ISLAM

THE FIRST TRANS-REGIONAL CIVILIZATION

CURRENT MUSLIM WORLD

PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA• The Arabian peninsula

– Largely deserts with mountains, oases– Fertile areas in the southern mountains around Yemen– Nomadic Bedouin

• Lived in the desert-covered peninsula for millennia • Kept herds of sheep, goats, and camels • Organized in family and clan groups • Importance of kinship and loyalty to the clan• Many tribes seem to have been matrilineal with some rights for women

• Post-classical Arabia– Romans (Byzantines) and Persians had client kingdoms in area– Active in long-distance over land trade

• Trade from Damascus to Mecca/Medina to Yemen• Trade across desert to Persian Gulf and along coast • Part of Red Sea trade system; links between Yemen and Abyssinia• Trade includes gold, frankincense and myrrh

– Religion was polytheist– Groups of Jews in Arabia; Monophysite Christians in cities

TRADE ROUTES c. 500 CE

PHYSICAL MAP OF ARABIA

MUHAMMAD’S EARLY LIFE• Muhammad ibn Abdullah

– Born in a Mecca merchant family, 570 C.E. – Difficult early life: orphaned, lived with uncle – Married a wealthy widow, Khadija, in 595 – Became a merchant at age 30, exposed to various faiths

• Muhammad's spiritual transformation – At age 40, he experienced visions

• There was only one true god, Allah ("the god") • Allah would soon bring judgment on the world • The archangel Gabriel delivered these revelations to Muhammad • Did not intend to found a new religion, but his message became appealing

• The Quran – Followers compiled Muhammad's actual revelations after his death– Quran ("recitation"), became the holy book of Islam– Suras are chapters; organized from longest to shortest – A work of magnificent poetry

• The Hadith– Sayings attributed to Muhammad; not included in Quran– Three levels from most accurate/likely to highly suspect

THE HIJRA (FLIGHT)• Conflict at Mecca

– His teachings offended others, especially ruling elite of Mecca – Attacks on greed offended wealthy merchants – Attacks on idolatry threatened shrines, especially the Kaa'ba

• The hijra – Under persecution, Muhammad, followers fled to Medina, 622 C.E. – The move, known as hijra, was starting point of Islamic calendar

• The umma – Organized a cohesive community called umma in Medina – Led commercial adventure– Sometimes launched raids against Mecca caravans – Helped the poor and needy

• The "seal of the prophets" – Referred himself as "seal of the prophets," - final prophet of Allah – Held Hebrew scriptures and New Testament in high esteem

• Referred to followers as “Peoples of the Book”• If they did not threaten umma, were to be protected

– Determined to spread Allah's wish to all humankind

CONQUEST OF ARABIA

• Muhammad's return to Mecca – Conquered Mecca, 630 – Imposed a theocratic government dedicated to Allah – Destroyed pagan shrines and built mosques

• The Kaa'ba – The Kaa'ba shrine was not destroyed – In 632, Muhammad led the first Islamic pilgrimage to the Ka'ba

• The Five Pillars of Islam – Obligations taught by Muhammad, known as the Five Pillars – The Five Pillars bound the umma into a cohesive community of faith– Profession of faith, prayer, tithing, pilgrimage, fasting at Ramadan

• Islamic law: the sharia – Emerged during the centuries after Muhammad – Detailed guidance on proper behavior in almost every aspect of life – Drew laws, precepts from the Quran – Drew traditions from Arabic culture, Hadith– Through the sharia, Islam became a religion and a way of life

6TH CENTURY ARABIA

SYMBOLS OF ISLAM

EXPANSION OF ISLAM• The caliph

– Upon Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr served as caliph ("deputy") – Became head of state, chief judge, religious leader, military commander– First four called Orthodox caliphs because they were original followers

• The expansion of Islam – 633-637, seized Byzantine Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia – 640's, conquered Egypt and north Africa – 651, toppled Sassanid dynasty – 711-718, conquered Hindu region of Sind; Iberia, NW Africa – Success due to weakness of enemies, vigor of Islam

• Dar al Islam– The Islamic world where the Sharia is in force, Islam dominates– Dar el Harb is the land of the unbelievers, or non-Muslims

• The Shia and Sunnis – The Sunnis ("traditionalists") accepted legitimacy of early caliphs

• Were Arab as opposed to Islamic• Did not feel caliphs had to be related to Muhammad

– The Shia sect supported Ali (last caliph and son in law of Muhammad)• A refuge for non-Arab converts, poor; followers in Irag, Iran• Felt caliphs should be directly related to Muhammad

– Two sects struggled over succession; produced a civil war, murder

SPREAD OF ISLAM

UMAYYAD DYNASTY

• The Umayyad dynasty (661-750 C.E.) – New caliph won civil war; murdered Ali; established dynasty– Established capital city at Damascus in Syria – Ruled for the interests of Arabian military aristocracy

• Policy toward conquered peoples – Dhimmis were the conquered Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians– Levied jizya (head tax) on those who did not convert to Islam– Even the converts did not enjoy wealth, position of authority

• Umayyad decline – Caliphs became alienated from Arabs by early 8th century – By the mid-century, faced strong resistance of the Shia faction – The discontent of conquered peoples also increased– Umayyad family slaughtered; only one son escaped to Spain– Formed breakaway Umayyad Dynasty in Spain

ABBASID DYNASTY• Abu al-Abbas

– A descendant of Muhammad's uncle; allied with Shias and non-Arab Muslims – Seized control of Persia and Mesopotamia during 740's – Shattered Umayyad forces at a battle in 750; annihilated the Umayyad clan

• The Abbasid dynasty (750-1258 C.E.) – Showed no special favor to Arab military aristocracy – Empire still growing, but not initiated by the central government

• Abbasid administration – Relied heavily on Persians, Persian techniques of statecraft – Central authority ruled from the court at Baghdad, newly built city – Governors ruled provinces; Ulama, qadis (judges) ruled local areas

• Harun al-Rashid (786-809 C.E.) – Represented the high point of the dynasty – Baghdad became metropolis, center for commerce, industry, and culture

• Abbasid decline – Struggle for succession between Harun's sons led to civil war – Governors built their own power bases, regional dynasties– Local military commanders took title of Sultan – Popular uprisings and peasant rebellions weakened the dynasty – A Persian noble seized control of Baghdad in 945 – Later, the Seljuk Turks controlled the imperial family

AN URBAN CIVILIZATION• Arab Urban History

– Pre-Islamic Arabs were both urban, bedouin• Center of the city was a market place often shared with religious center• Cities designed with human-environment interaction in mind• Nomads came to city to trade, city often settled by whole tribes

– Arabic cities linked to wider world through merchants, trade– Arab cities exposed to Jews, Persians, Monophysites, Sabeans

• Arabic Empire and Urban Growth– Islam as a culture requires mosque, merchant: very urban in outlook

• Arabs founded military cities on edges of desert to rule empire– Increasing agricultural production contributed to growth of cities

• Many different ethnic minorities settled in Muslim cities (quarters)• Mosque at center surrounded by suk, square, in decreasing social order

HARUN AL RASHID & BAGHDAD

CHANGED ECONOMICS• Merchants, pilgrims, travelers exchanged foods across empire• Exchange and spread of food and industrial crops

– Indian plants traveled to other lands of the empire – Staple crops: sugarcane, rice, new varieties of sorghum and wheat – Vegetables– Fruits: oranges– Industrial crops

• Effects of new crops – Increased varieties and quantities of food – Industrial crops: basis for a thriving textile industry– Foodstuffs increased health, populations of cities

• Agricultural experimentation – Agricultural methods and techniques improved– Improved irrigation

A VAST TRADE ZONE• Camels and caravans

– Overland desert trade traveled mostly by camel caravan • Maritime trade based on technological borrowing

– Arab, Persian mariners borrowed • Compass from the Chinese • Lateen sail from southeast Asian, Indian mariners • Astrolabe from the Hellenistic mariners

– Organization and dominance of trade • In North Africa across Sahara, down Nile, SW Asia, to India• Eastern Mediterranean, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Arabia Gulf down coasts

• Banks – Operated on large scale and provided extensive services – Letters of credit, or sakk, functioned as bank checks

• Exchange of Ideas included Islam, technology, culture

ISLAMIC TRADE

MUSLIM SPAIN & THE RECONQUISTA

TURKS & ISLAM• Early Turkic Tribes

– Originated in Central Asia, Mongolia– The Götürk Empire arose c. 6th century

• Confederacy of tribes united under khans• Remained nomadic but adopted Syriac script• Some conversion to Christianity, Buddhism

– Turkish tribes Turks migrated • Towards Iran, Russian Steppes• Became the Khazars and Seljuks

• The Seljuk Turks– The Sultanate

• Converted to Sunni Islam while in Central Asia• 1037: group migrated into Iran, set up a sultanate• 1055: captured Baghdad and later Jerusalem• 1071: defeated Byzantines at Manzikert and occupied Anatolia

– Sultans and Mameluks• Sultans were military commanders – left Abbasid caliphs as figureheads• Mameluks were slave soldiers – Turkish slaves formed military aristocracy• Large numbers settled Anatolia producing a flowering of Turkish culture

WOMEN’S CHANGING STATUS • Pre-Islamic Arab Women

– Arabs as nomads allowed women many rights– Women often poets, tribe leaders– Some evidence of matrilineal tribes

• The Quran and women – Quran enhanced rights, security of women– Forced husbands to honor contracts, love women– Allowed women to own property, protected from exploitation

• What produced the change – Foreign Contacts changed the perspective

• Adopted veiling from Mesopotamia, Persia• Isolation from India through purdah, harem

– Muslim rights for women • Often weaken through Hadith, traditions• Often reduced, ignored• Patriarch beliefs reinforced by conquest • Yet Quran, sharia also reinforced male domination• Role of Hadith, Arab traditions reinforced male domination

IMAGE OF WOMEN

ISLAMIC CULTURAL TRADITION• Quran, sharia were main sources to formulate moral guidelines • Constant struggle between what is Arabic and what is Islamic

– Use of Arabic script as only language of Islam strengthened trend– Persians, Turks, Indians, and Africans struggled for acceptance

• Promotion of Islamic values – Ulama, qadis, and missionaries were main agents – Education also promoted Islamic values

• Sufis – Islamic mystics, effective missionaries – Encouraged devotion by singing, dancing – Led ascetic, holy lives, won respect – Encouraged followers to revere Allah in own ways – Tolerated those who associated Allah with other beliefs

• The hajj – The Kaa'ba became the symbol of Islamic cultural unity – Pilgrims helped to spread Islamic beliefs and values

ISLAM & OTHER CONTACTS• Persian influence on Islam

– After Arabs most prominent of Muslims, resisted Arabization• Cultural traditions often borrowed heavily by Islam• Became early followers of Shia

– Government and regionalism• Many advisors (vizer is Persian word) to Caliphs were Persian• Cultured, diplomatic language of Abbassid court became Persian

– Literary achievements • Omar Khayyam was greatest of Medieval Muslim poets • The Arabian Nights largely in a Persian style

• Turkish influences– Central Asian nomads converted to Islam, developed literary culture– Invaded SW Asia and made caliphate dependent on Turkish nomads– Formed military might, leadership of late Abbassid state

• Indian Influences– Purdah and harem borrowed from Hindus – "Hindi numerals," which Europeans called "Arabic numerals"

• Greek Influences – Muslims philosophers especially liked Plato and Aristotle; Greek math – Effort of harmonizing two traditions met resistance from Sufis

THE CRUSADES• Religiously sanctioned wars

– Muslim Jihad has its Christian counterpart• Early Islam sanctioned Holy Wars, initially Christianity did not• Muslim conquest of largely Christian lands changed tradition

– Christian Reconquista in Iberia• Christian knights sanctioned by Church fought Muslims• Warfare in Iberia, Sicily, Sardinia, Crete preceded 11th century

• “The Crusades”– A Changed Situation in Southwest Asia

• Turkish conquests changed situation– They conquered Holy Land– Arabs had permitted pilgrimage, Turks curtailed it

• The Byzantine Empire– Byzantines in Schism with West asked Pope for help– Pope saw chance to reunite churches and end schism

• Church calls for crusades, offers indulgences– More than nine crusaders

• Initial one conquered Holy Land and set up crusader states• Next crusades all called to defend conquests

– Opened up West to Islamic contacts but had not impact on Islam

EGYPT DURING PERIOD• Arab Conquest of Egypt

– Conquered c. 639 CE when Coptic Christians opened borders to Muslims– Arabs ruled through governors but did not seek conversions– Umayyad and Abbasid rule weakened and local sultans took great power– Over-taxation led to revolts and settlement of Arab tribes as soldiers

• Fatimid Egypt– Arab Shia Muslim dynasty of Egypt 909 – 1171– Rulers belonged to Ismaili branch of Shia Islam– Proclaimed themselves Caliphs – Established Cairo

• Ayyubid Egypt– A Sunni Dynasty of Kurdish origins 1171 – 1341 – Saladin dissolves Fatimid rule, proclaims himself sultan– Spends early part conquering Holy Land, Hejaz, North Africa– Warred with Crusaders but established an amicable relationship

• Lifestyles– A period of toleration between Muslims, Jews, Coptic Christians– A time of great prosperity where Egypt was a center of interactions– Conversion was slow but gradual: Arabic replaced Coptic as main language