell is a combination of via

(cylindrical metal generally perfect electric

conductor) and microstrip gaps whose

behavior is equivalent to the combination of

series capacitors and shunt inductors

respectively. And is used to realize

Metamaterial and this is called transmissionline approach to realize Metamaterial.



Ghosh et al. /Vol. VI [2] 2015/116 - 121

119

Metamaterial using unit cell is called

transmission line approach. The transmission

line approach is made by shunt inductance

and series capacitance. The via is used to

shot the ground plane and the patch and

behaves like a shunt inductor and the series

capacitors can be obtained by the gaps

created by the free plates or patches.

Fig 3: General Model of CRLH Transmission Line

(a)Via in an Unit Cell (b) Cascaded Unit Cell

Fig 4: CRLH Unit Cell Structure

Design Of The Antenna

A single layer planar DNG (Ziolkowski,

2003) antenna photo etched on thin substrate

[2] is designed. First we have taken a ground

plane of height 0.017mm next a rectangular

substrate (44mm×40mm×1.6mm) of duroid

having permittivity 2.2 is developed. A

circular patch having radius 8mm (Kwaha et

al., 2011) , width of 2mm and a circular gap

having an outer radius of 6mm and inner

radius of 5.8mm is printed on the substrate

(Fig 5). A via of radius 0.2mm is insert edat

the center point of the patch as shown in the

Fig 6. For feeding we have used a

microstripline of length 9.8mm, width 5mm

and height of 0.017mm, by using the above

dimensions a gap of 0.2 mm is found

between the microstrip line and the patch.

Metallic walls of thickness 1mm are placed

at a distance of λg/4 from the patch as shown

in the figure. Our antenna is simulated using

Ansys HFSS-16. Directly, negative

permittivity and permeability values can be

entered using HFSS, based on finite element

method.

Fig - 5

Fig - 6

Results

The frequency range of 8GHz to 12GHz is

taken for the simulation of the antenna. Fromthe 3D pattern it is shown that the gain for

10GHz frequency is 11.7dB as shown in Fig

- 7. The S-parameter is in good agreement

with the resonant frequency (Kwaha et al.,

2011) with optimization. The Fig 8 implies

that the antenna radiates best at 5.24 GHz,

where S(1,1)= -33.69dB. The graph also

shows that the proposed antenna is a narrow

band antenna. Fig 9 shows the 2D radiation

patterns for our antenna with E and H field.



Ghosh et al. /Vol. VI [2] 2015/116 - 121

120

Fig 7

Fig - 8

In the paper (Kalia and Behera, 2011), the

gain achieved by the antenna with one ‘via’

was 3.786dB at 5.0GHz frequency. In our

proposed antenna structure, three additional

metallic walls are placed at a distance of λg/4

from the circular patch with a ‘via’ at the

center of the patch as shown in Fig 5.The

simulation result shows an enhancement of

the gain to 11.7dB at 10.0GHz frequency.

Further, array can be developed to enhancethe gain of the structure. Simulation results

promises a gain of 10dB to 21.75dB. The

beam width from Fig 9 can be obtained,

which would come to be near about 60°.

Fig - 9

Conclusion

References

Alici, K. B. and Ozbay, E. (2007):Electrically small split ring resonator

antennas”, J. Appl. Phys.,101: 083104-

1–083104-4.

Dong, Y.; Toyao, H. and Itoh, T. (2011):

Miniaturized zeroth order resonance

antenna over a reactive impedance

surface”, Proc. Int. Workshop Antenna

Technol. pp. 58–61.

Dong, Y.; Toyao, H. and Itoh, T. (2012):

Design and characterization of

miniaturized patch antennas loaded

with complementary split-ring

resonators, IEEE Trans. Antennas

Propag. 60(2): 772–785.

Dong, Yuandan and Itoh, Tatsuo (2012):

Metamaterial-Based Antennas, IEEE,IEEE. 100 (7).

Eleftheriades, G.V.; Iyer, A.K.; Kremer, P.C.

(2002): Planar negative refractive index

media using periodically L-C loaded

transmission lines. IEEE Trans.

Microwave Theory Tech., 50(12):

2702-2712.

Hany E. Abd El-Raouf; Sulaiman SyedZaheer and Yahia M. M. Antar (2008):

Design of small antennas based on

DNG Metamaterials, IEEE

international RF and Microwave

conference, December 2-4.

Kalia, Jyotisankar and Behera, S. K. (2011):

Compact High Radiation Metamaterial

Antenna For Wireless Application

International conference in electronic

system (ICES-2011), NIT Rourkela.



Ghosh et al. /Vol. VI [2] 2015/116 - 121

121

Kwaha, B. J.; Inyang, O. N and Amalu, P.

(2011): The circular microstrip patch

antenna – design and implementation.

Veselago, V. G. (1968): The electrodynamics

of substances with simultaneously

negative values of µ and ɛ, Sov. Phys.

Uspekhi, vol.10, no. 4, pps. 509-514.

Zhang, Y. ; Hagen, J. von; Younis, M.;

Fischer, C. and Wiesbeck, W. (2003):

Planar artificial magnetic conductors

and patch antennas”, IEEE Trans.

Antennas Propag. 51(10): 2704–2712.

Ziolkowski, R.W. (2003): Design,

fabrication, and testing of double

negative metamaterials”, IEEE Trans.

on Antennas and Propagation, 51(7):

1516-1529.



Vishwas et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/122 - 125

122

Gesture Controlled Quadcopter

Vishwas, Shivam; Arora, Rishabh; Bhaskar, Nikhil; Lal, Suraj Kr; Bhandwal, Mohit


Abstract

During designing of the gesture controlled

quad copter there are few things which has to

consider about its multitasking abilities and

its control through the hand gesture. Most of

the quad copters are controlled by the wifi

remote sensor or infrared sensor. This paper

describes the movement of quad copter

movement via hand gestures. The sensors

like orientation sensor (G Sensor),

accelerometer and gyroscope attached to the

quad copter sense the movement of quad

copter. For controlling the motion of the quad

copter on three directions we coupled all the

control of quad copter with the gesture

controlled sensor mounted in glove. The

movement of the quad copter in three

dimensions is controlled by the gesture made

by hand. This experiment was verysuccessful and the moment was controlled by

the moving gesture of hand.

Keywords: Quad copter | Accelerometer |

Orientation sensor (G Sensor) | Gyroscope

Introduction

One of the most versatile and complex flyingmachine which can perform various task due

to its multitasking ability in today’s world is

Quad copter (UA). They have been

researched in many applications and some

are capable of doing aggressive maneuvers.

Mellinger et al., (2010), Conventional quad

copter has been using four asymmetrical

motors of same capability. All the four equal

length arms have equal rotor blades and

motors attached to its very end. Each single

system has been studied and developed in

order to meet safety requirement. Instead of

having all of its capabilities there are many

safety concerns regarding its control has

came into light. Most of the quad copters are

controlled by the wifi remote sensor or

infrared sensor. Carrying of remote andkeeping it in charge is sometimes very

complex and difficult. There has been major

change in the remote design and system in

recent years. There has been recent

development in wireless technology which

we coupled in with modern sensors. For

controlling the motion of the quad copter on

three directions we coupled all the control ofquad copter with the gesture controlled


Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [122 – 125] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]


For Correspondence:

Department of Mechanical & Automation, Amity School

of Engineering & Technology, Amity University, Noida


mailto:[email protected]





123

sensor mounted in glove. The model were the

first rotaty wing to complete a flight to fly 1

kilometer (McGowen, 2005). The movement

of the quad copter in three dimensions is

controlled by the gesture made by hand. This

experiment was very successful and the

moment was controlled by the moving

gesture of hand

Earlier projects were made in which quad

copter was controlled using Xbox kinetic

camera. It helps to control the quad copter in

less complicate manner. It uses the pitch

length algorithm to share data between the

controller and quad copter. The gyro sensor

in quad copter and high frame rate of camera

play vital role in closed loop configuration.

Equipment used in this process were arduino

Uno & hop erf rfm73 2.4ghz Nordic

nof2420+rfic

Quad copter being used to control using the

ultraviolet waves in PID controller. There are

two methods used to control this concept

mode based and unmode based. In mode

based independent controller for each state

are needed and a higher level controller to

decide the interactive level. Other one is

unmode based where we use single controller

to control all state together. These use

transformation of yaw, pitch and roll angle to

send the feedback to pid controller.Quad copters were used in detection of

human body. It uses image processing

feedback method. It used algorithm using

vector machine, ad boost, partial least square

method, edge detection, thermal vision, laser

vision to sense the changes which helps in

detection of human body.(start-image-binary-

detection tracing algorithm-detect-yes-sendinformation to micro controller ).

Quad copter being used to detect the human

body using the image processing method

using the GUI (graphic user interface).it uses

image to communicate between device and

user interaction.

Design

The design of the quad copter model is based

on the conventional way. The first design of

the quad copter was designed to be as simple

as possible, and was created in the

preliminary project (Øyvind, 2010). Using

four aluminum bars the base frame was

designed. Due to its low weight aluminum

was considered for manufacturing. For the

fitting of the sensor and control board was a

cox which was created in the center of all the

four bars. It was serval centimeters from the

center of gravity and would give dynamical

acceleration because of its translate motions

due to the placement, and not just sense the

gravity (Rakshit and Chattopadhyay, 2004).

The hand glove was designed to couple with

the sensor for the movement of the

quadcopter. The model uses only the

fingertips as input data and permits a model

that represents each fingertip trajectory

through space as a simple vector (Oka et al.,

2002).This hand model is designed in three

dimension with considerable DOF’s and

there is comparison to estimate the hand parameter by comparison between 3D hand

model and 2D appearance projected by the

model (Sidenbladh et al., 2000).




124

Copter Design

3D Model of Frame

Aurdino Uno

Hand Fitted with Sensor

Methodology

For controlling the quad copter through the

hand gesture it is important to couple the

sensor fitted in the quad copter with the

sensor fitted in the hand gloves. The coupling

of the sensor is based upon the flow chart and

the crop irrigation system. Due to the

versality of aurdino-uno was chosen. It’s

quite easy to use aurdino uno and has

capability to burn software easily. Arduino

1.6.4 was used as software to install the

program. Gyroscope and accelerometer arethe sensors which are used to manage the

angle and the movement of the quad copter.

The four brushless motors are connected with

the control sensor mounted on the hand

gloves which gives motion control to motors

coupled. Aurdino Uno transmits Radio

Frequency Signals to Flight controller in

phase of both X and Y axis. Flight Controller

also receives signal from Gyro-sensor and G-

Sensor (Gravity Sensor) which then transmits

the signal to ESC (Electronic Speed

Controller) which controls all the brushless

motor for the flight control and movement of

quadcopter. The signal processing of the

system is done in a flow so the in a system

there is undisrupted and undisturbed

movement in the quadcopter.

Block Diagram or Transmitter and Receiver

Wireless hand Gesture Components




125

Conclusion

In variety of computer application hand

gestures provides an indigenous interaction

between human interface and computer

system. Vision based is the second way of

collecting data. This paper presents the most

advance technology to control the quad

copter wirelessly. In the experiment done in

the movement was controlled by hand as the

hand was moved up the quad copter gained

height in proper relation. Using gesture

controlled sensor and the modern quad copter

technology coupled together the quad copter

controlling technology changed its shape.

Combination of both of the gyro and

accelerometer values was very difficult but

by using Kalman filter, which is the most

common approach of combining these two

sensors by filtering out noise from both

sensors and derived angles to range between

-90 and 90 degrees.

References

McGowen, Stanley S. (2005):. Helicopters:

an illustrated history of their impact.

ABC-CLIO, Inc.

Mellinger, D.; Michael, N. and Kumar, V.

(2010): Trajectory generation and

control for precise aggressive

maneuvers with quadrotors. In

Proceedings of the International

Symposium on Experimental Robotics.

Oka, K.; Sato, Y. and Koike, H. (2002):

Real-time tracking of multiplefingertips

and gesure recognition for augmented

desk interface systems, In IEEE

International Conference on Automatic

Face and Gesture Recognition.

Øyvind Magnussen Kjell E. Skjønhaug

(2010): The quadcopter investigation.

Technical report, University of Agder.

Rakshit, P.C.; Chattopadhyay, D. (2004):

Elements Of Physics, Vol. 1. New Age

International Publisher.

Sidenbladh, M.; Black and D. Fleet (2000):

Stochastic tracking of 3Dhuman figures

using 2D image motion. In Sixth

European Conferenceon Computer

Vision, pages II:702–718, Dublin,

Ireland.



Gaur et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/126 - 129

126

Gesture Controlled Quadcopter

Gaur, Vivek; Mishra Abhishek; Aquil, Manal; Thapa, Himanshi and Verma, Rahul Kumar


AbstractIn designing of a gesture controlled gimble

during the flight of a quadcopter. This paper

describes the sensing of hand gestures using

sensors like accelerometer and gyroscope.

Their integrated outputs are transmitted and

received wirelessly through a X-Bee attached

on both the ends. This helps in operating a

gimble attached to a quadcopter. The proposed design of gesture controlled gimble

gives movement in X,Y axis when the

quadcopter is in aerial flight state. Most

common of the movements were used and

the system was designed in a way so that the

best results can be seen.

Keywords: Gimble | Quadcopter |

Accelerometer | Gyroscope

IntroductionA quadcopter is one of the most complex

flying machines due to its versatility to

perform any type of aerial tasks. Classical

quadcopters or quadrotors are usually

equipped with four rotors and now a days a

gimble is attached to control the camera

angles and its movement. A gimble is a

simple structural design consisting of three

motors usually brushless to control the

camera movement in X,Y as well as circular

direction. These sort of models are now a

days used in surveillance, photography etc.

A primary goal of gesture recognition system

is to create a system which can identify

specific human gestures and use them to

convey information or for device control

(Butalia and Shah, 2010). The main idea of

this paper is to build a gimble that can be

controlled by hand gestures wirelessly.

Through hand gestures a user is able to

control the motion of this gimble in both X

and Y axis. Thus, helping the camera to

provide the desired view.

Review of Literature

Not much work has been done on designing a

gimble that can be controlled by the human


Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [126 – 129] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]


For Correspondence:

Amity University, Noida, Uttar PradeshEmail: [email protected]







Gaur et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/126 - 129

127

hand gestures. But because in this research

we are focusing epically on motion gestures

(Bhattacharya et al. (2012))there have been

many questions especially about the motion

gesture design that has been left unanswered

in the past researches like what parameters

do users manipulate to create different types

of motions and gestures? Is there a design

space or taxonomy of different dimension

that design can manipulate in the creations of

these gestures? Etc. In this paper, we

describe the results of a guesibility study for

motion gestures which elects natural gestures

from end users as follows: given a task to

perform with the device (e.g. Rotating the

gimble motors to get different views from

camera, Zoom IN, Zoom OUT for camera)

(Mistry and Chang, 2009). The results of the

study yields a specific research contribution

to motion gesture design i.e. participants

were asked to give motions to operate a

gimble as per their convenience and then themost common movements were reviewed

and selected. As a result an end user motion

gesture which was very easy and convenient

for the user was selected. These motions

selected by the users were performed,

wearing a glove equipped with an

accelerometer and a gyroscope. The range of

outputs were received and studied thoroughly

and logics were designed to operate the servo

motors using them. The two servo motors

were synchronized together to obtain the best

results.

Block Diagram Or Transmitter And

Receiver

The block diagram of gesture controlled

gimbleis shown in the Fig 1. The reason of

choosing Arduino Uno was its versatility,

cost effectiveness and numerous other

advantages. Arduino Uno is quite easy to

operate and at the same time it is easy to burn

a program in it. It has an Atmega 328p and

Fig 1: Block Diagram of transmitter and receiver

uses its own software to burn the program.

The software used was Arduino 1.6.4.

The system makes use of two sensors i.e.

accelerometer and gyroscope.Theaccelerometer used in this paper was

ADXL335. This sensor is used to measure

the change or palm movement in X,Y and Z

axis. Although outputs of onlyX and Y axis

were used for more convenience. The sensor

is very small, low profile package with

excellent temperature stability and can

survive about 1000 G shocks. The gyrosensor

used in this paper is GY-521 MPU 6050.

This sensor is also used to measure the

movements in X,Y and Z axis. This sensor

also is very small in size and gives accurate

readings in all sorts of temperatures. For

communication between both the ends X-Bee

were used at both transmitting and receiving

end. X-Bee is one of the most commonly

used signals transmission device in today’sera. It has an outdoor range of about 300 feet.



Gaur et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/126 - 129

128

Servo motors used were Futaba s303 (Kaura

et al ., 2013). They have an operating

temperature range of -20 to 60 degree

Celsius. They have a high torque of 3.2 kg

per cm. Thus they were the best in market to

be used.

Flow Chart

Fig 2: Design of flow of outputs.

Input parameters

As shown in figure 2, the outputs from the

hand gestures were obtained through

accelerometer and gyrosensor outputs

(Shiravandi et al., 2013). The outputs of the

gyrosensors are more accurate and stable in

comparison t the accelerometer. The mail

aim of using a gyrosensor was to make the

system redundant i.e. if the outputs of the

accelerometer were not received due to any

technical glitch then the system would

automatically shift to the output of

gyrosensor. The outputs are thus fed in to

Arduino Uno which processes them so that

they can be transmitted through X-Bee. Theinputs received from Accelerometer and

gyrosensors are both received in analog form

whereas the signal transmitted by the X-Bee

is in the digital signal form. Thus, the analog

signal is converted to digital form and then

transmitted.

Output Parameters

The signal is received by a X-Bee receiver

and is decoded. This decoded signal is then

fed into an Arduino Uno and the servo

motors are operated. The inputs of the X axis

are used for to regulate Servo1 in X-axis

whereas the inputs of the Y-axis are used to

rotate the servo2 in Y axis.

Both the motors are synchronized to get the

best glitch free output.

Experimental Results

Table1. Data Recorded during tests

The outputs of the accelerometer and

gyroscope ranged from 235 to 540 in analog

units. These outputs were converted into a

range of 0-1023, where 235=0 and 540=1023and then this range was used to define the

angles of the motor where 0=0degree and

1023=170degree.

Both the servos are kept at an initial angle of

90 ̊ for a straight palm parallel to the earth.

Conclusion

This is a small effort made in the field of

quadcopters and one of its most popular

applications of aerial surveillance and aerial



Gaur et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/126 - 129

129

photography. The gimble was earlier

controlled through a channeled remote

control. But now operating a gimble would

be much more convenient and user friendly,

as simple hand gestures would provide the

desired view from the camera. This paper

also shows our vision of introducing hand

gestures controlled quadcopters and

quadrotors which would be much more user

friendly and flying them would be much

more easy and convenient.

References

Bhattacharya, S.; Czejdo, B. and Perez, N.

(2012): “Gesture classification with

machine learning using Kinect sensor

data”, Emerging Applications of

Information Technology (EAIT), 2012

Third International Conference, (2012)

pp. 348 - 351.

Butalia, Ayesha and Shah, Divya (2010): D.

R. D. Gesture Recognition System,

International Journal of Computer

Applications.

Kaura, Harish Kumar; Honrao, Vipul; Patil,

Sayali and Shetty, Pravish (2013):

“Gesture Controlled Robot using Image

Processing”, (IJARAI) International

Journal of Advanced Research in

Artificial Intelligence. 2(5): 2013.

Mistry, Pranav; and Chang, L. (2009): WUW

- Wear Ur World - A Wearable

Gestural Interface.

Shiravandi, S.; Rahmati, M. and Mahmoudi,

F. (2013): “Hand gestures recognition

using dynamic Bayesian networks”, AI

& Robotics and 5th RoboCup Iran

Open International Symposium

(RIOS), 2013 3rd Joint Conference.



Arun Kumar/Vol. VI [2] 2015/130 - 140

130

A study of Role Conflict and Occupational Stress in Relation to Quality of

Life of Married Working Women

Kumar, Arun


Abstract

It was a practice that women would

principally do the household tasks, bringing

up families and men would work to impart

financial support to the family in all class of

society not only in India but also in most

parts of world. No doubt, increasing number

of women is taking up jobs in various fields, but it entails peculiar problems too. Men and

women have become dysfunctional to some

extent due to the rapid changes in traditional

roles. Now-a-days many working women

experience conflict and stress in their

essential fulfillment of roles of wifehood,

motherhood and earning hand of the family.

Different expectations of others brings within

it not only role conflicts but also work stress,

effecting him physically and leads to

inefficiency or disability in correct

performance of her different duties. The

present study is an attempt to investigate the

effect of role conflict and occupational stress

working women in the age range on twenty

five to forty five years was included in the

study through purposive sampling technique

from different government organizations of

Hardwar district. Role conflict, Occupational

Stress Index and WHO Quality of Life scales

were used to measure the role conflict,

occupational stress and quality of life of

married working women. Critical analysis of

the data revel that married working women

are high on role overload, role conflict,

unreasonable group and political pressure,

under participation and poor peer relations in

occupational stress. Whereas inter-correlation

of the all eighteen variables of role conflict,

occupational stress and quality of life revel

that that married working women high on

role conflict is low on responsibility for

person, unprofitability in occupational stress

and psychological functioning, social

relations and general well being of married

working women. Married working women

high on role overload were low peer

relationship. Negative significant correlation

of role ambiguity with physical health alsoshows poor physical health of married


Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [130 – 140] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]


For Correspondence:

Dept. of Psychology

Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, Hardwar








Arun Kumar/Vol. VI [2] 2015/130 - 140

131

working women. All these observations

points out that woman in professional job

positions with high job demand were more

prone to experience role conflict and

occupational stress which affects their

quality of life.

Keywords: Married working women |

occupational stress | role conflict | quality of

life

Introduction

It was a practice that women would

principally do the household tasks, bringing

up families, whereas men would work toimpart financial support to the family in India

as well as in most part of world. The

economic development of any country

requires an integration of both the male and

female labor forces. This means that beside

men, women have to contribute to

development process of the country,

economic growth and poverty reduction. No

doubt, increasing number of women is taking

up jobs in various fields, but it entails

peculiar problems too. As contemporary

Indian society is at the transitional stage, the

working women phenomena is yet to be fully

integrated in the larger patterns of culture. It

requires ample modifications and

readjustment in various aspects of the

culture.

Men and women have been becoming

dysfunctional to some extent due to the rapid

changes in traditional roles. There is fluidity

of sex role definitions causing lots of

problems. These days many working women

experiences conflict and stresses in their

essential fulfillment of roles of wifehood,

motherhood and earning hand of the family.Young women of today are educated and

many are qualified for various professions.

No doubt, the concept of working women has

been widely accepted but even in this

emancipated era, when we have entered the

twenty first century, mothers continue to

assume major responsibility for childcare. It

is still thought that due to lack of time for her

child, she is depriving the child emotionally.

Women are experiencing several types of

frustrations and pressure of trying to maintain

a balance between family and career; and as a

result women have been facing role conflict

and occupational stress affecting their quality

of life.

According to Kapur (1974) women who

choose to combine marriage with career face

almost a situation of formlessness and they

hardly know how to apportion time and

resource between these two major

responsibilities. This makes the experience

great conflict. Paterson(1978) confirmed

that the job taken by women created moreconflicting situation for them due to double

role played and inability to tolerate the whole

burden. Role conflicts among the roles

corresponding to two or more statuses. In

general, role conflict is a situation where an

individual cannot properly enact two (or

more) roles at the same time without facing

problems. Role conflict between work andfamily is a situation where the roles that a

woman has at work cannot be properly

enacted because of the roles she has at home;

- a situation where the roles that a woman has

at home cannot be properly enacted because

of the roles she has at work.

Occupational stress is known as stress at

work. Asad and Khan (2003) interpreted that

occupational stress is the effect of tension on

an employee by the job pressures to fulfill



Arun Kumar/Vol. VI [2] 2015/130 - 140

132

job assignment and to respond to deadline.

According to Onder and Basim (2008)

occupational stress is defined as a response to

chronic job-related stress, characterized by

physical and emotional exhaustion. It refers

to the process through employees perceive,

appraise and respond to adverse or

challenging job demand at work (Frese and

Zapf, 1988). Jex (1998) reported that the

topic of occupational stress has generated a

tremendous volume of research in a

surprisingly short period of time.

Quality of life as defined by world health

organization is individual’s perception of

their position in life in the context of the

culture and value systems in which they live

and in relation to their goals, expectations,

standards, and concerns (Orley et al ., 1997;

The WHOQOL group, 1996). It is a broad

ranging concept, incorporating in a complex

way individual physical health, There has

been considerable discussion of whatconstitutes quality of life and psychological

state, level of independence, social

relationships, personal beliefs, and their

relationship to silent features of the

environment. This definition highlights the

view that quality of life is multidimensional.”

Quality of life can be affected by a number of

significant positive and negative life events.The factors contributing to the quality of life

of an individual may be broadly classified

under two groups: (i) satisfactory conditions:

These include factors like group

cohesiveness, sharing of each other’s

experiences, helping attitudes, understanding

and sharing each other’s problems, absence

of conflicts among members, absence of

mental or severe physical illness, etc.; (ii)

satisfying conditions: these include factors

like sense of belongingness, subjective

feelings of physical psychological, mental,

social and spiritual well-being, absence of

unhappy experiences within the family etc.

Although role conflict and occupational

stress has been studied fairly and extensively

among male managers, administrators,

human resource professionals, IT-

professionals to date but very little research

focused on married working women in

relation to their quality of life particularly in

India. Many authorities in India have now

recognized the crucial role of working

women in the development of not only her

family but also the progress of the nation. If

the working women is misfits or are

indifferent to their responsibilities the whole

system of the caring of the family and

development of the society is then likely to

be ineffective and largely wasted. So, it is

important to measure role conflict and

occupational stress among married workingwomen in relation to their quality of life.

Thus, if role conflict and occupational stress

and its effect on their quality of life do exist

in married working women, there are

implications for the design of intervention

programs intended to alleviate the harmful

aspects of role conflict and job stress. It is

important for married working women tounderstand how role conflict and job stress

can have negative effect on their quality of

life so that with proper support from family

and their work organization and guidance it

can be minimized.

Methodology

For this a sample of 140 married working

women in the age range on twenty five toforty five years were included in the study



Arun Kumar/Vol. VI [2] 2015/130 - 140

133

through purposive sampling from different

organizations of district Hardwar. Exclusion

criteria: Those married working women were

excluded from the study those have past

history of a) chronic medical diseases such

as asthma, heart diseases, pre-history of

hypertension etc. b) having severe family or

marital problems. Role conflict, Occupational

Stress Index and WHO Quality of Life scales

were used to measure the role conflict,

occupational stress and quality of life of

married working women.

Tools

Role conflict scale for working women

(Verma and Vinayak, 1999):It is four point

rating scale having 26 items with responses

categories, viz. ‘always’, ‘often’, ‘something’

and ‘never’. Split half reliability of the scale

is 0.93. This scale can be used to measure

role conflict in women irrespective of age,

education, and years of married life.

Occupational Stress Index - Shrivastava and

Singh (1984). The scale consists of 46 items,

each to be rated on the five-point scale. The

items relate to almost all relevant

components of the job life which cause stress

in some way or the other and measures ‘role

overload’, ‘role ambiguity’, ‘role conflict’,

‘unreasonable group and political pressure’,

‘responsibility for persons’, ‘under participation’, ‘powerlessness’, ‘poor pear

relations’, ‘intrinsic impoverishment’, ‘low

status’, ‘strenuous working conditions’, ‘un-

profitability’.

World health organization Quality of life

scale (WHO QOL) - BREF: The

questionnaire has been developed by work

health organization group in 1996 in order to provide a short form quality of life

assessment that looks at Domain level

profiles. It is an abbreviated 26 item

assessment and contains 2 items from the

overall QOL and general health, and one item

from each of the 24 facets included in WHO

QOL - 100 for providing and comprehensive

assessment. Each item is rated on a five point

scale. The questionnaire assesses quality of

life in 4 domain, namely physical health,

psychological, social relationship,

environment.

Procedure

Every married working woman was seated

comfortably and informal consent was taken

for participation in the study. All three tests

were administered to each married working

woman individually. Responses to the role

conflict scale, Occupational Stress index,

WHO-Quality of life scale were noted down.

The tests were administered strictly

according to their prescribed manual

instructions. Participants were assured that

their results and the information obtained

would be kept confidential and used for

research purpose only.

Statistical Techniques and Analysis of

Data

The necessary data for each of the test that

was used in the study was collected and

scrutinized; scores were tabulated for finding

out the nature of test scores all of the

variables under consideration. Mean, median,

standard division, skewness, kurtosis, and

Pearson’s product moment correlation at

significance level of 0.01 and 0.05 levels

were seen among all the variables.

Results and discussion

The present study has been undertaken to

assess the role conflict, occupational stress,



Arun Kumar/Vol. VI [2] 2015/130 - 140

134

and quality of life among married working

women. The data was collected from 140

married working women of different

government organizations of district

Haridwar. The data has been organized and

described to yield the statistics namely mean,

median, mode and standard deviation to

study the general nature of the data sample

for the variables of role conflict, occupational

stress, and quality of life. To find out the

significance relation between the different

variables of role conflict, occupational stress,

and quality of life the Pearson’s product

moment correlation was calculated.

N Percentage

Age 25 to 29

30 to 34

35 to 39

40 to 45

31

43

51

15

22.14

30.71

36.23

10.71

Occupation Clerical job

Teaching

Doctors

Technicians

39

41

33

27

27.85

29.28

23.57

19.28

Qualification Intermediate

Graduates

Post graduates

Doctorates

49

62

25

4

35

44.28

17.85

2.85

Duration of Job Upto 5 yrs

Upto 10 Yrs

Upto 15 yrs

20 yrs or more

35

41

48

15

25

29.28

34.28

10.71

Married life in years Upto 5 yrs

Upto 10 Yrs

Upto 15 yrs

20 yrs or more

31

43

51

15

22.14

30.71

36.42

10.71

Number of Children No child

Single child

Two children

More than two

8

39

75

18

5.71

27.85

53.57

12.85

Joint family of nuclear family Nuclear

Joint family

94

46

67.14

32.85

Table I: Socio-demographic features of the sample

As per the socio-demographic features of thesample of 140 married working women

51(36.23%) were in the age group of 35 to 39

years. As per the occupational status

41(29.28%) were teachers, 39 (27.85%) were

of clerical jobs, 33(23.57%) were doctors and

27 (19.28%) were of technical job. As per

qualification 62 (44.28%) were graduates and

49 (35%) were intermediate. 48(34.28%)were married working women having up to

fifteen years of job and 41 (29.28%) have upto 10 years of job. As per the duration of

married life 51 (36.42%) have up to 15 years

of married life and 43(30.71) were having up

to 10 years of married life. 75(53.57%)

married working women have two children

and 39 (27.85%) were having single child.

94(67.14%) married working women live in

nuclear family and 46(32.85%) were of jointfamily.



Arun Kumar/Vol. VI [2] 2015/130 - 140

135

Table-II exhibits the scores of minimum

scores, maximum scores, mean, standard

division, skewness, kurtosis for role conflict

of married working women. The mean scores

of married working women is 47.64

Role Conflict

Min. 26

Max 93

Mean 47.64

SD 13.61

SK 1.08

Kt 1.35

Table II: Minimum, maximum, mean, standard deviation,

skewness and kurtosis of the scores of Role

Conflict (N=140)Table - III exhibits the scores of minimum

scores, maximum scores. mean, standard

Table - III exhibits the scores of minimum

scores, maximum scores. mean, standard

division, skewness, kurtosis for twelve

dimensions of occupational stress, i.e., “role

overload ‟, “role ambiguity‟, “role conflict”,

“unreasonable group and political pressure”,

“responsibility for persons”, “under

participation”, “powerlessness”, “poor pear

relations”, “intrinsic impoverishment”, “low

status”, “strenuous working conditions”, and

“un-profitability”. The mean scores of twelve

dimensions of occupational stress are 17.42,

9.11, 12.75, 10.69, 8.63, 12.76, 9.74, 11.21,

9.71, 7.39, 9.51, and 5.79 respectively. After

analysis of data revel that married working

women are high on role overload, role

conflict, unreasonable group and political

pressure, under participation and poor peer

relations dimensions of occupational stress.

Table III: Minimum, maximum, mean, standard

deviation, skewness and kurtosis of the scores of

occupational stress (N=140)

Table-IV exhibits the scores of minimum

scores, maximum scores, mean, standard

division, skewness, kurtosis of five

dimensions, i.e., “physical health”,

“psychological functioning”, “social

relationships”, “environment” and “general

wellbeing” of quality of life of married

working women. Mean scores are 25.31,

22.49, 11.96, 30.19, and 7.22 respectively

high on physical health, psychological

functioning and environment dimensions of

quality of life.

Table IV: Minimum, maximum, mean, standard

deviation, skewness and kurtosis of the scores of

occupational stress (N=140)



Arun Kumar/Vol. VI [2] 2015/130 - 140

136

*Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) Table V: Inter correlation matrix between different**Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) variables of role conflict, occupational stress, and quality

of life (N=140)

Table-V shows the Pearson’s product

moment correlation matrix, calculated among

all the eighteen variables. From the inter-

correlation table, it can be seen thatrole

conflict scores have negativesignificant

correlation with responsibility for persons (r=

-.231, df =138, p<.05), and positive

significant correlations with under

participation (r=.240, df =138, p<.05), poor

peer relations (r= .366, df = 138, p<.01),

negative significant correlation with

unprofitability (r= -.350, df =138, p<.01),

positive significant correlation with physical

health (r= .502, df =138, p<.01) and negative

correlations with psychological functioning

(r= -.490, df =138, p<.01),social relations (r=-

.422, df =138, p<.01) and general wellbeing

(r=-.439, df =138, p<.01).

The negative significant correlation of role

conflict with responsibility for persons,

unprofitability, psychological functioning,

social relations and general wellbeing revel

that married working women high on role

conflict is low on responsibility for person,

unprofitability in occupational stress and

psychological functioning, social relations

and general wellbeing which shows low

quality of life of married working women.

Role conflict has also positive correlation

with under participation, poor peer relations

physical health. This shows that married

working women high on role conflict are also

high on under participation, poor peer

relations.

Role overload has significant positive

correlation with role ambiguity (r=.236,

df =138, p<.05), unreasonable group and

political pressure (r=.275, df =138, p<.01),

responsibility of others (r=.506, df =138,

p<.01), negative significant correlation with

under participation (r=-.222, df =138, p<.05),

poor peer relations (r=-.383, df =138, p<.01),

positive significant correlations with

strenuous working conditions (r=.250,

df =138, p<.05) unprofitability (r= .592,

df =138, p<.01) and psychological

functioning (r = .246,df =138, p<.05 ).Positive

significant correlation of role overload with



Arun Kumar/Vol. VI [2] 2015/130 - 140

137

role ambiguity, unreasonable group and

political pressure, responsibility of others,

strenuous working conditions, unprofitability

and psychological functioning revel

overlapping of the data. Whereas negative

significant correlation with under

participation and poor peer relations shows

that married working women high on role

overload are low on under participation and

peers relationship.

Role ambiguity has significant positive

correlation with role conflict in occupational

stress (r= .253, df =138, p<.05), and

unreasonable group and politic pressure (r =-

365, df =138, p<.01), strenuous working

conditions (r =377, df =138, p<.01), and

negative significant correlation with physical

health (r =-224, df =138, p<.05). The negative

significant correlation of role ambiguity with

physical health show poor physical health of

married working women. Role conflict has

significant positive correlation withunreasonable group and political pressure (r=

.253*, df =138, p<.05), and negative

significant correlation with physical health

(r=-.255, df =138, p<.05). This revel that

married working women who are high on

role conflict are also high on political

pressure whereas negative significant

correlation with physical health shows pooreffect on health.

Unreasonable group and political pressure

has negative significant correlation with poor

peer relations (r =-219df =138, p<.05),

strenuous working conditions (r =-342,

df =138, p<.01). This shows that married

working women high on unreasonable group

and political pressure are low on peer

relations and on work. Whereas also shows

positive significant correlations with

unprofitability (r =316, df =138, p<.01),

environment (r =283, df =138, p<.01), and

general wellbeing (r =352, df =138, p<.01).

Responsibility for persons has negative

correlation with under participation (r =-410,

df =138, p<.01), powerlessness (r =-547,

df =138, p<.01) , poor peer relations(r =-548,

df =138, p<.01), this shows that married

working women who are high on

responsibility for person are low on

participation, peer relations and low in

power. There are also significant positive

correlation of responsibility of persons with

unprofitability(r =547, df =138, p<.01),

psychological functioning (r =331, df =138,

p<.01), environment (r =251, df =138, p<.05),

general wellbeing (r = 351, df =138, p<.01)

shows that married working women who are

high on responsibility of person are also high

on psychological functioning and general

wellbeing.

Under participation has positive significantcorrelation with poor peer relations (r =424,

df =138, p<.01), low status (r =250, df =138,

p<.05), and negative significant correlation

with Unprofitability (r =-386, df =138, p<.01),

environment (r =-329, df =138,

p<.01),powerlessness (r =-588, df =138,

p<.01). The negative significant correlation

of under participation with unprofitability,environment and powerlessness show poor

environment and low in power of married

working women.

Powerlessness has positive significant

correlation with poor peer relations (r =473,

df =138, p<.01), and negative significant

correlations with unprofitability (r =-.39,

df =138, p<.01),psychological functioning (r

=-.229, df =138, p<.05), environment (r =-

211, df =138, p<.05).Poor peer relations has



Arun Kumar/Vol. VI [2] 2015/130 - 140

138

positive significant correlation with intrinsic

improvesment(r =269, df =138, p<.05), and

negative significant correlation with

unprofitability (r =-498, df =138, p<.01),

physical health (r =-.29, df =138, p<.01),

psychological functioning (r =-.391, df =138,

p<.01), environment (r =-307, df =138,

p<.01), general wellbeing (r =.226, df =138,

p<.05).

Psychological functioning has positive

significant correlation with social

relationship (r =210, df =138, p<.05),

environment (r =377, df =138, p<.01), and

negative significant correlation with general

wellbeing (r =-.591, df =138, p<.01).

Socialrelationship has positive significant

correlation with environment (r =454,

df =138, p<.01), general wellbeing (r =783,

df =138, p<.01). And environment has

significant correlation with general wellbeing

(r =665, df =138, p<.01).

On the basis of the obtained results it can be

stated that married working women are high

on role conflict and dimensions of

occupational stress like role overload, role

conflict, unreasonable group and political

pressure, under participation and poor peer

relations.Emmons (1990) also reported that

disproportionate share of household and child

care responsibilities in working motherresulted in home and work responsibilities

being placed in opposition to one another and

hence leading to role conflict. Kumar (2014)

also support the present investigation.

Occupationalstress as being the harmful

physical and emotional responses occurs

when the requirements of the job do not

match the capabilities, resources, or need or

the workers (Humphrey, 1998). Married

working women who are high on role

overload have negative significant correlation

with general wellbeing, i.e., married working

women who are high on role overload are

low on their wellbeing. In occupational stress

role ambiguity has also negative correlation

with physical health means that married

working women who are high on role

ambiguity are low on physical health. Role

conflict of married working women has

negative significant correlation with physical

health means married working women who

are high on role conflict are low on physical

health. Under participation has negative

significantcorrelation with psychological

functioning and environment. This shows

that married working women who are high

on under participation on their job work are

also low on psychological and environmental

health. Powerlessness has negative

significant correlations with psychological

functioning and environment. This shows

that married working women who are highon powerlessness in occupational stress are

low on psychological functioning and

environment. Poor peer relations of married

working women has negative significant

correlation with environment in quality of

life. Married working women of low status

has negative significant correlation with

environment which shows that married

working women who have low status have

not better quality of life.

Conclusion

The outcome of the present research in

finding that there is a significant relationship

between levels of occupational stress and role

conflict in married working women. Mainly

observed that married working women in

professional job positions with high job

demand were more prone to experience work



Arun Kumar/Vol. VI [2] 2015/130 - 140

139

family conflict and work stress affect their

quality of life. Married working women face

stress and conflict in managing their family

life and with work.

Recommendations

• Trained psychologists/ counselors should

be appointed at work place; so that they

may help working women settling issues

of job related stress.

• Social and welfare clubs at work place

should be encouraged to facilitate to

participation of work women in

recreational activities.

• Women-friendly HRM policies should be

framed to encourage women to participate

effectively in the developmental process.

• Child care facilities and family friendly

employment policies should be

encouraged to accommodate the needs and

demands of married working women.

• Rules should be framed that in-service

husband and wife are posted in the same

or nearby place.

• Special attention should be given to the

need of women in the provision of safe

drinking water, sewage disposal, toiled

facilities and sanitation.

Limitations of the Study

Since a small population was interviewed and

purposively selected sample of married

working women from urban area was taken

any generalization of our results should be

made with caution.

References

Asad, N. and Khan, S. (2003): Relationship

between job-stress and burnout:

Organizational support and creativity

as predictor variables. Pakistan Journal

of Psychological Research, Vol. 18,

Nos. 3-4, 139-149.

Emmons, C.A., Biernat, M., Tiedje, L.B.,

Lang, E., &Wortman, C.B. (1990):

Stress, support, and coping among

women professionals with preschool

children.In J. Eckenrode and S. Gore

(Eds.), Stress between work and

family, 66-93. NY: Plenum.

Frese, M., and Zapf, D. (1988):

“Methodological Issues in the study of

work stress”: Objective vs. Subjective

Measurement of Work Stress and

Question of Longitudinal Studies. In:

C. L. Cooper and R. Payne (Eds.)

Causes, Coping and Consequences of

Stress at Work. (pp. 375-411), New

York.Wiley.

Humphrey, J.H. (1998): Job Stress.Needman

Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Jex, S. M. (1998): Stress and Job

performance: theory, research and

implications for managerial practice.

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Kapur, P. (1974): The changing status of the

working women in India, New Delhi,

Vikas Publishing House.

Kumar, A. and Srivastava, S.K. (2007): A

study of occupational stress and coping

strategies among working women in

relation to their feeling of well-

being.Global Journal of Business

Management. Global Vision Publishing

House, New Delhi, 1, No.1

Kumar, A. and Srivastava, S.K. (2014):

Occupational stress among teachers,

feeling of wellbeing and coping

strategies, International Journal of



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Innovative and Applied Research, 2,

(10); 68-76.

Onder, C. and Basim, N. (2008):

Examination of developmental models

of occupational burnout using burnout

profiles of nurses. Journal of Advanced

Nursing; 64(5), 514-523.

Orley, J.; Harper, A.; Power, M.; and

Billington, R. (1997): Development of

the WHOQOL-Brief quality of life

assessment(Abstract). Quality of life

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Paterson, L.R. (1978): An exchange analysisof family roles and marital satisfaction.

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Srivastava, A.K. and Singh, A.P. (1981):

Construction and standardization of an

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study. Indian Journal of Clinical

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Verma, P. and Vinayak, S. (1999):

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Working Women. Indian Journal of

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Program on mental health. World

Health Organization, Geneva.



Shukla et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/141 - 147

141

Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of the leaves of plant

Casearia tomentosa

Shukla, Abha

1; Tyagi, Ritu

1and Shukla, Rishi Kumar

Abstract

In the present study petroleum ether extractof the leaves of plant Casearia tomentosa

were investigated for phytochemical

screening and antioxidant activity. Casearia

tomentosa leaves were extracted by soxhlet

apparatus and phytochemical screening was

evaluated using standard methods. The

antioxidant activity was performed by 1, 1-

diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free

radical scavenging method and Ascorbic acidused as standard antioxidant. Phytochemical

screening revealed that the presence of

various medicinal active phytoconstituent

such as terpenoids, steroids, phytosterol, fat

and oil etc. This extract shows good

antioxidant activity with IC

2


50

value 280

µg/ml. All these experimental analysis

established a good support to the use of this

plant in herbal medicine and can be used to

prevent oxidative stress.

Keywords: Casearia tomentosa |

Phytochemical | Antioxidant activity |

Ascorbic acid | Terpenoids

Introduction

Search for drugs to improve the quality oflife and cure diseases has been a part of

human life right from its beginning. In many

of the well developed ancient civilizations

this knowledge was evaluated and formed an

essential part of the texts of their traditional

systems of medicine, such as Ayurveda,

Siddha and Unani (Singh et al., 2009).

Ayurveda has enriched with numerous plants

introduction, their medicinal importance andusage. Plants have been used and still are

using as a rich source of many natural

products. In India most of which have been

extensively used for traditional human health

care system (Rex and Lyla, 2009).

The Indian Himalayan region alone supports

about 18,440 species of plants of which about

45% are having medicinal properties.

According to Samant et al., out of the total

species of vascular plants, 1748 species are

medicinal. Uttarakhand is a storehouse of a

rich variety of herbs and medicinal and

aromatic plant species (Samant, et al., 1998).

Medicinal plants are increasingly gaining

acceptance even among the literates in urban

settlements, probably due to easy availability,

no side-effects, and better patient

compliance. These contain dozens of active

constituents such as alkaloids, flavonoids,


Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [141 – 147] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]


For Correspondence:1Department of chemistry, Kanya Gurukula Campus,Gurukula Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar (U.K.)2

Department of chemistry, Gurukula KangriVishwavidyalaya, Haridwar (U.K.)Email: [email protected]




142

glycosides, saponins, terpenoids, phytosterol,

steroids, tannins etc which combine to give

the plant its therapeutic value

(Vijayaraghavan et al., 2013). Natural

antioxidants play a key role in health

maintenance and prevention and treatment ofcomplex diseases like atherosclerosis, stroke,

diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease and cancer

(Jayasri et al., 2009; Uddin et al., 2008). In the

last few decades, the demand for natural

antioxidants has been increased due to

consumer concerns about the safety of

synthetic antioxidants (Shukla et al ., 2014).

One of such natural source is Casearia

tomentosa, it is a small tree up to 50-80 cm

girth and 7 m tall belongs to the family

Salicaceae. Its common name is Chilla.

Different parts of Casearia tomentosa is

traditionally claimed for its medicinal

importance like in ulcers, dropsy, fissures,

colic pain in the abdomen, malarial fever,

tonsillitis pain, wounds, and in severe bone

fractures as a plaster (Rao et al., 2014);

Adhikari et al., 2010; Maurya and Seth, 2014).

Therefore, the present investigation was

undertaken to study the antioxidant potential

of this plant and to put forward the evidence

of the fact that this plant is having good

antioxidant activity.

Material And Methods

Plant material

Casearia tomentosa leaves were collected

from Lachhiwala forest Dehradun,

Uttarakhand (India) in the month of August

and September, identified and authenticated

by Botanical Survey of India, (BSI)

Dehradun with accession No.115689. A

voucher specimen has been deposited in

medicinal plants herbarium in Department of

Chemistry, Kanya Gurukula Campus,

Gurukula Kangri Vishwavidyalaya. The

collected leaves were washed, dried in shade

and finally grinded to powdered form and

stored in polythene bags for further use.

Chemicals and reagents

(DPPH)1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl

(Sigma Aldrich), Ascorbic acid (Rankem,

India), Petroleum ether (Merck), Ethanol

(Merck). All the other solvents and chemical

used were of analytical grade.

Extraction

150 gm air dry powderd leaves of Casearia

tomentosa was treated with 1250 ml of

petroleum ether by soxhlet extraction

technique for 18 hr. It was concentrated to

dryness under reduced pressure and

controlled temperature using rotary

evaporator. The petroleum ether extract

yielded a greenish yellow waxy mass. The

collected leaves extract was stored in a

refrigerator.

Phytochemical screening

The phytoconstituents present in petroleum

ether extract was analysed by using standardqualitative method (Evans, 2009; Harborne,

1998). The leaves extract was screened for

the presence of biologically active

compounds like alkaloids, flavonoids,

glycosides, saponins, terpenoids, phytosterol,

steroids, tannins, fat and oils etc.

Alkaloids

Five milligrams of extract was dissolved in

twenty milliliters of dilute HCl and then

filtered.

Mayer’s test:- 5 milliliters of filtrate was

treated with Mayer’s reagent. Yellow colour

precipitate indicates presence of alkaloid.

Wagner’s test:- 5 milliliters of filtrate was

treated with Wagner’s reagent. Brown

reddish precipitate indicates presence of

alkaloids.




143

Dragendroff’s test:- 5 milliliters of filtrate

was treated with Dragendroff’s reagent. Red

precipitate indicates presence of alkaloids.

Hager’s test:- 5 milliliters of filtrate was

treated with Hager’s reagent. Yellow

precipitate indicates presence of alkaloids.

Flavonoids

Alkaline Reagent test:- Extract was treated

with few drops of NaOH solution. Formation

of intense Yellow color which becomes

colourless on addition of dilute acid (HCl or

H2SO4

Molisch Test:- 5 ml filtrate was treated with

a drop of alcoholic naphthol solution in a test

tube. Formation of Violet ring at the junction

indicates the presence of carbohydrates.

) indicates the presence of Flavanoids.

Lead Acetate test:- Extract was treated with

few drops of Lead Acetate solution.

Formation of intense Yellow coloured

precipitates indicates the presence of

flavanoids.

Shinoda’s test:- Small quantity of extract

was dissolved in alcohol. To that few piece

of magnesium with concentrated

hydrochloric acid was added dropwise and

heated. Appearance of magenta colour

indicates the presence of flavonoids.

Sulphuric acid test:- Extract was treated

with few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid

. Yellow orange colour indicates the presence

of flavonoids.

Tannins

Ferric Chloride Test:- 100 mg of the extract

was boiled with 20 ml of 45% ethanol for 5

minutes. The mixture was cooled and then

filtered. Filtrate was diluted with distilled

water and then 2 drops of ferric chloride

solution was added. A transient greenish to

black colour indicates the presence of

tannins.

Carbohydrate

50 mg extracts were dissolved in 20 ml of

distilled water and filtered. The filtrate wasused to test for the presence of carbohydrates.

Fehling’s Test:- 5 ml filtrate was boiled on

water bath with I ml of each Fehling solution

A and B. A red precipitate indicates the

presence of sugar.

Bendict’s Test:- 5 ml filtrate was treated

with Bendict’s reagent and heated gently in

water bath. An orange red precipitate

indicates the presence of reducing sugar.

Barfoed’s Test:- 5 ml filtrate was treated

with Barfoed’s reagent and heated gently inwater bath. An orange red precipitate

indicates the presence of reducing sugar.

Glycosides

Five milligrams of extract was dissolved in

twenty milliliters of dilute HCl and then

filtered.

Modified Borntrager’s test:- Extract was

treated with 5 % Ferric Chloride solution andimmersed in boiling water for about 5

minutes. The mixture was than cooled and

extracted with equal amount of chloroform.

The chloroform layer was separated and

treated with Ammonia solution. Formation of

pink colour in the ammonical layer indicates

the presence of glycosides.

Legal test:- Five milligrams of extract was

treated with sodium nitroprusside in Pyridine

and NaOH. Formation of red colour indicates

the presence of glycosides.

Keller killiani test:- Five milligrams of

extract mixed with chloroform and evaporate

to dryness. Add 1 ml glacial acetic acid

containing trace amount of ferric chloride.

Transfer it to test tube and add carefully 0.5

ml of concentrated H2SO4 by the side of the

test tube. Acetic acid layer shows blue colour

indicates the presence of glycosides.




144

Terpenoids and Steroids

Salwoskii Test:- 20 mg of extract was mixed

with chloroform followed by 3 ml of

concentrated H2SO4 to form a layer. A

reddish brown precipitate coloration at the

interface formed indicated the presence of

terpenoids.

Libermann Buchard’s Test:- Extract was

treated with chloroform and filtered. The

filtrate was treated with few drops of

concentrated sulphuric acid followed by few

drops of acetic acid, 3 ml of acetic anhydride.

Formation of brown ring at the junction

shows the presence of terpenoids and upperlayer turn green which shows presence of

steroids.

Fats and Oils

Saponification Test:- A few drops of 0.5 N

alcoholic KOH are added to small quantity of

extract along with drop of phenolphthalein.

The mixture was heated on water bath for

1hours. Formation of soap or partial

neutralization of alkali indicates the presence

of fixed oil and fats.

Filter paper spot Test:- Extracts rubbed

between filter paper and if a spot resist after

boiling of that filter paper confirm the

presence of fixed oil and fats.

Saponins

Foam test:- 100 mg of the extract was

diluted with 10 ml of distilled water. The

mixture was shaken vigorously and then

observed on standing for stable foam.

Phytosterols

Salwoskii Test:- 5 mg of extract was mixed

with 10 ml of chloroform followed by 3 ml

of concentrated H2SO4

Libermann Buchard’s Test:- Extract was

treated with chloroform and filtered. The

filtrate was treated with few drops of

concentrated sulphuric acid followed by few

drops of acetic acid, 3 ml of acetic anhydride.

A bluish green colour indicates the presenceof phytosterols.

Protein and Amino acid

50 mg extracts were dissolved in 20 ml of

distilled water and filtered.

Millon’s Test:- Few drops of Millon’s

reagent was added to 2 ml of aqueous filtrate.

A white precipitate shows the presence of

protein.

Biuret Test:- In 2 ml of aliquot of filtrate

few drops of 2% copper sulphate solution

was added. To this, 1 ml of ethanol (95%) is

added followed by excess of KOH pellets.

Pink colour in the ethanol layer indicates the

presence of protein.

Ninhydrin Test:- 2 drops of ninhydrin

solution are added to 2 ml of aqueous filtrate.

A characteristic purple colour indicates the

presence of amino acid.

Anthraquinone

Benzene test:-10 mg extract was shaken with

20 ml of benzene and filtered. Few drops of

10% ammonia solution was added to the

filtrate and the mixture was shaken well and

the presence of violet colour in the aqueous

phase in the presence of the authraquinone.

Antioxidant activity

Antioxidant activity of petroleum ether

extract was performed by DPPH free radical

scavenging assay (Brand - Williams et al.,

1995).

DPPH free radical scavenging assay to form a layer. A

brown precipitate coloration at the interface

formed indicated the presence of phytosterols.

The free radical scavenging assay of

petroleum ether leaves extract of Casearia

tomentosa was evaluated by stable DPPH




145

free radical according to the method of

Brand-Williams et.al with some modification

(Brand - Williams et al., 1995). A working

solution of 0.004% was freshly prepared by

dissolving 4 mg of DPPH in 100 ml of

methanol. 1ml of each extract solution ofdifferent concentration (1, 5, 10, 50, 100,

250, 500, 750, 1000 µg/ml) was added to 3

ml working solution of DPPH, Keep this

reaction mixture in dark for 30 min. After 30

min the absorbance of the preparations were

taken at 517 nm with an UV-VIS

spectrophotometer which was compared with

the corresponding absorbance of standard

ascorbic acid of similar concentrations (1-1000 µg/ml). 1 ml of methanol with 3 ml of

working DPPH solution serves as blank.

Then the % inhibition or % anti radical

activity was calculated by equation:

% inhibition = (Absorbance of control−

Absorbance of sample) / (Absorbance of

control) × 100

IC50

The result for phytochemical screening of

Casearia tomentosa leaves are summarized

in Table.1. The Preliminary phytochemical

screening of extract of this plant revealed the

presence of active phytoconstituent such as

steroids, phytosterol, terpenoids and fats and

oils etc. Out of which terpenoids are among

the most widespread and chemically diverse

groups of natural products. It is reported that

plant derived terpenoids possess activities

like antioxidant, anticancer, anti-

inflammatory, sedative, cytotoxic activity

etc. Plant steroids also referred to as ‘cardiac

glycosides’ are one of the most naturally

occurring plant phytoconstituents andnumerous reports support their use as cardiac

drugs and as antioxidant (Mooradian, 1993).

Beside these phytosterols was also present in

this plant extract, which is also responsible

for antioxidant activity[16]. Various reports

support that plants fixed oil have variety of

biological activity such as cytotoxic and

antioxidant etc (Muna et al., 2014)

From above discussion, we can interpret that

the presence of these phytochemicals in

petroleum ether extract shows medicinal

importance of leaves of Casearia tomentosa.

DPPH free radical scavenging assay

DPPH radical scavenging activity is one of

the most widely used method for evaluation

of the antioxidant activity of plant extract.

The principle of DPPH method is based onthe reduction of DPPH in the presence of a

hydrogen donating antioxidant. Extracts

reduce the colour of DPPH due to the power

of hydrogen donating ability (Blosis, 1958).

DPPH is one of the compounds that possess a

proton free radical with a characteristic

absorption, which decreases significantly on

exposure to proton radical scavengers

(Yamaguchi et al., 1998). Petroleum etherextract of leaves showes DPPH anion

scavenging power. The IC

of extract and standard ascorbic acidwas calculated by graphical method by

plotting % inhibition vs concentration.


Extractive yield

The extractive yield (in % w/w) of petroleum

ether extract was 1.515 %. After complete

removal of the solvent its consistency is

waxy and greenish yellow in colour.

Phytochemical screening

50 280 μg/mL, and

20μg/mL were evaluated for petroleum ether

extract and ascorbic acid respectively (Fig.1).

Antioxidants may guard against reactive

oxygen species (ROS) toxicities by

scavenging reactive metabolites and

converting them to less reactive molecules

(Shukla et al ., 2014).




146

Conclusion

The present study was aimed to perform

phytochemical evaluation and antioxidant

activity of Casearia tomentosa leaves. From

the study it is concluded that this plant is a

good sources of antioxidants as observed in

DPPH scavenging assay. Phytochemical

studies in leaves laid down a platform in

search for a lead molecule that could be a

potent antioxidant agent of natural origin.

The present finding partially validates the

traditional knowledge of the tribals about the

goodness of consumption of this plant andrequired more research works.

Phytoconstituents and Test performed Petroleum ether Extract

Alkaloids Mayer’s Test -

Wagner’s Test -Hager’s Test -Dragendroff’s test -

Flavonoids Alkaline test -Lead acetate test -Shinoda’s Test -Sulphuric acid test -

TanninsFerric chloride test

-Carbohydrate Molisch’s Test -Fehling’s Test -Benedict’s Test -Barfoed’s test -

Glycosides Keller-Killiani Test -

Legal’s Test -

Borntrager’s test -

Terpenoids Liebermann burchard test +

Salwoski test +

Salwoski test (Triterpenes) -

Steroids Liebermann burchard test +

Fat and Oil Saponification test +

Filter paper test +

Saponin Foam test -

Protein and amino acid Millon’s test -

Ninhydrin -Biuret -

Phytosterol Salwoski test +

Liebermann burchard test +

Anthraquinone Benzene test -

(+)-Present;(-)-Absent Table 1 : Phytoconstituents present in leaves

extract of Casearia tomentosa

Fig 1: DPPH radical scavenging activity ofleaves extract of Casearia tomentosa

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 10001100

% I n

h i b i t i o n

Concentration of extracts in µg/ml

%Inhibition vs. Concentration of DPPH assay

Ascorbic acid

PE




147

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Badoni et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/148 - 154

148

Metamaterials: Characteristics, Structures And Applications

Badoni, Anumeha; Belwal, Pravesh and Kumar, Nitin


Abstract

Metamaterial (MTM) is a metallic orsemiconductor substance whose properties

depend upon its inter atomic structure rather

than on the composition of the atoms

themselves. In this paper, overview of unique

properties of MTMs is presented. Further

discussion is held over MTM structures

based on their resonant characteristics

(Resonant and non resonant structure) and

their applications in various fields. Thesuperiority of non resonant structure over the

resonant structure is also discussed in this

paper. Applications of MTMs are

characterized in three categories: guided

wave application, radiated wave application

and Refracted wave applications.

Keywords Metamaterials (MTM) | negative

refractive index | split ring resonator | CRLH

Introduction

As the light propagates through matter,

conventional materials only react to the

electric field, resulting in most common

optical effects, including refraction,

diffraction and imaging (Jackson, 1999). Five

decades ago Russian physicist victor

veselago pondered about whether magnetic

field of light interacts with matter. Then he

classify the materials based on permittivity

and permeability according to their sign

(positive and negative).In electromagnetism

electric permittivity and the magnetic

permeability determine the propagation of

electromagnetic waves in matter (Veselago,

1968), due to the fact that they are the only

parameters of substance appear

Fig1: Classification of materials

in the dispersion equation. According to

veselago the materials in third quadrantshows the reverse properties than


Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [148 – 154] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]


For Correspondence:

Department of ECE, DIT University Dehradun, India




149

conventional materials and are named as left

handed materials.

After more than thirty years, Pendry and

Smith have developed a novel class of

metallic structure based on thin wires and

Split ring resonators (SRR) that are known as

metamaterials (Pendry et al., 1999; Smith et

al., 2000 and Pendry et al.,1998). The

concept of MTM transmission line(TL) was

introduced for the first time in 2002 (Iyer and

Eleftheriades, 2002). Caloz and Smith given

their useful work on MTM TL.

Unique Properties of Metamaterials

Metamaterials are defined as artificial

effectively homogeneous structures with

unusual properties not readily available in

nature. For an effectively homogeneous

structure the average cell size ‘p’ of a

structure should be much smaller than the

guided wavelength ‘ λ g ’ . Averaged cell size

should be at least small than quarter of

guided wavelength[8]. Therefore the

condition for effective homogeneity

p = λg

For metamaterials with negative permittivity

and permeability, several names and

terminologies have been suggested, such as

“left-handed” media (Veselago, 1968), media

with negative refractive index (Iyer and

Eleftheriades, 2002), “backward-wave

media” (Lindell et al. 2001); and “double-

negative (DNG)” metamaterials (Sanada et

al ., 2003), to name a few. MTM shows

Negative permittivity and permeability which

results in negative refractive index. Due to

negative index, it supports backward waves

i.e. inside MTM, phase velocities and group

velocities are antiparallel. MTM shows

reversal of some fundamental laws like

Snell’s law, Doppler effect, Vavilov-

Cerenkov radiation etc. Due to these unusual

properties, MTM can change the propagation

property of electromagnetic wave passing

through it. Miniaturization in the size of the

design component is possible as the structural

cell size of MTM is less than one-fourth of

the guided wavelength (Paul et al., 2013). To

understand why such materials are also called

left hand materials, let us assume time

harmonic and plane wave variation for field

in maxwell’s equation

E(x,y,z, t) =

.

− .

(2)

where wave vector k has been introduced ,

Maxwell equation take the form

k×E = - (3) × = + (4)

From the above equation and definition of

cross product, one can immediately see that

for

>0 and

>0 the vector E,H and

k from a right handed triplet of vectors, and if <0 and <0 they from a left handed

system.

Elementary Structure of Metamaterials

Metals at optical frequencies are

characterized by its electric permittivity that

varies with frequency according to the Drude

relation

() = 1 − 2(+ ) (5)

where ω

/4 (1)

p2= Ne2 /me0 is the plasma frequency

i.e. the frequency with which the collection

of free electron (plasma) oscillates in the

presence of an external driving field, where

N= electron density, e = electron charge, m=

mass of electron, ϒ = rate at which the

amplitude of the plasma oscillation

decreases.




150

By the drude relation it can see that when

ϒ=0 and ω<ω p

then value of ‘e’ is less than

zero i.e. the medium is characterized by

negative permittivity. Unfortunately for all

frequencies for which ω<ωp while ϒ is very

large which is associated with losses(light

absorption) therefore negative permittivity

was imaginary in past.

Pendry first proposed a thin metallic structure

to overcome this limitation. The plasma

frequency which depends on the density and

mass of the collective electron motion is very

low in that thin wire structure (Smith et al.,

2000). This give rises to two effects, firstly,

the effective electron mass is increased due

to self inductance of the wire structure.

Secondly, the effective electron density is

apparently reduced. Thin metallic wires give

negative permittivity when electric field is

directed in the z-axis (Pendry et al., 1996).

SRR shows negative permeability when its y

axis is perpendicular to magnetic field. Acombined array of thin wires and split rings

shows that simultaneously negative

permittivity and permeability are achieved.

Fig 2. (a) thin metallic wires (b) split ring

resonators (Smith et al., 2000)

Classification of MTM Structure

Resonance type MTM: Resonant structures

are made of thin wires and/or split ring

resonator (Pendry et al., 1999). They are

narrow band or high loss structure due to

their resonant characteristics. SRR and

complimentary split ring resonator (CSRR)

falls in this category. Equivalent circuits for

SRR and CSRR are given below (Baena et

al., 2005)

Fig.(a).SRR with its equivalent circuit

(b).CSRR with its equivalent circuit

(Baena et al., 2005)

A variety of split ring resonators have been

come into existence by researchers i.e. square

split rings (Majid et al., 2008), omega split

rings (Othman et al.,2009), S type structure

(Patel and Kosta, 2014), R split rings (Reddy

and Raghavan, 2015), single split rings

(Nornikman et al., 2012), and many more. In

2003, a new category of CRLH resonant

antenna comes into existence (Sanada et al.,

2003). CRLH resonant antenna has several

advantages over resonator type antenna.

Different types of CRLH resonant antennas

have been investigated with their specific

applications.




151

Non resonant type MTM: Resonant

structure was lossy with narrow bandwidth,

limited its applications. Non resonant

transmission line (TL) structures are made of

lumped inductors and capacitors, have low

loss over a broad bandwidth under

appropriate matching conditions and

overcomes the limitation of resonant type

MTM. Composite right and left handed

transmission line (CRLH TL) falls in this

category. CRLH is combination of left

handed (LH) and right handed (RH)

transmission line because in general a pure

left hand structure is not possible due to

unavoidable right hand parasitic series

inductance and shunt capacitance effects. The

propagation constant of a transmission line is

given by

γ = α + jβ =√ Z’Y ’ (6)

where Z’ and Y’ are respectively the per unit

length impedance and per unit length

admittance. In the case of CRLH TL, Z’ and

Y’ are defined as [24]

′ () = j ′ − 1 ′ (7)

′ () = ′ − 1 ′ (8)

Therefore the dispersion relation for a

homogeneous CRLH TL is

(

) =

()� 2 ′ ′ +1 2 ′ ′ − ′

′ + ′

′ (9)

Where ()

=

−1 < 1 = min 1

� ′ ′ ,

1

� ′ ′

+1

>

2 = max

1

� ′

′ ,

1

� ′

′

β can be real and imaginary; when β is

purely imaginary γ = α a stop band occurs in

the frequency range which shows the unique

characteristic of CRLH TL. The equivalent

circuit of CRLH TL and its dispersion

diagram in balanced condition is shown in

fig.

(a)

(b)

Fig 4. (a) Equivalent circuit model of

CRLH (b) dispersion diagram in

balance condition

Balanced condition of CRLH TL is achieved

when series and shunt resonance are equal.

Under balanced condition the propagation

constant reduces to the simpler expression

= + = � ′ ′ − 1

� ′ ′

(10)

• Superiority of Non- resonant Structure

over Resonant Structure: The structure

made of resonating element generally does

not constitute a good transmission medium

for a modulated signal because of the quality

factor intrinsically associated with each




152

resonator (Collin, 1992). In 2002, to

overcome this limitation a new approach of

transmission line is being introduced.

Because of their non-resonant nature, TL

MTMs can be designed to exhibit

simultaneously low loss and broad

bandwidth, where low loss is achieved by a

balanced design and broad bandwidth can be

directly controlled by its LC parameters.

Another advantage of TL MTM structures is

that they can be engineered in planar

configurations, compatible with modern

microwave integrated circuits (MICs).

Finally, TL MTM structures can benefit from

the efficient and well-established TL theory

for the efficient design of microwave

applications.

Application of MTM

MTMs have many microwave applications

which may be classified in three

categories:guided wave, radiated wave and

refracted wave application.

Guided Wave Applications: In guided wave

applications may be 1D or 2D CRLH TL.

Electromagnetic energy remains confined in

the metal and dielectric media constituting

the components. Some 1D guided wave

applications are dual band components,

quarter wavelength transmission line and

stubs,passive components(quadrature hybrid

and Wilkinson power divider),nonlinear

components,couplers etc.

Radiated Wave Application: Radiated-

wave applications cover several types of

novel antennas and reflectors, which may be

1D or 2D, passive or active, and static or

dynamically tuned. If a MTM structure is

open to free space and support a fast wavemode called a leaky wave mode, it radiates

and can therefore be used as an antenna.

Leaky wave antenna and resonant type

CRLH TL comes in this category.

Refracted Wave Application: In refracted

wave applications some examples are planar

distributed negative lens, microwave surface

plasmons etc. A 2-D LH TL circuit using LC

lumped-element components has been

implemented and its NRI focusing property

has been shown experimentally by an NRI

slab lens (Lai et al., 2004).

Conclusion

Metamaterials have become an extremely

exciting research area. The unique

electromagnetic properties of MTMs attract

considerable attention of research. Non

resonant structures who are recently

discovered have several advantages over the

previous structures with having many

applications in the field of microwaves.

Many other fascinating discoveries and

applications are waiting for us to explore

with the complete degree of freedom to

control over material properties.

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Asia Pacific Microwave Conf.

(APMC), Seoul, Korea, pp. 1588–

1592.

Collin, R. E. (1992): Foundations for

Microwave Engineering”, Second

Edition, McGraw-Hill.

Lai, A.; Caloz, C. and Itoh, T. (2004):

“Transmission line based metamaterials

and their microwave applications,”

Microwave Mag. 5(3): 34–50.



Agarwal et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/155 - 160

155

Optimal Design of UWB Antenna Using Differential Evolution

Agarwal, Ankit1, Srinivas, K.

3 and Gupta, M. S.

Abstract

Wireless technology is one of the main areas

of research in the world of communication

systems today and a study of communication

systems is incomplete without an

understanding of the operation of antennas.

This paper reports the optimization of

staircase ultra wideband antenna with an

inverted U shaped structure for 5.8 GHz ISM

band suppression. Generally antennas are

optimized on trial and error techniques,

which are time consuming and even after a

number of iterations there is no guarantee of

achieving optimum result. The optimal

design of Ultra Wide Band (UWB) antenna

with a large number of dependent variables is

achieved using Differential Evolution

Metaheuristic. Suitable representation,

mutation operator and fitness function have

been designed for the purpose andimplemented using MATLAB. Twelve

dependent antenna variables are optimized in

a very efficient way by exploiting dependencies

2


among them in terms of bandwidth, notch

band selection and return loss. The UWB

antenna with optimized parameters is

designed and simulated using CST

Microwave Studio a state-of-the-art

microwave design and simulation software

used in the industry. The antenna covers

frequencies from 2.2 to 8.5 GHz and is

immune to 5.8 GHz communication by

rejecting the frequency.

Keywords: Optimization | Differential

Evolution | Ultra Wideband Antenna | CRLH

Introduction

One of the fundamental attributes of current

short-range wireless technologies is the use

of high bandwidth to achieve the desired data

rates. The high transmission power is not a

feasible option to achieve the required high

data rates. In recent years, the commercial

operations of Ultra Wideband (UWB)

technology attracted researchers to contribute

in its evolution by proposing various designs.

Ultra-wideband (UWB) wireless technology

guarantees very high bit rates availability,

low power consumption, low costs and

location capabilities (Giuliano and

Mazzenga, 2006). Therefore, the antennas


Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [155 – 160] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]


For Correspondence:1Department of Computer Science & Engineering and2Department of Electronics & Communication

Engineering, Quantum School of Technology, Roorkee3Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical

Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Dayalbagh

Educational Institute, Agra




156

employed for these applications should be

very efficient.

The UWB antennas cover a wide bandwidth

which makes them susceptible to interference

from other narrowband systems like in 5.8GHz ISM band, HyperLan and Wi-Fi. To

protect the system from such interference, a

notch can be introduced in the radiation or

receiving characteristics of UWB antennas

which eliminate the requirement of any

additional high quality band-pass filter

structures. Several techniques have been

proposed to introduce a notch in the desired

band, such as a tuning fork shaped antenna

(Ryu and Kishk, 2009), printed monopole

antenna with slots (Movahedinia and

Azarmanesh, 2010), antenna with inverted L

shaped slot in the ground plane (Movahedinia

et al., 2011), antenna with parasitic elements

on the patch (Abbosh and Bialkowski, 2009),

etc. One of the basic techniques is the use of

inverted U shaped slot in the patch antenna to

create the notch (Kerkhoff and Hao, 2004).

This technique of inverted U shaped slot has

been adopted to introduce the band rejection

characteristics in this work.

In general, it is rare to achieve the desired

characteristics with mere theoretical

calculations; the optimization process is thus

required which involves various variables

whose inter-dependencies are not well

established. Sequential search techniques for

optimizing these parameters consume time

and valuable resources. Hence a random

search in the solution space is highly

beneficial in terms of temporal cost as well as

convergence to the optimal/ near optimal

solution. This reduces significant amount of

time and resources as compared to techniques

used otherwise.

Differential evolution (DE) is one of the most

powerful stochastic real-parameter

optimization algorithms. DE operatesthrough similar computational steps as

employed by a standard evolutionary

algorithm (EA) (Das and Suganthan, 2010).

One of the advantages of DE algorithm

compared to GA is that this method does not

require the transformation of the variables

into binary strings (Shamekhi, 2013). DE

maintains a population of agents which are

iteratively combined and updated using

simple formulae to form new agents

(Pedersen, 2010). The algorithm evolves

towards an optimum solution by randomly

searching a population of candidate solutions

called parent population, and then applying

mutation operators to generate mutant

population. With the help of a pre-defined

fitness function, the algorithm advances in a

step wise iterative manner until a desired

termination condition is reached. The fitness

function is defined on the basis of desired

antenna attributes like bandwidth, gain,

reflection coefficients, and return loss and

antenna dimensions.

The UWB antenna with optimized

parameters is designed and simulated using

CST Microwave Studio (CST MWS). This

tool is based on the finite integration

technique (FIT), a very general approach,

which describes Maxwell's equations on a

grid space and can be written in time domain

as well as in frequency domain and is not

restricted to a certain grid type. It is possible

to handle large radiating structures and evencomplete arrays with more than some




157

hundreds of radiating elements in this

software (Hirtenfelder, 2007).

This paper provides prime solution for

optimizing UWB antennas which saves time

and resources. Optimizing band rejectioncharacteristics of an antenna using DE will

help to achieve a global optimum solution

efficiently for any desired radiation

characteristics. In this work, a staircase UWB

antenna with inverted U shaped slot for 5.8

GHz band suppression is proposed. The

bandwidth, notch band, and return loss were

selected as the core components of the fitness

function for establishing dependencies and

optimizing the selected parameters. In section

II, the selected antenna design, its inter-

dependent parameters and DE algorithm is

discussed. A parametric analysis of this

design and its optimization using DE is

proposed in Section III. In Section IV, the

simulated results obtained by DE and CST

MWS are discussed. Finally in section V,

paper is concluded.

System Model

The proposed antenna consists of a

rectangular patch with staircase on the

feeding edge. The patch has an inverted U

shaped slot which creates the notch at the

desired frequency. The ground plane of the

antenna has a slot beneath the feeding line

Fig. 1 Layout of proposed antenna

which helps in better impedance matching.

The layout is shown in Fig 1. The design is

symmetric along Y axis from center which

helps in reducing the complexity of the

optimization process.

Various antenna parameters from Fig 1 were

analyzed to define the variable set for

optimization. It was observed that the

inverted U shaped slot affects the notch

position and attenuation at the rejection band.

Larger slot length brings the notch to lower

frequencies and vice versa. The position of

the slot with reference to the feeding line,

referred to as u_y, directly affects attenuation

and the quality factor of the notch. Apart

from the parameters related to the slot, the

impedance matching is very important to

achieve the desired in-band rejection and out-

of-band transmission. The parametric

analysis including various tests concluded

that overall 12 parameters required

optimization to achieve the desired response.

These parameters are listed in Table 1 with

their initial values, optimization range and

their optimized values.

The main stages of the proposed evolutionary

algorithm are shown in Fig 2. Firstly, a

randomly initiated population vector, known

as genome/chromosome, forms a candidate

solution to the optimization problem. Then, a

mutant vector, known as donor vector, is

obtained through the differential mutation. In

Crossover, the donor vector exchanges its

components with the target vector. During

Selection, the population either gets better or

remains the same in fitness status by

determining whether the target vector

survives to the next generation or not.




158

Fig. 2: Main Stages of DE Algorithm

Proposed Methodology

Differential Evolution was implemented in

MATLAB. There are 12 genes in the solution

string of the UWB antenna design problem

with respect to each inter-dependent antenna

parameter. In DE, each individual gene

represents the design parameters range.

Initially, the parent population consists of a

single solution string containing initial values

of each parameter. The mutation operator

generates the mutant population from parent

population.

The fitness value is calculated by summation

of alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ):

Fitness = α + β + γ

where, α is bandwidth

β is notch band existence

γ is return loss

Bandwidth (α) is calculated by:

=∑ =1

×

where, n is number of points

SF is scaling factor

xi

3, if spike exists

β =

0, otherwise

Return loss (γ) is given by:

is vector of reflection coefficients

Notch band existence (β) is given by:

1, if S11 > -15dB

γ = 2, if -15 > S11 > -25dB

3, S11

The value of alpha is based on the reflectioncoefficients which are calculated at different

frequencies (in the operating range). The

value of beta is based on the spike of the S

< -25dB

11

parameter (reflection coefficient) and gamma

also depends on S11

After a number of iterations and crossover, asolution string is obtained with minimum

fitness and has optimized design variables of

the antenna. These variables are used for

designing and simulating antenna using CST

Microwave Studio.

Simulation Results

The optimized inter-dependent variables are

obtained using DE which is shown in Table 1with their initial values, optimization range

and optimized values. These variables are

used for designing the antenna in CST MWS,

shown in Fig 3 and Fig 4. Rogers’s 4533

substrate with thickness of 1.524 mm,

relative permittivity of 3.3 and loss tangent of

0.0023 was used for optimized design. The

antenna covers the frequency band of 2.2 –8.5 GHz and the notch band is achieved at

5.8 GHz, presented in Fig 5. The radiation

pattern at 5.8 GHz frequency is shown in Fig

6.

parameter.

S. No.

Inter-

dependent

Variable

Initial

Value (in

mm)

Optimization

Range

(in mm)

Optimized

Value

(in mm)

1. s1x 6 5 – 7 5.11

2. s1y 1 0 – 2 1.90

3. s2x4 3 – 5 4.05

4. s2y 1 0 – 2 1.81

5. s3x 2 1 – 3 2.25

6. s3y 1 0 – 2 0.28

7. u_y 13 12 – 14 13.16

8. u_width 1 0 – 2 1.97

9. U 6.5 5.5 – 7.5 7.48

10. U_length 6 5 – 7 6.02

11. ground_sw 2 1 – 3 1.93

12. ground_sl 6 5 – 7 5.47

Table 1: Optimized Values Of Inter-

Dependent Variables




159

Fig 3: Front View

Fig. 4: Back View

Fig 5: S11

Fig. 6: Radiation Pattern

Graph

Conclusion

The optimization process of an UWB antenna

has been proposed with notch band

characteristics to reject the narrow band

communications at 5.8 GHz. A rectangular patch, having inverted U shaped slot, with

staircase on the feeding edge was used to

achieve the desired specifications. DE has

been applied on the initial design to optimize

the radiation characteristics and antenna

variables. The UWB antenna is designed and

simulated in CST MWS using these

variables. The antenna covers frequencies

from 2.2 GHz to 8.5 GHz with rejection 5.8

GHz.

References

Abbosh, A. M. and Bialkowski, M. E. (2009):

“Design of UWB Planar Band-Notched

Antenna Using Parasitic Elements”, IEEE

Transactions on Antennas and Propagation,

57(3): 796-799.

Babu, B. V. and Jehan, M. M. L. (2003):

“Differential Evolution for multi-objective

optimization”, Congress on Evolutionary

Computation, (CEC 2003): 2696-2703.

Das, S. and Suganthan, P. N. (2010):

“Differential Evolution: A Survey of the

State-of-the-Art”, IEEE Transactions on

Evolutionary Computation, 15(1): 4-31.

Eldek, A. A. and Smith, A. E. (2005):

“Rectangular Slot Antenna with Patch Stub

for Ultra Wideband Applications and

Phased Array Systems,” Progress in

Electromagnetic Research, 53: 227-237.

Giuliano R. and Mazzenga F. (2006): “Capacity

Analysis for UWB Systems with Power

Controlled Terminals under Power and

Coexistence Constraints”, IEEE

Transactions on Wireless

Communications, 5 (11): 3316-3328.




160

Hirtenfelder, F. (2007): “Effective Antenna

Simulations using CST MICROWAVE

STUDIO (R)”, 2nd International ITG

Conference on Antennas.

Kerkhoff, A. and Hao, L. (2004): “A Parametric

Study Of Band-Notched UWB Planar

Monopole Antennas”, IEEE Antennas And

Propagation Society International

Symposium Digest, 2: 1768-1771.

Movahedinia R. and Azarmanesh M. N. (2010):

“Ultra-Wideband Band-Notched Printed

Monopole Antenna”, IET Microwave

Antennas & Propagation, 4 (12): 2179–

2186.

Movahedinia R.; Ojaroudi M and Madani S. S.

(2011): “Small Modified Monopole

Antenna for Ultra-Wideband Application

with Desired Frequency Band-Notch

Function”, IET Microwave Antennas &

Propagation, 5 (11): 1380–1385.

Pedersen, M. E. H. (2010): “Good Parameters for

Differential Evolution”, Technical Report,

HL1002.

Ryu K. S. and Kishk A. A. (2009): “UWB

Antenna with Single or Dual Band-

Notches for Lower WLAN Band and

Upper WLAN Nand”, IEEE Transactions

on Antennas and Propagation, 57 (12):

3942-3950.

Shaker, A., Zainud-Deen S. H.; Mahmoud K. R.

and Ibrahem S. M. (2011): “Compact

Bluetooth/UWB Antenna with Multi-Band

Notched Characteristics”, Journal of

Electromagnetic Analysis and

Applications, 3: 512-518.

Shamekhi, A. (2013): “An Improved Differential

Evolution Optimization Algorithm”,

International Journal of Research and

Reviews in Applied Sciences, 15 (2): 132-

145.

Zhao, M.; Liu, R.; Li, W. and Liu, H. (2010):

“Multi-objective Optimization Based

Differential Evolution Constrained

Optimization Algorithm”, Second WRI

Global Congress on Intelligent Systems

(GCIS), 1: 320 – 326.



Kumar et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/161 - 168

161

Genotoxicity due to Chromium -Mitotic effects in Vigna angular is (L.) Gaertn.

(Adzuki Bean)

Kumar, Anil1; Dhingra, G. K.

1and Gupta, Shalabh

2


Abstract

In the present investigation two accessions of

Vigna angularis L. were subjected to

Chromium toxicity. The detailed root mitotic

studies were made in control and treated

plants. The effect of Cr was clearly visible on

root growth. No seeds germinated in 10-1 M

Cr. In 10-2M, the mitotic index (MI) was

found to be extremely low (0.029 in V1 and

0.023 in V2). In the course of mitosis various

anomalies were observed as fragmentation,

stickiness of chromosomes, early movement

of chromosomes, restitution nucleus, random

grouping at anaphase, micronuclei,

multinucleate condition, chromosome bridges

at anaphase, and C-metaphase. Chromosome

stickiness, clumping, chromosome bridges

and c-metaphase were observed in almost all

the treated sets. Most of the anomalies wereobserved at 10-2

Keywords: Vigna angularis | Cr-toxicity |

Mitotic Index

M Cr concentration in both

of the accessions of Vigna.

Introduction

Chromium (Cr) occurs in nature in bound

forms that constitute 0.1-0.3 mg/kg of the

Earth’s crust and has several oxidation states

from Cr(-II) to Cr(+VI) (Zayed and Terry,

2003). It is unique among the heavy metals

because of its existence in two

environmentally important oxidation states:

trivalent (Cr III) and hexavalent (Cr VI)

(Srivastava et al., 2006). Chromium is

recognized as an essential element for

humans and animals but not for plants (Liu et

al ., 1992), although some investigations

report that it is beneficial to plant growth

(Zheng et al., 1987). The toxicity of

chromium and chromium-content in plants,

however, is species specific. Much research

has been conducted to determine the toxic

effects of chromium on different plantspecies (Jain et al., 2000; Ren and Gao,

2000; Peralta et al., 2001; Manjappa et al.,

2002; Gardea-Torresdey et al., 2005;

Karbassi et al., 2008). The pulse plants can

uptake heavy metal from polluted soil

(Bishnoi et al., 1993).

Plants take water and other essential metal

ions from soil for their metabolism. Theyutilize these nutrients for various

biochemical processes taking place in them.


Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [161 – 168] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]


For Correspondence:1Deptt. Of Botany, Govt. P.G. College Rishikesh,Uttarakhand2

Department of Botany, S. B. S. Govt. P.G. College,Rudrapur, Uttarakhand




Kumar et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/161 - 168

162

The plants growing near industries emitting

liquid pollutants or air pollutants or solid

waste do not survive. This is because the

heavy metals cause changes in their genetic

contents thus leading to abnormal phenotype

and irregular meiosis. These plants do not

produce normal seeds. It has been observed

that certain strains of plants takes these heavy

metals and store them in their body parts.

This is because of change in the genetic

constitution of these plants. The phenotype is

the result of interaction of genotype and

environment. These metals may be

recollected from the ashes of plant parts. The

ability of these plants to accumulate heavy

metals in them is utilized in the removal of

these heavy metals from soil. This process is

known as Phytoremediation. Cary et al.

(1977) found that plants accumulated Cr

from nutrient solutions but retained most of

this in their roots. It was also found that

plants tend to accumulate Fe alsoaccumulated Cr. It was observed that the

leafy vegetables have more potential to

accumulate Cr than the seed plants. A

number of crop species have been tested for

this and are used in phytoremediation. Zakia

et al (2014) reported remarkable reduction in

Mitotic induction and abnormal Mitosis in

Vicia faba after treating seeds with 1%

Melathion.


The purpose of the current work was to

assess the Chromium effect on the

cytogenetic changes in one of the most

economically important crop plant of

Garhwal, Vigna angularis. Two accessions

of Vigna were procured from local sources at

different altitudes and subjected to detailed

root mitotic studies. Vigna angularis

(Wild.) Ohwi and Ohashi (Adzuki Bean)

is commonly known as Soonthiya or Rayans

in Garhwal. It belongs to the family

Papilionaceae. In Vigna angularis the

chromosome number (2n = 22; Karpechenko,

1925).

Accessions Procurement place

V1 Chaubattakhal, 1800m asl

V2 Uttarkashi, 1200 m aslasl = above sea level

Table 1: List of accessions of Vigna

angularis

The seeds of each accession of Vigna (V1,

V2) were first surface sterilized with 0.1%

mercuric chloride (HgCl2) solution for 3-4

minutes and washed thoroughly with tap

water and finally with distilled water. The

seeds were placed on double layered filter

papers (3 mm, Whattman, filter papers) with

cotton pads ‘sandwiched’ between them

equidistantly in various treatments in petri

dishes and incubated under white light at

22oC. Ten molar solutions of K 2Cr 2O7 ranging

from 10-10M to 10-1M were prepared. The

control sets were raised in distilled water and

treated sets were raised in various molar

concentrations of K 2Cr 2O7

For mitotic studies, 20 root tips of control and

treated seedlings of V. angularis were fixed in

3:1 absolute ethanol and glacial acetic acid

having a pinch of ferric chloride. The fixed root

tip samples were stored in 70% ethanol in

refrigerator. After 24 hours of fixation, the root

tips were boiled in 3% aceto-carmine and left

for overnight. After that these were smeared

and squashed in 1.5% aceto-carmine. The

. Only a fixed

amount (about 50 ml) of distilled water or Cr

solutions was added in petri dishes. The

various molar concentrations of Cr were

prepared in Hoagland’s solution.



Kumar et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/161 - 168

163

following parameters were used for the

analysis:

a) Number of non-dividing cells,

b) Number of dividing cells,

c) Number of actively dividing cells, and

d) Percent frequency of mitotic

anomalies.

Mitotic index was also calculated by using

following formula:

Number of cells in mitosis (actively dividing cells)

Mitotic index = -------------------------------------------------

Total number of cells (non-dividing cells + dividing

cells + actively dividing cells)


Both the accessions of V. angularis were

subjected to detailed root mitotic studies in

control and treated plants. The effect of Cr on

root growth varied with different

concentrations used. No roots were available

in 10-1

The frequency distribution of different

anomalies in different concentrations of Cr in

both the accessions of V. angularis is shown

in table 3. Mitotic Index (MI) was also

calculated by formula given in materials and

methods and is shown in table 4. At 10

M Cr concentration during the whole

experiment. The mean data related to non-

dividing cells (NDC), dividing cells (DC)

and actively dividing cells (ADC) is given in

Table 2.

-2

a)

Fragmentation (plate 1 d),

M,

the MI was extremely low (0.029 in V1 and

0.023 in V2). The graphical representation of

mitotic index in different concentrations in

both the accessions of V. angularis is shown

in figure 1. In the course of mitosis various

anomalies were observed. Following mitotic

anomalies were observed in treated sets:

b) Stickiness of chromosomes (plate 1 e),

c) Early movement of chromosomes (plate 1

f),

d) Restitution nucleus (plate 1 g, h, l),

e)

Random grouping at anaphase (plate 1 i),

f) Micronuclei (plate 1 j),

g)

Multinucleate condition (plate 1 k),

h) Chromosome bridges at anaphase (plate 1

m), and

i) C-metaphase (plate 1 n, o).

Anomalies like chromosome stickiness,

clumping, chromosome bridges and c-

metaphase were observed mostly. At 10-2

The characteristic feature of heavy metal is

poisoning and inactivation of enzyme

systems. Heavy metals are potentially toxic

and eventually cause harmful effects at

higher doses. Thus plant growth is correlated

with the disruption of physiological and

cytological processes. The mitotic index (MI)

reflects the frequency of cell division and is

regarded as important parameter for

determining the rate of root growth. Heavy

metal accumulation in soil and its importance

on the morphological, biochemical and

cytological aspects of plants have received

more attention in recent times by many

workers (Abbasi et al ., 1992; Prem kumar etal ., 2001; Prakash et al ., 2004).

M

Cr concentration most of the anomalies were

observed in both of the accessions of V.

angularis.

In Vigna angularis, the MI decreased

progressively with the increase in Cr

concentrations in V1 and V2 except in the 10-

7M of V1 and 10-6M of V2. In treated roots

the MI was found to be lower than the

control. At 10-2M, the MI was extremely low

(0.029 in V1 and 0.023 in V2). Thechromosome stickiness, clumping, c-



Kumar et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/161 - 168

164

metaphase were due to toxic effects of Cr and

may probably lead to cell death. The mitotic

index in the present study can be correlated

with rate of root growth, suggesting that the

inhibition of root growth resulted from

inhibition of the cell division.



Kumar et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/161 - 168

165

Alteration in nuclear structure induced by Cr

and inhibition of cell division in roots has

been observed by Levan, 1945; Corradi et al .,

1991 and Villalobos-Pietrini et al ., 1993. The

most appropriate reason for the increase in

abnormalities may be due to malfunction and

inactivation of number of key enzymes for

ion uptake and spindle control.

Nagpal and Grover (1994) classified induced

chromosomal abnormalities into two groups

viz., clastogenic effects such as fragments,

ring chromosome bridges and micronuclei.

The precocious movement of the

chromosome might have been caused by the

early terminalization, stickiness of

chromosome or because of the movement of

the chromosome ahead of the rest during

anaphase (Permjit and Grover, 1985;

Chidambaram et al ., 2009).

The mitotic index (MI) reflects the frequency

of cell division and is regarded as important

parameter for determining the rate of root

growth. Heavy metal accumulation in soil

and its importance on the morphological,

biochemical and cytological aspects of plants

have received more attention in recent times

by many workers (Abbasi et al ., 1992; Prem

kumar et al ., 2001 & 2014; Prakash et al .,

2004).In the present studies, induced toxic

effects on chromosomes during cell division

such as c-mitosis, anaphase bridges and

chromosome stickiness, are in agreement

with the findings of Levan (1945) and Liu et

al ., (1992).

Table 2: Mean data related to non-dividing cells

(NDC), dividing cells (DC) and actively

dividing cells (ADC) in different

accessions of Vigna angularis



Kumar et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/161 - 168

166

Table 3: Mean data related to percent frequency

of different mitotic abnormalities indifferent accessions of Vigna angularis

Eleftherios et al (2015) investigated the

detrimental effects of chromium (Cr) on

mitotic microtubules (MTs) in some fabaceae

members. They reported that MI disturbance

adversely affected the proper aggregation of

chromosomes on the metaphase plate, their

segregation at anaphase and organization of

the new nuclei at telophase.

Conclusion

The results obtained from the present study

indicate that the chromium caused reduction

in morpho-physiology parameters, reduced

Mitotic Index, abnormal mitosis and

remarkable cytogenetic effect that occurred

in the form of the abnormal chromosome and

chromatid behavior.

Table 4: Mitotic index (MI) in various

concentrations in different


Fig. 1: Graphical representation of mitoticindex (MI) in various

concentrations in different


a. Clumping g. Trinucleate condition

b. Restitution Nucleus h. Unequal distribution of chromosomes

c. C- Metaphase i. Tetranucleate condition

d. Late movements of chromosomes to metaphase

plate

j. Micronuclei in telophase

e. Chromatin bridges

f. Binucleate condition



Kumar et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/161 - 168

167

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K.; Nipancy, P. C. and Soni, R. (1992):

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Environmental conditions for the conservation of wildlife and its

anthropogenic responses in Himachal Pradesh

Pal, Anil1; Goswami, D.C.

2 and Pal, Brijesh

3


Abstract

Himachal Pradesh a part of Indian Himalaya

is one of the crucial mega-biodiversity hub.

It is well known for its scenic beauty, which

attracts tourists from far and wide. The

region has a varied topography, climate and

forest cover and it endowed with a vast

variety of flora and fauna. Wild animals and

birds capable of living under different

climatic conditions ranging from tropical toarctic climates and from a thick forest cover

to sparse tree growth are found in the region.

As in other parts of the Himalaya, the terrain

in the area is rugged and steep. Geologically,

the mountains are young with many fault

zones and are subject to seismicity,

denudation, landslide hazards and soil

erosion. Himachal Pradesh is a mountainous

terrain with altitudes ranging from 350 to

7000 meters (1050 ft. to 21000 ft) above the

sea level. Himachal Pradesh is one of India‘s

most heavily forested region with

approximately 66% area under forest. The

Forests of Himachal Pradesh known for their

grandeur and majesty are like a green pearl in

the Himalayan crown. The largest natural

resource of the State is its thick forest cover.

The total recorded forest area of the study

area is 37,033 Sq. Km. Himachal Pradesh has

brought 13.6% of its geographical area under

the protected area network, an extremely

high figure when compared to the national

average of hardly 4.5%. The state has 32

wildlife sanctuaries and two unique National

Parks.

In last few decades, Himachal Pradesh has

observed progress in almost every aspect like

agriculture, horticulture, floriculture,

population, mining, industries and tourism.

Development in different fields has certain

impacts on wildlife are matter of great

concern and essential for explore. Keeping inview above, the area has been selected for the

study. The main objective of the present

study is to analyze the anthropogenic impacts

on wildlife in Himachal Pradesh, to identify

the major issue affecting the wildlife

conservation in Himachal Pradesh, to

propose and suggest the measures for

conservation of wildlife in the region. Themajor findings are discussed in the paper and


Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [169 – 179] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]


For Correspondence:1Dept. of Geography, D.B.S. ( P G ) College, Dehradun2Dept. of Geography, Govt. P. G. College Rishikesh

3Department of Geography, H.N.B. Garhwal University,Srinagar, Garhwal




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suggestions for the conservations of wildlife

are proposed.

Keywords: Himachal Pradesh | Wildlife

conservation | Environmental conditions

Introduction Himachal Pradesh is a part of Indian

Himalayas and is one of the mega-

biodiversity centers of the world selected for

biodiversity conservation. The region is

highly varied in term of topography and

climatic conditions. It is well known for its

picturesque beauty, which attracts tourists

from far and wide. Himachal is bestowed by

nature with variety of vegetation, wildlife

and climate un-paralleled anywhere.

Himachal Pradesh has a varied topography,

climate and forest cover and its endowed

with a vast variety of flora and fauna. From

times immemorial, this tract is known for its

wilderness, landscapes, beautiful forest and

diverse wild life. The fauna consist of a

galaxy of magnificent animals. They all are a

great attraction to the tourists, the state is

thus a paradise for sportsmen and naturalists.

Diverse and interesting wild life is found in

Himachal Pradesh as a result of great

elevation, topography, climate and forest

cover. Wild animals and birds capable of

living under different climatic conditions

ranging from tropical to arctic climates and

from a thick forest cover to sparse tree

growth are found in the study area. This has

enriched the state extensive and diversified

varieties of wild animals and bird life.

Out of the approximately 16000 species of

higher plants in the country, over 3500 occur

in Himachal Pradesh. Many of these are,

however, under threat because of everexpanding human and cattle populations and

the consequences demand for more land for

agriculture and habitation. The only means of

conserving our wild heritage for prosperity is

by creating refuges for them and protecting

them strenuously. The preservation of

wildlife in Himachal Pradesh is thus a

necessity. The beautiful wild animals and

birds found in the state are our nation’s

invaluable assets and should be preserved not

only for our benefit, but for the future

generations as well. The forests of Himachal

Pradesh known for their grandeur and

majesty are like a green pearl in the

Himalayan crown. This life supporting

systems are presently under great stress due

to impact of modern civilization, economic

development and growth in human and cattle

population.

Himachal Pradesh has brought 13.6% of its

geographical area under the protected area

network, an extremely high figure when

compared to the national average of hardly4.5%. This percentage is the one of the

highest in the country. The state was a

pioneer in initiating wildlife conservation by

establishing wildlife sanctuaries as early as

fifty years ago. The state has 32 wildlife

sanctuaries and two unique National Parks,

which contains vast multitude of plant

species and few remaining habitats for thesnow leopard, Ibex, Blue Sheep, Tibetan

wolf and Markhor, all highly endangered

species. The Great Himalayan National Park

and the Pin Valley National Park together

constitute 1380 km2

Selection of the study Area

with rich biodiversity.

Himachal Pradesh is located in North West in

India in the lap of the Great Himalayas and bordered by Jammu and Kashmir in the



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North, Punjab in the West, Haryana and

Uttaranchal in the South and Tibet in the

East. This beautiful state is divided into two

parts Southern and Northern Himachal. The

southern Himachal also known as lower

Himachal is as hot as plain areas, where as

upper is Northern Himachal less hot in

summer and extreme cold and heavy snow in

winter. Himachal Pradesh is located between

300 22’ and 33012’ north latitude and

between 75047’ and 790

The climate of Himachal Pradesh, depending

on the altitude, varies at different places from

semi tropical to semi arctic. Tours in

Himachal Pradesh during winters (October to

February) can be very severely cold, with

heavy snowfall recorded during this season.

4’ east longitude. It is

a mountainous state with altitudes ranging

from 350 to 7000 meters (1050 ft. to 21000

ft.) above the sea level. Mountains are the

spectacular creation of crustal deformation of

the planet earth. The Himalayan range

furnishes an outstanding example of this

mode of formation. There is great

diversification in the climatic conditions of

Himachal due to variation in elevation (450-

6500mtrs). It varies from hot and sub-humid

tropical (450-900mtrs) in the southern lowtracts, warm and temperate (900-1800mtrs),

cool and temperate (1900-2400mtrs) and cold

alpine and glacial (2400-4800mtrs) in the

northern and eastern high mountain ranges.

And Himachal has five major perennial rivers

– the Beas, the Chenab, the Rave, the Satluj

and the Yamuna that form its drainage

system.

Himachal Pradesh is selected to carry out this

study for a number of reasons. Firstly it is

one of India’s most heavily forested states

with approximately 66% area under forest.

Himachal Pradesh contains large areas,

which covered in moist temperate forest

habitat. Which is rich in wildlife and

substantial areas of forest are disturbing by

developmental activities. The human

population and therefore pressure on natural

resources are both rising very rapidly. All

these above conditions in the state are

favorable to wildlife. But, in last few

decades, Himachal Pradesh has observed

progress in almost every aspect like

agriculture, population, mining, industries

and tourism. Development in different fields

has certain impacts on wildlife are matters of

great concern an essential investigate.

Keeping in view of all these reasons, the area

has been selected for the study.

Methodology

The present study aims to analyze

anthropogenic impacts on wildlife. First step

of the study is to collect the secondary data

on different issues from various published

and unpublished sources of different

governmental and non-governmental

agencies. Then the reconnaissance survey

was made to the study area.

Environmental Conditions for the

Conservation of Wildlife

The Himalayan mountain system represents

one of the richest natural heritage sites in the

world. It has a remarkable assemblage of

biodiversity – both plants and animals. The

rich diversity of Himalaya is now severely

threatened and many species have become

endangered on account of a variety of

physical, biotic and strategic factors to the

region. The loss in biodiversity has been

largely on account of habitat losses, which inturn have happened due to anthropogenic



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factors, like deforestation, overexploitation of

natural resources, human settlements/

encroachments and population growth. The

rich endemic flora and fauna of the

Himalayan region faces the threat of

extinction due to human interference,

degradation of forests and natural habitats for

expansion of agriculture, industrial and urban

development’s.

Across the world, wildlife habitats continue

to be degraded and lost by human activities.

In general, such degradation and loss is

accompanied by a decline in the region’s

biodiversity. However, as landscapes are

increasingly modified by humans, not all

species are affected similarly. While some

species quickly go to be extinct, others are

able to persist initially, but eventually

become extinct if the human pressures on the

habitat keep on increasing. There are still

others that continue to persist, and even

benefit from increased human presence andhabitat modification.

The Himalayas present a storehouse of bio-

diversity, where flora and fauna vary

extensively with climate diversity from one

region to the other. Poaching and illegal trade

in wildlife are other major threats to species

survival in the Himalayas. The region

provides many transit routes for illegalwildlife trade. Of the various Himalayan

species, plants and plant products are among

the most heavily traded. Among fauna, Musk

Deer, Himalayan Black bear, butterflies and

Tibetan antelopes are sought for their high

value in the international market. As a result

of the above processes, many endemic

species of the study area such as Snow

leopard, Leopard, Himalayan black bear,

Himalayan brown bear, Himalayan red fox,

civets, jackals, Serow, Himalayan Tahr,

Musk Deer, Gora, blue sheep, Monal,

Koklass, Kaleej and western Tragopan are

now endangered. Approximately 10% of

known species in the Himalayas were listed

as threatened in 1995, and the number of

species on the verge of extinction has

increased since then (IPCC, 2001).

Habitat destruction is the main cause for

wildlife extinction in India. The rapid

deterioration of the environment due to

human interference is aiding the

disappearance of wildlife from the biosphere.

Habitat loss is due to deforestation for

extended cultivation, construction of dams,

mining operations and road lying. When the

natural habitat of animals is destroyed, it

leads to a decline in their primary food

supply and breeding and nesting grounds.

Hence their numbers get drastically reduced.

In the case of plants, if their natural habitat is

destroyed and the species that controls the pests that attack them are lost, then their

survival is at risk.

Human activities by the local people is

causing serious disturbance to wildlife

reserves. Their dependence on protected

areas for fuel, fodder, grazing, etc. is having

great impact on the fragile ecosystems of

wildlife reserves.

The National Parks and wildlife sanctuaries

have very delicate and fragile ecosystems,

which are very highly susceptible to

anthropogenic interferences. The human

factors affecting the delicate ecosystems and

biodiversity of the Natural Reserve of the

area under study are associated mainly with

rising human population and increasedresource use pressure on the forests of the



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protected area, gaining popularity of wildlife

tourism and its changing concept, expanding

urbanization and industrialization and

expansion of development activities and

projects in and around the protected area.

The resource use pressures, which adversely

affect the forest ecosystems, threaten wildlife

population and its habitat and ultimately lead

to loss of biodiversity, are all related to

human beings and their various activities.

Poaching and commercial exploitation

constitute yet another category of population

related- threats to the conservation and

protection of wildlife in natural reserves.

This large human population around the

National parks is totally dependent on the

forests of the PAs for cattle grazing and for

collecting fuel wood, fodder and thatching

grasses. The collection of fuel wood is not

only for domestic use but it is also sold in the

nearby markets as a mean of livelihood.

Tourism has capacity to damage the

environment directly and indirectly;

indirectly in the misuse of environment

through building of tourism infrastructure,

industries and directly through the

concentration of visitors and tourism support

of manpower, equipments and facilities in

areas of natural beauty, and in and around the

natural reserves.

An attempt has been made to assess the

environmental impact of various human

activities with the application of Leopold

matrix of environmental Impact Assessment

(EIA). This matrix was used here in a slightly

modified and simplified form. In this matrix,

the impact of grazing, resource dependence

of people living inside and adjacent to parks

and sanctuaries on the protected areas,

transport, tourism, development projects and

industrialization, on the environmental

components of land, water, fauna and flora

was analyzed with the help of range numbers.

The range numbers, indicating the magnitude

of impact, rang between of 1 (least) and 3

(maximum) in Table 1.

Activities Environmental Component

Land Flora Fauna Water

Human Activities 1 2 2 1

Agriculture 3 2 2 1

Deforestation 2 3 3 2

Tourism 2 2 3 1

Transport System 2 2 3 1

Hydrological Projects 2 2 2 2

Grazing 1 3 2 1

Poaching 1 1 3 1

Forest Fire 1 3 3 1Table 1: Different Activities

Affecting the Different

Environmental Component inthe Protected Areas ofHimachal Pradesh

The relative assessment of the magnitude of

impact of a particular activity on different

environmental components, in all natural

reserves and allotment of respective range

number was done subjectively through the field

surveys and the intensity and pressure of various

human activities considered, on different

national parks and sanctuaries. In this exercise

the relative environmental impact assessment,

both direct and Indirect impacts of activity

system have been considered.

Population

Demographic and social changes place more

people in direct contact with wildlife: as human

populations grow, settlements expand into and

around protected areas (IUCN, World Park

Congress, 2003), as well as in urban and sub-

urban areas. In the study area, human population

growth has lead to encroachment into wildlife

habitats, restriction of species into marginal

habitat patches and direct competition with local

communities, as



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• Degradation and alteration of the ecosystem

due to grazing.

• Destruction of habitats due to forest fires –

both accidental and intentional – started by

people collecting NTFP and by trains.

• Air and noise pollution due to traffic in

protected areas.

• Disturbance to animals due to the large

number of pilgrims and tourists within the

protected area.

• Accumulation of solid waste around religious

places and settlement in forest areas.

• Degradation of forest due to collection of

fodder and small timber.

• Over grazing of sheep and goats in the

protected areas and in high-altitude thatches

(meadows) is degrading the habitat and

disturbing the animals.

• Collection of medicinal, aromatic and edible

herbs and plants is degrading the habitat,

disturbing the animals, and threatening many

species with local extinction.

• Collection of fuel wood and fodder is

degrading the habitat.

• Commercial extraction of timber is

deforesting the area.

• Poaching of animals, especially the Musk

deer (Moschus moschiferus), is threatening

the species with local extinction.

Agriculture

Agricultural lands play a critical role in

conserving biodiversity. Agriculture,

horticulture, animal husbandry and many other

economic activities depend simultaneously on

both the exploitation and conservation of natural

resources. In most of the hilly regions,

agricultural expansion threatened the

biodiversity. One of the major ecological

influences of man has been to simplify the

ecosystems. Thus man plows the grassland,

eliminating a hundred species of native herbs

and grasses, which he replaces with pure stands

of maize, wheat, or barley. This increases

efficiency, productivity and yield, but it also

increases ecologic vulnerability and instability.

The landscape diversity is reduced.

Because anthropogenic contaminants have

become ubiquitous in the environment and

influence the ecology of wild species, wildlife

managers and scientists are increasingly

required to consider chemical disturbances as an

essential component of habitat destruction. This

is a new and powerful human threat to species

diversity with rising levels of toxic pesticides

used in agriculture, which many pollute waters

and soils, has a devastating effect on wildlife

and biodiversity of the area. Large-scale use of

pesticides and fertilizers has polluted the land

and river ecosystems also.

Years Total area under cultivation 1950-51

406.3

1955-56 423.3 1960-61 428.7 1965-66 487.7 1970-71 911.7 1975-76 927.3

1980-81 946.4

1985-86 983.6 1990-91 971.6

1995-96 949.8 2000-01 947.5

Grasslands are an important breeding habitat for

many species of birds and mammals. The area

under pasture in Himachal Pradesh is declining,

which fell to 36% by 1991. The reduction was

due to conversion of pastures for horticulture

and food crops cultivation and some areas

became barren due to overgrazing and neglect.

The area under pastures was decreasing and the

number of grazing animals was increasing, thus

the pressure on natural resources increases day

by day. During this period 1970-90 the

population of cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats



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increased at the annual rate of 0.2%, 1.8% and

0.6% respectively.

The study reveals that large and growing

population, extensive nature of agriculture, soil

erosion and land destruction, overgrazing of

pastures, shifting cultivation and increased

stress on forest resources are creating loss of

biological diversity in the study area. On the

basis of above identified factors which are

affecting biodiversity, there is a sharp need to

preserve the biodiversity.

Deforestation

Massive deforestation in the Himalayan region

is the important factor in ecological degradation.

Non-availability of certain species, decline of

fodder and wood resources, loss of the habitat

of wildlife, soil erosion, recurrent floods and

drying-up springs and seasonal streams and

climatic changes are the consequences of man’s

activity.

Deforestation has been caused by commercial

logging; commercial exploitation of trees for

timber, resin, medicinal herbs, clearing of

forestland for settlements and agriculture;

excessive exploitation of forests for fuel wood

and food; and overgrazing by animals, the

coming up of new habitation and the building

of roads. Deforestation is posing a serious threat

to both flora and fauna in the study area. It is not

uncommon to hear the sound of an axe striking

a tree in the forests. The past decade has seen a

large amount of deforestation, which definitely

is a cause of concern.

One of the most serious consequences of

deforestation is the loss of habitat for wildlife.

Deforestation severely impacts forest

ecosystems, causes soil erosion in catchments

areas, a decline in soil fertility, landslides and

siltation of reservoirs, water sources and canals.

The most important direct cause of biodiversity

loss is habitat destruction from clearing and

burning.

Tourism

Tourism and the environment have a verycomplex and interdependent relationship. The

Himalayan region is considered to be

abundantly suited for tourism since it offers all

kinds of attractions to tourists. The lush green

valleys, emerald meadows, vast ice fields have

now started showing abrasion due to increasing

human activity. Tourism brings a large number

of people together, which leads to marked

changes that are detrimental to the ecosystem as

a whole. Tourism is found in the form of pilgrim

tourism and for pleasure and adventure. To

accommodate the large tourist influx, hundreds

of new buildings and mean of transportation are

being constructed every year. Unplanned

development in the Himalayas is causing

irreparable damage. The problems of litter,

noise, erosion, destruction of fauna and flora

have become acute.

S.

No.

Year No. of

Hotels /Guest

Houses

Tourist Arrivals (In lacs)

1. 1990 440 19.23 0.19 19.42

2. 1991 569 23.68 0.15 23.83

3. 1992 711 29.57 0.18 29.75

4. 1993 762 28.77 0.12 28.89

5. 1994 904 34.38 0.52 34.90

6. 1995 1023 30.99 0.47 31.46

7. 1996 1180 35.28 0.51 35.798. 1997 1208 38.30 0.63 38.93

9. 1998 1217 41.80 0.75 42.55

10. 1999 1241 43.52 0.91 44.43

11. 2000 1434 45.70 1.11 46.81

12. 2001 1504 51.11 1.33 52.44

13. 2002 1562 49.60 1.44 51.04

14. 2003 1643 55.44 1.68 57.12

15. 2004 1710 63.45 2.04 65.49

Transport Systems

The developmental activities of man such as the

construction of high dams, roads, exploration for

minerals and mining activity and the quest for

arable land are some of the common reasons for



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the loss of biodiversity. Human inference in

natural environmental conditions often gives

these dynamic processes catastrophic

proportions, leading to disasters and irreparable

damage to the natural balance of the ecosystem.

Road building activities, railway lines, air links

and electronic communication, together with

spread of market economy and policy

interventions, have not merely impacted the

socio-economic dynamics but also the rate of

exploitation of natural resources in the region.

These affects wildlife, habitat, and ecosystems

in numerous in various ways. The threat to the

country’s national parks and sanctuaries

continues unabated.

Hydrological Projects

There is a realization that hydroelectric power

projects are not as clean as they were normally

considered to be world over. They cause many

adverse environmental and social impacts. A

major conflict arises between development and

biodiversity conservation when projects are

located in the protected areas because such

projects impact upon prevailing patterns of

allocation of land and resources to people and

interface with various forestry and wildlife

conservation objectives.

Hydl projects of the study area increasing

sedimentation, indiscriminate mining, pollution,

rapid construction of roads, dumping into

rivers and deforestation have destroyed the

habitat of the fish in many rivers and streams.

Study also pointed out that the environmental

changes were affecting the watersheds.

Pesticides and insecticides have also worsened

the situation. Study area has a cumulative stream

length of about 3000 fishable waters, including

the Beas, Tirthan, Parvathi, Uhl, Pabbar and

Ravi. According to the draft biodiversity Action

Plan prepared for Himachal Pradesh,

“Avowedly, the dams, weirs and barrages act as

physical barriers to migration, tending to prevent

access of the fish, their usual breeding regions

and feeding grounds. Fishes dying due to large-

scale abstraction of river waters and dams and

embankments altering the flow, fisher folk are

being fast pushed into oblivion”.

Today Himachal Pradesh has a very rich and

varied fauna with a land mass of 7572.55 km2

(13.6%) of its geographical area of 55673 Sq.

Km under the protected area network, an



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extremely high figure when compared to the

national average of hardly 4.70%. As a result,

there has been an increase in the number of wild

animals, not only within the protected areas, but

more so outside the protected area network. The

state has 32 wildlife sanctuaries and two unique

national parks namely great Himalayan National

Park and Pin Valley National Park, which

contains the highly endangered species. There

are recorded 77 species of mammals, 463

species of birds, 44 species of reptiles, 80

species of fishes, 436 aquatic plants and more

than 3500 species of higher plants (seed

bearing) in the state and India has 21 Wetlands,

of these 21, three, namely, Renuka, Pongdam

and Chandertal are in the State of Himachal

Pradesh.

S.No. Name of the Project Location

1. Nathpa Jhakri Project Kinnaur

2. Parbati Stage-I Kullu

3. Parbati Stage-II Kullu4. Parbati Stage-III Kullu

5. Chamera-I Chamba

6. Chamera-II Chamba

7. Dhamwari Shimla

8. Larji Project Mandi

9. Gumma HEP Shimla

10. Sanjay Vidyut Pariyojna Kinnaur

11. Andhra Hydel Project Shimla

12. Padamshri Kailash Chand Mahajan Chamba

13. Holi Chamba

14. Rohtang Hydel Project Lahul-Spiti15. Bhaba Power House Kinnaur

16. Khauli Project Kangra

17. Baspa Stage-II Kinnaur

18. Malana Kullu

19. Giri Bata Project Sirmaur

20. Dhamwari Sunda Shimla

21. Bassi Project Mandi

22. Uhl-III Mandi

23. Pandoh Dam Mandi

24. Neogal Kangra25. Karcham Wangtoo Kinnaur

26. Allain Duhangan Kullu

27. Hibra Chamba

28. Sawra Kuddu Shimla

29. Budhil Chamba

30. Koldam Bilaspur

31. Renuka Dam Project Sirmour

32. Rampur Shimla

33. Binwa Project Kangra

34. Siul-Baira Scheme Chamba

35. Thirot Lahul-SpitiMajor Hydrological Projects in Himachal Pradesh



Pal et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/169 - 179

178

There is an urgent need to understand such

impacts, and to avoid interference in the most

critical wildlife habitats. There is need for

creating awareness and raising information

levels on ecological and conservation issues.

There should be frequent wildlife survival

discussions with locals. Educational programs

that promote awareness and changes in attitude

towards wildlife through the medium of

television, slide shows, street plays and

pamphlets will go a long way in creating

awareness in the locals. Alternative employment

opportunities should be created for communities

depending on wildlife for economic interests.

It’s often a case of too little too late. The

government usually will not react until a species

is severely threatened. The government has to

be proactive in terms of conserving the flora and

fauna of the state. The biodiversity of the state

has suffered immediately due to lack of interest

shown by the government. The government

gives preference to development activities at the

cost of wildlife. It should give wildlife its due

share of respect and further help in conserving

them by providing advance training and latest

techniques to the forest department.

Project Activities Impacts

Tunnel Development by blasting and other project

activities during construction phase.

Affects wild life through air & noise pollution.

Transportation Adverse effect due to air and noise pollution due to

vehicular traffic.

During operation phase the project component areas

will be lit with lights.

Poses potential of disturbance to mammals and birds at

nights.

Operation phase- Development of Reservoir. Beneficial impacts to avifauna.

Forestland diversion for establishing project

components.

Loss of forest land and removal of trees and other

vegetation.

Fuel requirement of workers during construction phase. Pressure on forest produce for fuel use.

Transportation – Vehicular movements. Adverse impact of dust and air emissions.

Impacts of Hydrological Project Activities on Flora and Fauna

Increasing man-animal conflict is an outcome of

shrinkage, fragmentation and deterioration of

habitats, it has caused destruction of wildlife and

generated animosity against wild animals and

protected areas. This is a crucial management

issue, which needs to be addressed throughinnovative approaches. The government should

have to take decision to shift the local villagers

like guzars and others, dwelling inside the

protected areas to control over the conflict

between men and animals and should be strict

implementation of laws to avoid entrance inside

the protected areas for different resources. Thus

the destruction to wildlife and fragmentation of

habitats can be reduced. Overgrazing by

domestic stock is another factor, which

contributes in destruction of wildlife in study

area. Grazing pressure should be control by the

construction and careful maintaining fences

around small, critical areas and more

importantly, by the enforcement of the existing

grazing permits regulations. An effort should bemade to freeze the present livestock population.

There should be restricting entry in the protected

areas and need to construct barriers such as

walls and fences.

The government needs to make policies for

controlling the shifting agriculture, which is

highly responsible for deforestation. Spray of

pesticides and insecticides in and around the

protected areas should be stopped. This the

factor, which is also responsible for the



Pal et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/169 - 179

179

extinction of wildlife species. Forest cover is

reduced rapidly by local peoples for collection

of fuel wood and fodder. Less forest cover is the

major cause of the wildlife extinction. So there

is a demand of conservation of forests and huge

plantation to control over the wildlife

destruction.

Tourism is also playing a major role behind the

destruction of wildlife habitat and caused

serious impacts on ecosystem of the study area.

To reduce its impacts on protected areas there

should be less numbers of tourists, allowed

inside the protected area. The tourist should be

aware about the rule and regulations of the

protected areas and should be eco-friendly.

Tourists need to be educated on how to behave

in order to minimize disturbance kept to a

minimum and the hunting totally prohibited,

thus there is a strong possibility that the wildlife

will become tame and more easily observed,

thus enhancing the attractiveness of the area to

tourists. It should be responsibility theattractiveness of the area to tourists. It should be

responsibility of every tourist to avoid the use of

polythene and other non-biodegradable garbage.

Thus we can reduce the wildlife destruction in

protected area.

The construction of large-scale road network

and hydrological projects should not be allowed

inside the sanctuaries and national parks. Roadsare a major contributor to habitat fragmentation

because they divide large landscapes into

smaller patches and convert interior habitat into

edge habitat. The hydel projects also increase

the destruction of wildlife by noise pollution,

deforestation, blasting, transportation and the

conflict arises between development and

biodiversity conservation when projects are

located in the protected areas. So government

needs to make policies to avoid the construction

of roads and hydrological projects inside the

Sanctuaries and National parks.

References

Arya, S.R. Status of the Wildlife Protected

Areas and their Management in

Himanchal Pradesh, Department of Forest

Farming & Conservation Himanchal

Pradesh.

Balakrishnan and Ndhlova, D. E. (1992):

Wildlife Utilization and Local People: A

Case Study of Upper Lupande Game

Management Area Zambia

Environmental Conservation.19,135-144.

Bhatnagar, Y.V.; Rawat, G.S.; Singh, A. J. T.

and Stuwe, M. (2000): Ecological

separation between ibex and resident

livestock in a trans Himalayan protected

areas, In Grassland ecology and

management in the protected areas of

Nepal Volume 3 technical and status

papers on grassland of mountain

protected areas:70-84.



Gupta et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/180 - 183

180

Sex and altitude based study on leaf related parameters in Zanthoxylum

Armatum Roxb.

Gupta, Shalabh1; Kumar, Anil

2 and

Paliwal, Ajai Kumar

1


Abstract

Zanthoxylum armatum Roxb. is a vulnerable

medicinal plant known for its medicinal

properties for long globally. In Garhwal

region of Himalaya the plant is dioecious in

nature and is found from 600 to 2000 m amsl

(above mean sea level). In the present work

leaf material of three different accessions

from different altitudes (700, 1200 and 1600

m amsl) was collected and subjected to studyof leaf related parameters like number of

leaflets, size of leaflets, number of prickles

and size of prickles. A considerable variation

was found in all the accessions. In general it

was found that the mean number of leaflets

and leaflet size increased with increasing

altitude in both the sexes. The mean number

of prickles was found to be more at higher

altitudes but minimum was found at middle

altitude in both the sexes. The mean number

of leaflets in accessions varied from 6 to 9 in

male plants and in female plants from 8 to

10. The mean size of leaflets in male plants

varied from 6 to 11 cm and in female from 7

to 9 cms in different accessions. The numberof prickles in male plants ranged from 10 to

15 per leaflet and in female leaflets from 5 to

10 in different accessions. In all three

accessions the size of prickles varied from

0.82-1.32 cm in male and 0.45 to 1.28cms in

female plants.

Keywords: sex and altitude variation | foliar

characters | Zanthoxylum armatum Roxb.

Introduction

Among different medicinal plants

Zanthoxylum (family: Rutaceae) is one of

such vulnerable genus which possess high

medicinal, economical as well as ecological

importance and have about 250 species

spreading all over the world. In India, 11

species of this genus are reported. These are; Z. budrunga, Z. oxyphyllum, Z. ovalifolium,

Z. acanthopodium, Z. planispinum, Z.

armatum, Z. nitidium, Z. rhesta, Z. simulans,

Z. avicennae and Z. limonella. Out of these, 4

species; Z. armatum DC., Z. acanthopodium

DC., Z. oxyphyllum Edgew, and Z. budrunga

are present in Uttarakhand (Kala et al .,

2005). Z. armatum is commonly known as

Indian Prickly Ash, Nepal Pepper or

Toothache Tree. Local name of this plant is


Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [180 – 183] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]


For Correspondence:1Department of Botany, S. B. S. Govt. P.G. College, Rudrapur,

Uttarakhand2 Department of Botany, Pt. L.M.S. Govt. P.G. College,

Rishikesh, Uttarakhand




Gupta et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/180 - 183

181

Tejphal (Hindi), Tejowati (Sanskrit),

Mukthrubi (Manipuri) and Timur (Nepal).

Zanthoxylum armatum is a vulnerable

deciduous shrub or small tree which grows in

well drained alluvial, black soil. In India, it

has been reported from the warmer valleys of

the Himalaya from Jammu and Kashmir to

Assam and Khasi (1,000 to 2,100m asl), in

the Eastern Ghats in Orissa and Andhra

Pradesh (1,200 m) and the lesser Himalayan

regions in the north-eastern part of India for

example, Naga Hills, Meghalaya, Mizoram,

and Manipur (Kala et al ., 2005). Z. alatum is

synonyms to it (Gupta et al ., 2011).

Zanthoxylum armatum prefers semi shady or

no shade for growth. Valleys and thickets in

the mountain wasteland and the under-storey

of mixed forests are customary locations of

the species. Now this plant is facing severe

problems like over-harvesting, less

germination of seeds, ignorance by local

people and many more and is becoming

lesser in frequency. The plant has been

cytomorphologically less explored. In

Garhwal region the plant is present in

dioecious nature (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2). To the

best of our knowledge no work on sex and

altitude has been done earlier only very less

morphological work has been reported in this

plant (Gaur, 1999).


The leaf material of both male and female

plants was collected from three different sites

of Garhwal as shown in table 1 and was

subjected to the study of leaf related

parameters like number of leaflets, size of

leaflets, number of prickles and size of

prickles.

Observations

The leaves were found to be alternate,

imparipinnate compound and prickly (Fig. 3).

The parameters studied showed variation in

both sexes at different altitudes. In both male

and female plants the mean number of

leaflets increased from lower to higher

altitudes. The mean number of leaflets in

male plants ranged from 6 to 9 and in female

plants from 8 to 10. The data is as shown in

Table 2.

The mean size of leaflets in male and female

plants increased with increase in altitude

(table 3). The mean size of male and female

plant leaflet varied from 6 to 11 cms and 7 to

9 cms respectively.

The mean number of prickles per leaf in male

plants increased with altitude while in female

such relationship was not found (table 4).

The mean number of prickles in male varied

from 10 to 15. In female plant leaf minimum

number of prickles was found in middle

heights and maximum was found at higher

altitudes. In female leaves the prickles ranged

from 5 to 10 per leaf.

Accession

No.

Altitude (meter above

mean sea level)

Name of the

village

Z-1 750 m Devtoli,

Karanprayag

Z-2 1200 m Semi-Gwar, Pokhri

Z-3 1500 m Kumud , Joshimath

Table 1. Details of sites from which leafmaterial was collected

In both sexes at higher altitudes mean size of

prickles was found to be maximum, though

in both minimum size of prickles was found

at middle altitudes (Table 5). Maximum size

of prickles was found to be 1.37cms in male

leaves and 1.28 in female leaves.



Gupta et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/180 - 183

182

Fig. 1: Female plant

Fig. 2: Male plant

Fig. 3: A single leaf with leaflets of Z. armatum

Fig. 4: Plant with seeds


To the best of our knowledge this type of sex

and altitude based study on leaf related

morphology has been done for the first time.

Gaur (1990) reported 1.5cm long prickles,

alternate leaves and 10-15 cms long

imperipinnate, leaflets 3-30, 2-6 X 1.5 to 2.5

cms toothed. In the present work the number

of leaflets in male and female were found to be increase along with rise in altitude and the

mean number varied from 6 to 9 and 8 to 10

Accession Sex Mean ± SE Range

Z-1 Male 6.25 ± 0.36 3.00 - 7.00

Female 8.31 ± 0.49 5.00 - 11.00

Z-2 Male 7.09 ± 0.28 5.00 - 9.00

Female 9.91 ± 0.83 3.00 - 13.00

Z-3 Male 9.40 ± 0.45 7.00 - 11.00

Female 10.09 ± 0.41 7.00 - 11.00

Table 2: Data showing mean number

of leaflets in male andfemale plants of Z. armatum


Z-1 Male 9.90 ± 0.77 7.00 - 13.00

Female 7.50 ± 1.28 3.00 - 12.00

Z-2 Male 12.20 ± 1.13 8.00 - 17.00

Female 4.80 ± 1.45 2.00 - 13.00

Z-3 Male 14.70 ± 0.40 13.00 - 16.00

Female 9.70 ± 0.65 7.00 - 12.00

Table 3: Data showing mean number

of prickles in male and

female leaflets of Z.

armatum


Z-1 Male 6.25 ± 0.32 5.30 - 8.00

Female 7.37 ± 0.47 5.00 - 8.50

Z-2 Male 8.66 ± 0.32 7.50 - 10.30

Female 7.57 ± 0.30 6.40 - 9.00

Z-3 Male 11.46 ± 0.32 10.00 - 12.20

Female 9.45 ± 0.83 6.00 - 12.00

Table 4: Data showing mean size of

leaflets in male and female

plants of Z. armatum


Z-1 Male 0.89 ± 0.02 0.80 - 1.00Female 0.47 ± 0.06 0.20 - 0.70

Z-2 Male 0.82 ± 0.04 0.70 - 1.00

Female 0.45 ± 0.05 0.30 - 0.80

Z-3 Male 1.37 ± 0.07 1.10 - 1.60

Female 1.28 ± 0.20 0.60 - 2.00

Table 5:Data showing mean number

of prickles in male and

female leaflets of Z.

armatum



Gupta et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/180 - 183

183

respectively. The size of leaflets also

increased with rise in altitude in both male

and female plants, the mean size of leaflets

varied from 6 to 11 and 7 to 9 cms

respectively. The mean number of prickles

was found to increase with altitude but in

female leaves maximum number was found

at high altitude but the minimum size was

found at middle altitude. The mean number

of prickle in male and female varied from 10

to 15 and 5 to 10 respectively. In both sexes

at higher altitudes mean size of prickles was

found to be maximum, though in both

minimum size of prickles was found at

middle altitudes. Maximum size of prickles

was found to be 1.37cms in male leaves and

1.28 in female leaves.

References

Gaur, R.D. (1999): Flora of the district

Garhwal North West Himalaya with

ethnobotanical note. Transmedia,

Srinagar, Garhwal, India. Paridhavi and

Agrawal, 2007.

Gupta, S.; Bhaskar S. and Andola H.C.

(2011): Altitudinal variation in

essential oil in leaves of Zanthoxylum

alatum Roxb. A high value aromatic

tree from Uttarakhand. J. Med. Plant

Res. 5(3): 348-351.

Kala, C. P. (2005): Indigenous uses,

population density and conservation of

threatened medicinal plants in protect-

ed areas of the Indian Himalayas.

Conservation Biology 19:368-378.



Pathak et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/184 - 188

184

Synthesis and Characterization of ZnO Thin Films Fabricated by Sol-Gel

Method

Pathak, Trilok Kumar1; Pal, Pankaj K.

1; Gupta, Himanshu

1; Matta, Gagan

2; Kumar,

Ajendra3; Kumar, R

1. and Purohit, L. P.

1


Abstract

ZnO is a strategic material for various

photonic applications. Highly oriented and

transparent ZnO thin films have been

fabricated on ultrasonically cleaned quartz

substrates by the sol-gel technique. X-ray

diffraction (XRD), Scanning electron

microscopy (SEM), UV-VIS, FTIR and

photoluminescence are used to characterize

ZnO thin films. XRD study show that all the

films prepared in this work have hexagonal

wurtzite structure, with lattice constants a = b

= 3.260 Å, c = 5.214 Å. The optical band gap

energy of the thin films is found to be direct

allowed transition ~3.24 eV. The FTIR

spectrum of the film has the characteristics

ZnO absorption band at 482 cm-1

. The

photoluminescence spectrum of the sampleshas an UV emission peak centred at 383 nm

with broad band visible emission centred in

the range of 500 - 600 nm.

Keywords: ZnO films | XRD | SEM | FTIR |

Photoluminescence

Introduction

ZnO has been extensively investigated due to

its potentials in optoelectronics application. It

has a wide band gap (3.37 eV) and large

excitation binding energy (60 meV) (Service,

R. F., 1997). ZnO thin film has wide range

application due to their potential application

in transparent electrode in display, window

layers in solar cells, field emitters, ultraviolet

laser emission, photodetectors,

piezoelectricity, bio-sensors, short

wavelength light emitting diode and

information technology (Li et al., 2004 andTsukazaki et al., 2005). ZnO thin film has

unique optical, electrical and semiconducting

properties, ZnO thin films are extensively

used in various applications. Despite several

approaches adopted for making these ZnO

thin films, controlling the size, shape,

crystallinity and various parameters affectingthe size and shape of these materials still


Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [184 – 188] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]


For Correspondence:1Department of Physics2Department of Zoology and Environmental Science2Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Gurukula Kangri University, HaridwarEmail: [email protected]




185

need to be investigated. Thus essential

condition must be satisfied for fabrication of

highly oriented and transparent ZnO thin

films. The main concern of researcher is to

get better quality of material stoichiometry.ZnO thin films are grown by different

techniques such as pulsed laser deposition

(PLD), magnetron sputtering, MOCVD,

spray pyrolysis etc. Lee et al., 2005 and

Salaoru et al., 2006). Sol-gel technique is

widely adopted due to its comparatively

simple procedure as there is no need ofcostly vacuum system and it has a wide-

range advantage of large area deposition and

uniformity of the films thickness. The sol-gel

process also offers other advantages for thin

film deposition including outstanding control

of the stoichiometry and easy doping in film

composition. The structural and physical

properties of ZnO thin films prepared by sol-

gel technique using various inorganic and

organic precursors at different deposition

conditions have been reported in literature

(Ye et al., 2002 and Lee et al., 2003). In the

present work, we report growth of ZnO thin

films on quartz substrate by Sol-gel method

using zinc acetate precursor and their

structural, optical, vibrational and

photoluminescence properties.

Experimental Details

Zinc acetate di- hydrate

(Zn(CH3COO)2·2H2O) was first dissolved

in a 2-methoxyethanol ((CH3)2CHOH) with

monoethanolamine (MEA:

H2 NCH2CH2OH) which was used as a

sta biliser. The molar ratio of MEA to zinc

acetate was kept to 1.0 and concentration of

zinc acetate was 0.80 moll. The resultant

solution was stirred at 60˚C for 1 h to yield a

clear and homogeneous solution ready for

coating. The coating was performed with

freshly prepared solution. The films on

ultrasonically cleaned quartz substrates were

prepared using spin-coating unit which was

rotated at 3000 rpm for 30 s. The films were

preheated (baked) at temperature 250˚C for 5

min in a furnace to evaporate the solvent and

remove organic residuals. The spin- coating

to preheating procedure was repeated tentimes. The films were then post-heated

(annealed) in air at 400˚C for three hour. The

phases of ZnO thin film were determined by

X-ray diffraction, using Panalytical

Diffractometer type PW3710 with Cu Ka

radiation ( λ = 0.154 nm). Surface

morphology was examined by the Scanning

Electron Microscope model- Carl ZEISSEVO-40. Optical transmittance was observed

sing UV-Visible double beam

spectrophotometer model, and the optical

band gap energy was calculated from the

data of the optical transmittance and

wavelength. The IR spectrum was recorded

using SHI- MADZU FTIR in the range of

400 cm−1

to 5000 cm−1

.Photoluminescence of the samples was

measured using a He-Cd laser as an

excitation source, operating at 325 nm with

an output power of 50 mW and

monochromatic fitted with a Hamamatsu

R928 photomultiplier detector.


X-ray Diffraction analysis

The XRD pattern of ZnO thin film fabricated




186

by sol-gel method on quartz substrates is

shown in Fig 1. All the peaks of the ZnO thin

films correspond to the peaks of standard

ZnO. For all the samples, (100), (101) and

(002) diffraction peaks are observed in the

XRD pattern, showing the growth of ZnO

crystallites along different directions. Strong

preferential growth is observed along (002)

plane indicating that the films are oriented

along c-axis. The typical hexagonal wurtzite

structure of thin films is inferred from the

XRD pattern.

The crystallites sizes (D) of the films are

estimated using the Scherer formula (Znaidi

et al., 2003):

D =.

Where λ is the wave length of X-ray used at

B is the full width at half maximum peak of

XRD pattern. The average value of grain size

is found to be 20 nm.

Figure 1.XRD pattern of ZnO thin

film Surface

Morphology analysis

Surface morphology of thin films is very

important tool to investigate microstructure

of thin films. SEM micrograph of ZnO

thin films is shown in Fig 2. The growth

of unsymmetrical ZnO rod having large

surface area can be seen in SEM

micrograph. From micrograph, it is

observed that growth of small square shape

crystallites with the rod shape. Such type of

square slabs in ZnO thin films are also

observed by L. Znaidi et al. (2003).

Optical Properties

The optical transmission spectrum of theZnO thin film grown on quartz substrates is

shown in Fig 3. The average value of

transmittance of thin films in the visible

range is found to be 91% - 95%. In the

visible region of solar spectrum,

transmission spectra of ZnO thin films show

sinusoidal behaviour; this may be due to the

layered structure of thin films. The value of

Figure 2: SEM micrograph of ZnO thinfilm

band gap is es-timated from fundamental

absorption edge of the films. For the direct

transitions, the absorption coefficient is

expressed by [10]:

(αhν) = A (hν - Eg)

where A is the constant, Eg is the energy gap,

ν is the frequency of the incident radiationand h is Planck’s constant. Fig 4 shows the

plot (αhν)

1/2

2 vs. hν. The Eg val-ues of thin film

are calculated from this plot. The presence of

a single slope in the plot suggests that the

films have direct and allowed transition. The

band gap energy is obtained by extrapolating

the straight line portion of the plot to zero

absorption coefficient. The band gap value ofZnO thin film is found to be 3.24 eV.

100 nm




187

Figure 3. Transmission spectrum of ZnO

thin film

Fig 4: The plots (αhν)2

FTIR Analysis

vs photon energy of

the ZnO thin film

FTIR Spectroscopy is very useful tool for

investigating vibrational properties of

synthesized materials. The band positions

and absorption peak not only depend on the

chemical composition and structure of the

thin films but on the morphology of thin

films also (Yang et al., 2009). FTIR

spectrum of ZnO thin film is shown in Fig 5.

The absorption band observed at 482 cm−1 is

attributed to the ZnO stretching vibrations.

The broad peak in the range of 3900 to 3800

cm−1 is attributed to water molecule present

in thin films. Weak peaks at 1550 cm−1 and

1665 cm−1

are attributed to symmetric and

Fig 5: FTIR spectrum of ZnO thin film.

asymmetric C=O bonds vibrations

respectively. The absorption peaks appearingat 2380 cm−1 is due to the absorption of

atmospheric CO2

Photoluminescence Spectroscopy

by metallic cation.

Photoluminescence spectrum of ZnO thin

film is shown in Fig 6. Two emission peaks

is observed in photo-luminescence spectrum.

A strong peak centred at 383 nm, near the

band edge due to free exciton emission isobserved in photoluminescence spectrum. A

weak and broad peak centred at 550 nm is

also observed in photo-luminescence

spectrum. The broad band in the re-gion of

500 - 600 nm, in photoluminescence

spectrum of ZnO thin films is related to the

amount of non-stoichiometric intrinsic

defects and the same may be due to zincvacancy in ZnO films as reported Kim et al.

(Kim et al., 2005). It is known that pure ZnO

can show green or orange visible

luminescence depending on the growth

temperature and availability of oxygen

during sample preparation. The main issue is

improving material quality, mostly ZnO

shows the ultraviolet emission with the green

emission. Visible emission in ZnO shows the

defects in material crystal structures. In this




Fig 6: Photoluminescence spectrum of ZnO

thin film

thin film we have observed one visible band,

presence of this band due to thestochiometric defects occurs during the

synthesis of thin films.

Tsukazaki, A.; Ohtomo, A.; Onuma, T.;

Ohtani, M.; Mankino, T. and Sumiya,

M. (2005): Nature Materials, Vol. 4,

No. 1,p. 42-46.

Lee, S. H.; Lee, S. S.; Choi, J. J.; Jeon, J. U.

and Ro, K. (2005): Microsystem Tech-

nologies, Vol. 11, No. 6, p. 416-423.

Salaoru, I.; Buffat, P. A.; Laub, D.; Amariei,

A.; Apetroaei, N. and Rusu, M. (2006):

Vol. 8, No. 3,p. 936-940.

Ye, J. D.; Gu, S. L.; Zhu, S. M.; Chen, T.;

Hu, L. Q.; Qin, F.; Zhang, R.; Shi, Y.

and Zheng, Y. D. (2002): Vol. 243,

No. 1, p.151-160.

Lee, J. B.; Kwak, S. H. and Kim, H. J.

Issue Vi n0 2 December 2015

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