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IR
SECTION A
POWER
What is power? For the general definition
there are three main element of power;
definition:
1) The ability or capacity to do something or
act in a particular way.
2) The capacity or ability to direct or influence
the behaviour of others or the course of
events. For the example;
- political / social authority or control,
especially that exercised by a government.
- authority that is given or delegated to aperson or body.
- * power also include ;
- the military strength of a state
- a person or organization that is strong or
influential within a particular context.
3) Physical strength and force by something or
someone.
In other words: we can say power isthe ability to influence the behaviour
or attitude of people, government,state and international system.
Power in the most general sense,the ability of a political actor to
achieve its goals.
Realist it is assumed that possessionof capabilities will result influence, so
the single word, power is often used
ambiguously to cover both.
Pluralist it is assumed that politicalinteraction can modify the translation
of capabilities into influence and
therefore it is important to distinguish
between the two.
Realist in terms of the importantresources such as size of armed
forces, gross national product and
population that a state possesses
there is the implicit belief that
material resources translate into
influence.
Why state s compete for power? Based on 5
assumptions about the international system;
1) Great power are the main actor & operate
in an anarchic system.
2) State posses some offensive military
capability.
3) States can never be certain about the
intentions of other states.
4) Main goal of state is survival.
5) State are rational actors.
Power is about:
Power is a central concept ininternational relations.
It is the central concept for realists. Difficult to measure
Defining Power
Often defined as the ability to getanother actor to do what it would not
otherwise have done (or vice versa).
If actors get their way a lot, they mustbe powerful.
Power is not influence itself, but theability or potential to influence others.
Based on specific (tangibleand intangible) characteristics
or possessions of states
Sizes, levels ofincome, and armed
forces
Capability: Easier to measurethan influence and less
circular in logic
The single indicator of a states powermay be its total GDP Combines overall size,
technological level, and
wealth
At best, a rough indicator
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A states tangible capabilities(including military forces)
represent material power.
Power also depends on nonmaterialelements.
National will, diplomatic skill,popular support forgovernment (legitimacy), and
so forth
Power can only explain so much. Real-world IR depends on many other
elements, including accidents or luck.
Relational concept: Relative power isthe ratio of the power that two states
can bring to bear against each other.
Estimating Power
The logic of power suggests: The more powerful state will
generally prevail.
Estimates of the power of twoantagonists should help
explain the outcome.
U.S. and Iraq Implications of the
outcome -- GDP does
not always predictwho will win the war
Elements of Power
State power is a mix of manyingredients.
Natural resources, industrialcapacity, moral legitimacy,military preparedness, and
popular support of
government
Long-term elements of power Total GDP, population,
territory, geography, and
natural resources
Less tangible long-termelements of power include
political culture, patriotism,
education of the population,and strength of the scientific
and technological base.
Credibility of its commitments(reputation for keeping word)
Ability of one states cultureand values to consistently
shape the thinking of other
states (power of ideas)
Capabilities that allow actors toexercise influence in the short term:
Military forces Military-industrial complex Quality of the states
bureaucracy
Less tangible: Support andlegitimacy that an actor
commands in the short term
from constituents and allies
Loyalty of a nations army andpoliticians to its leader
Trade-offs among possible capabilitiesalways exist.
To the extent that oneelement of power can be
converted into another, it is
fungible. Money is the most
fungible.
Realists tend to see military force asthe most important element of
national power in the short term.
Tanks versus Gold Iraq = tanks / Kuwait = gold In the short term, the tanks
proved more powerful.
Morality States have long clothed their
actions, however aggressive,
in rhetoric about their
peaceful and defensive
intentions.
Geopolitics States increase their power to
the extent that they can use
geography to enhance their
military capabilities.
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Two-front problem: Germanyand Russia
Insular: Britain and UnitedStates
Balance of Power
Refers to the general concept of oneor more states power being used to
balance that of another state or group
of states.
Balance of power can refer to: Any ratio of power capabilities
between states or alliances, or
It can mean only a relativelyequal ratio.
Alternatively, it can refer tothe process by whichcounterbalancing coalitions
have repeatedly formed in
history to prevent one state
from conquering an entire
region.
Theory of balance of power Counterbalancing occurs
regularly and maintains
stability of the internationalsystem.
Does not imply peace, butrather a stability maintained
by means of recurring wars
that adjust power relations
Alliances are key Quicker, cheaper, and
more effective than
building ones own
capabilities
States do not always balanceagainst the strongest actor.-bandwagoning
Great Powers and Middle Powers
The most powerful states in thesystem exert most of the influence on
international events and therefore get
the most attention from IR scholars.
Handful of states possess themajority of the worlds powerresources.
Great powers are generallyconsidered the half-dozen or so most
powerful states.
Until the past century, theclub was exclusively
European.
Defined generally as statesthat can be defeated militarilyonly by another great power.
Generally have the worldsstrongest military forces and
the strongest economies
U.S., China, Russia,Japan, Germany,
France, and Britain
U.S. the worlds onlysuperpower
China the worldslargest population,rapid economic
growth and a large
military, with a
credible nuclear
arsenal
Middle powers Rank somewhat below the
great powers
Some are large but not highlyindustrialized Others may be small with
specialized capabilities
Examples: midsized countriessuch as Canada, Italy, Spain,
the Netherlands, Poland,
Ukraine, South Korea, and
Australia, or larger or
influential countries in the
global South such as India,
Indonesia, Brazil, Argentina,Mexico, Nigeria, South Africa,
Israel, Turkey, Iran, and
Pakistan
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Power Distribution
The concept of the distribution ofpower among states in the
international system
Can apply to all the states inthe world or to just one region Neorealism, or structural realism
1990s adaptation of realism Explains patterns of
international events in terms
of the system structure
(distribution of power) rather
than the internal makeup of
individual states.
Neoclassical realists Polarity refers to the number of
independent power centers in the
system.
Multipolar system: Has five orsix centers of power, which
are not grouped into alliances.
Tripolar system: With threegreat centers of power
Unipolar system: Has a singlecenter of power around which
all others revolve (hegemony) Power transition theory
Holds that the largest warsresult from challenges to the
top position in the status
hierarchy, when a rising
power is surpassing or
threatening to surpass the
most powerful state.
Hegemony
Is the holding of one state of most ofthe power in the international system
Can dominate the rules andarrangements by which international
political and economic relations are
conducted
This type of state is a hegemon Hegemonic stability theory
Holds that hegemony providessome order similar to a
central government in the
international system:
reducing anarchy, deterring
aggression; promoting free
trade, and providing a hard
currency that can be used as a
world standard.
After WWII U.S. hegemony Hegemons have an inherentinterest in the promotion of
integrated world markets.
U.S. ambivalence Internationalist versus
isolationist moods
Unilateralism versusmultilateralism
The Great-Power System, 1500-2000
Treaty of Westphalia, 1648 Rules of state relations Originated in Europe in the
16th century
Key to this system was theability of one state, or a
coalition, to balance the
power of another state so it
could not gobble up smaller
units and create a universal
empire.
Most powerful states in 16th-centuryEurope were Britain, France, Austria-
Hungary, and Spain.
Ottoman Empire Hapsburgs
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Impact of industrialization Napoleonic Wars Congress of Vienna (1815) Concert of Europe UN Security Council WW I WW II and after
EXTRA NOTE
The International System
States interact within a set of long-established rules of the game
governing what is considered a state
and how states treat each other.
Together these rules shape theinternational system.
Anarchy and Sovereignty
Realists believe the internationalsystem exists in a state of anarchy.
Term implies the lack of acentral government that can
enforce rules. World government as a
solution?
Others suggest internationalorganizations and
agreements.
Despite anarchy, the internationalsystem is far from chaotic.
Great majority of stateinteractions closely adhere to
norms of behavior
Sovereignty: A government has theright, in principle, to do whatever it
wants in its own territory.
Lack of a world police to punishstates if they break an agreement
makes enforcement of international
agreements difficult.
In practice, most states have a harderand harder time warding off
interference in their affairs.
Respect for the territorial integrity ofall states, within recognized borders,
is an important principle of IR.
Impact of informationrevolution/information
economies and the territorial
state system
States and norms of diplomacy Security dilemma
A situation in which statesactions taken to ensure theirown security threaten the
security of other states.
Arms race Negative
consequence of
anarchy in the
international system
Alliances
A coalition of states that coordinatetheir actions to accomplish some end Most are formalized in written
treaties
Concern a common threat andrelated issues of international
security
Endure across a range ofissues and a period of time
Purposes of Alliances
Augmenting their members power By pooling capabilities, two or
more states can exert greater
leverage in their bargaining
with other states.
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For smaller states, alliancescan be their most important
power element.
But alliances can changequickly and decisively.
Most form in response to aperceived threat. Alliance cohesion
The ease with which themembers hold together an
alliance
Tends to be high whennational interests converge
and when cooperation within
the alliance becomes
institutionalized and habitual.
Burden sharing Who bears the cost of the
alliance
NATO
One of the most important formalalliances
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Encompasses Western Europeand North America
Founded in 1949 to opposeand deter Soviet power in
Europe
Countered by the WarsawPact (1955); disbanded in
1991
First use of force by NATO wasin Bosnia in 1994 in support of
the UN mission there. European Union formed its own rapid
deployment force, outside NATO.
Biggest issue for NATO is its recentand eastward expansion, beyond the
East-West Cold War dividing line.
Russian oppositionOther Alliances
U.S.-Japanese Security Treaty U.S. maintains nearly 50,000troops in Japan. Japan pays the U.S. several
billion dollars annually to
offset about half the cost of
maintaining these troops.
Created in 1951 against thepotential Soviet threat to
Japan.
Asymmetrical in nature U.S. has alliances with other states:
South Korea and Australia De facto allies of the U.S.: those with
whom we collaborate closely Israel
CIS
Regional Alignments
In the global South, many statesjoined a nonaligned movement during
the Cold War.
Stood apart from the U.S.-Soviet rivalry Led by India and Yugoslavia
Undermined by themembership of Cuba
Organization of African Unity China loosely aligned with Pakistan in
opposition to India (which was aligned
with the Soviet Union).
Relationships with Indiawarmed after the Cold Warended.
Middle East: General anti-Israelalignment of the Arab countries for
decades
Broke down in 1978 as Egyptand Jordan made peace with
Israel
Israel and war with Hezbollahand Hamas
Israel and Turkey formed aclose military alliance
Israel largest recipient of U.S.foreign aid
Egypt Iran
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Bush administration:emphasis on spreading
democracy
Strategy: Statecraft
The art of managing state affairs andeffectively maneuvering in a world of
power politics among sovereign
states.
Key aspect of strategy: What kinds ofcapabilities to develop, given limited
resources, in order to maximize
international influence
Example of China Deterrence
Uses a threat to punishanother actor if it takes a
certain negative action.
Compellence Refers to the use of force to
make another actor take
some action (rather than
refrain from taking an action).
Arms race A reciprocal process in which
two (or more) states build upmilitary capabilities in
response to each other.
Rationality
Most realists assume that those whowiled power while engaging in
statecraft behave as rational actors.
Two implications for IR: Implies that states and otherinternational actors can
identify their interests and put
priorities on various interests.
National interest Implies that actors are able to
perform a cost-benefit
analysis calculating the costs
incurred by a possible action
and the benefits it is likely to
bring.
The Prisoners Dilemma
Game theory Zero-sum games
One players gain is bydefinition equal to the
others loss
Non-zero-sum games It is possible for both
players to gain (or
lose) Prisoners Dilemma
Rational players chose movesthat produce an outcome in
which all players are worse off
than under a different set of
moves.
They all could do better, butas individual rational actors
they are unable to achieve
this outcome. Applications to the study of IR
PART 2
IIdealist/ realist / liberalist / ?????
1. REALISM
- Analytical unit: State is the principle actor.- View of actor: State is unitary actor.
- Behavioral Dynamic: State is rational actor
seeking to maximise its own interest or
national objective in foreign policy.
- Issues: National security issues are most
important:
a. The most basic assumptions of realism
reflect and inherent pessimism in the school
of thought.
b. Realist begin with a Prisoners Dilemma.
They assume that international politics is azero sum game and each player has a strong
incentive to betray the other (defect).
c. As indicated above, they also begin with the
assumptions that power is the means by
which a states security is guaranteed, that
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power is fungible, that states are unitary and
rational actors, and they are the primary units
of international politics.
d. Realist assume that the international
system is anarchic; hence there is no super-
state authority or central government toenforce rules, norms, or contracts.
International anarchy leads to a self-help
system in international politics. In a self-help
system, each state is responsible for its own
security. This in turn leads to a security
dilemma. The more one state arms to protect
itself from other states, the more threatened
these states become and the more prone they
are to resort to arming themselves to protect
their own national security interest in other
words resulting in an arms race.
2. Liberalism
- Analytical unit: State and non-state actors
(mostly institutions) are important.
- View of actor: State disaggregated into
components, some of which may operate
transnationally.
- Behavioral Dynamic: Foreign policy making
and transnational processes involve conflict,bargaining, coalition, and compromise not
necessarily resulting in optimal outcomes.
- Issues: Multiple agenda with socio-economic
or welfare issues as, or more, important as
national security questions.
a. Liberalism is not the opposite of realism.
Rather, liberalism is an optimistic version of
realism with fewer assumptions constraining
the implications. Liberals also begin with the
assumptions that states are unitary and
rational actors. However, liberals do not sharethe realist assumptions that power is the only
means by which a states security is
guaranteed.
b. there is an intrinsic optimism in Liberalism.
Liberals feel that security fears are not
constant and can be overcome. Liberalism
makes the positive statement that security
fears are not static, they are a product of
certain conditions, and they are malleable.
c. Liberals say you can change the situations.
They believe security can be guaranteed byother means (beside military power/force)
and they provide for the possibility that non-
state actors (mostly institutions and
corporations) play important role in world
politics.
d. Liberals say that there are no immutable
concerns of states, only what they create. This
is what most clearly distinguishes Liberalism
and Realism. Liberals, like realist, assume that
the international system is anarchic, but do
not assume that a super-national authority isthe only means by which to enforce rules,
norms, or contract.
Extra Note
Realism
Theoretical framework that has held a central
position in the study of IRRealisms foundation is the principle of
dominance.
- School of thought that explains
international relations in terms of power. The
exercise of power by states toward each other
is sometimes called realpolitik, or just power
politics.
Realism developed in reaction to a liberal
tradition that realists called idealism.
- Idealism emphasizes international law,morality, and international organizations,
rather than power alone, as key influences on
international events.
- Belief that human nature is basically good.
- Particularly active between WWI and WWII
stop German, Italian, and Japanese
aggression.
Since WWII, realists have blamed idealists for
looking too much at how the world ought to
be rather than how it really is.
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REALISM
REALISM makes several key assumptions. It
assumes that the international system is
anarchic, in the sense that there is no
authority above states capable of regulatingtheir interactions; states must arrive at
relations with other states on their own,
rather than it being dictated to them by some
higher controlling entity (that is, no true
authoritative world government exists). It also
assumes that sovereign states, rather than
international institutions, non-governmental
organizations, or multinational corporations,
are the primary actors in international affairs.
According to realism, each state is a rational
actor that always acts towards its own self-interest, and the primary goal of each state is
to ensure its own security. Realism holds that
in pursuit of that security, states will attempt
to amass resources, and that relations
between states are determined by their
relative level of power. That level of power is
in turn determined by the state's capabilities,
both military and economic. There are two
sub-schools of realism: maximal realism and
minimal realism. The theory of maximal
realism holds that the most desirable positionto be in is that of the hegemon, the most
powerful entity in the world, and that smaller
entities will align themselves with the
hegemon out of political self-interests. Under
maximal realism, the position where there are
simultaneously two equally powerful co-
hegemons (such as was the case during the
Cold War between the United States and the
Soviet Union) is an inherently unstable one
and that situation will inevitably collapse into
a more stable state where one nation is morepowerful and one is less powerful. The theory
of minimal realism holds that non-hegemonic
states will ally against the hegemon in order
to prevent their own interests from being
subsumed by the hegemon's interests. Under
the minimal-realism theory it is possible to
have two equally powerful co-hegemons with
whom a smaller entity may ally in turn
depending on which hegemon better fits with
the smaller entity's policies at the moment
(playing both sides against the middle).Realism in international relations
The term "realism" comes from the German
compound word "Realpolitik", from the words
"real" (meaning "realistic", "practical", or
"actual") and "politik" (meaning "politics"). It
is the balance of power among nation-states.
Bismarck coined the term after following
Metternich's lead in finding ways to balance
the power of European empires. Balancing
power meant keeping the peace, and carefulRealpolitik practioners tried to avoid arms
races. However, during the early-20th
Century, arms races (and alliances) occurred
anyway, culminating in World War I.
LIBERALISM
Liberalism (also known in American circles as
idealism) is generally considered the second
great body of theory in contemporary
international politics after realism, althoughtechnically it is the first (the first generation of
international relations scholars in England
after WWII were predominantly what we
would now call Liberals). This approach
allegedly dominated the study of international
relations from the end of WWI until the late
1930s. Sometimes referred to as utopianism,
Liberalism came to prominence in reaction to
the carnage of the WWI. The notable Liberal
idealists are Immanuel Kant, Richard Cobden,
John Hobson, Norman Angell, Alfred Zimmernand Woodrow Wilson. Liberals see
opportunities for cooperation. This is
particularly so in their defence of international
law, economic cooperation, and the spread of
democracy as the most important
mechanisms for building world peace.
In general, Liberals have observed that
the least aggressive states tend to be ones
with democratic governments and capitalistic
economies the so called liberal democracies,most of which are industrialised countries.
The controversial claim that no democracy has
ever truly gone to war against another
democracy lies at the heart of the Democratic
Peace Theory. Another insight drawn from
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the linking of internal and external affairs is
that non-state actors, like civil society,
multinational corporations, and international
organisations, also play important roles in
world politics.
Reflecting its origins in the post WWI
period, Liberals have argued that the chief
goal of foreign policy should be to promote
world peace (although many accept that wars
can be just if world peace is the ultimate goal).
One mechanism for doing this is to promote
the growth of international organisations and
international laws, which, according to
Liberals, should be generally effective
provided that they reflect existing balances of
power. Important Liberal projects haveincluded the promotion of universal human
rights and conflict prevention in the United
Nations, and market liberalisation through the
World Trade Organisation. Some branches of
Liberal theory insist that domestic and
international reforms must be linked, and that
world peace will require democratisation of
currently authoritarian states.
Liberalist emphasises international
organisation and law, cooperation, and theconstruction of a more perfect world. They
share a belief in progress and are of the view
that the procedure of parliamentary
democracy and deliberation under the rule of
law could be firmly established in
international diplomacy. They believe that
politics should follow the highest moral and
legal principles. For the Liberalist, human
choice plays a crucially important role in
affairs. They believe that politics should
involve the abandonment of force, theencouragement of learning and the
coexistence of societies under the leadership
of adequately enlightened rulers. A central
characteristic of a Liberalist is the belief that
what unites human beings is more important
than what divides them. Liberalists are also
known for their naivety about the role of
power in international relations. They disagree
with the fatalistic orientation that assumes
power politics is a natural phenomenon and is
an unchanging law of nature. For them nopattern is unchangeable and man has the
capacity to learn and change behaviours.
To some, political Liberalist had failed
because it had not been universalised or
because it had not been given a long time to
succeed and to others political idealisms
failure to prevent war was the inevitable
result of what they believed were political
idealisms naivety and erroneous assumptions.
Liberalism has been regarded as an exampleof both policy failure and theoretical naivety
in international relations since the outbreak of
war in 1939.
After fully analysing Liberalism to
conclude utilising a very simplistic definition
with brevity as its core, liberalism is a political
or social philosophy advocating the freedom
of the individual, parliamentary systems of
government, nonviolent modification ofpolitical, social, or economic institutions to
assure unrestricted development in all
spheres of human endeavour, and
governmental guarantees of individual rights
and civil liberties. Now having clearly
established the underpinning components of
Liberalism we will focus our attention on Neo-
Liberalism.
LIBERALIST
LIBERALISM holds that state preferences,
rather than state capabilities, are the primary
determinant of state behavior. Preferences
will vary from state to state, depending on
their culture, economic system, or type of
government. Many different strands of
liberalism have emerged; some include
commercial liberalism, liberal institutionalism,
idealism, and regime theory. Recently, realism
and liberalism have evolved into neo-realism
and neo-liberalism. Other schools, whichcannot (yet) be counted to the established
mainstream in the Study of International
Relations, include postmodern, feminist and
neo-Marxist approaches, and neo-
Gramscianism. These perspectives differ from
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both realism and liberalism in their
epistemological and ontological premises and
are post positivistic in nature. Different
schools of thought in international relations
can predict the same events. The theories are
differentiated by the assumptions they makein their reasoning toward predictions. For
example, both realists and liberals claim that
events as disparate as World War I, the Cold
War, and the relatively conflict-free post-Cold
War Europe were predicted by their theories.
The theories differ in the fundamental
assumptions they make in predicting state
behavior. It is possible that one liberal theorist
will predict war while another liberal theorist
will predict peace; their disagreement arises
from how they interpret events, but theirfundamental assumptions are the same.
Similarly, it is possible that a realist theorist
and a liberal theorist could both predict
peace, but their fundamental assumptions as
to why that occurs would be different.
Realism Liberalism
Human
Nature
-
Pessimistic
- Selfish in
nature
- Optimistic
- Have faith of
human nature
Individual goodbehavior
Most
Important
Factor
- State (
national
Interest)
State
Dominance
and Power
- State are not
unitary actor
-
Interdependence
are key factor
Nature in
International
System
- Anarchy
- Identity
course of
war
- Cooperation
- Community not
believe anarchy
is the course ofwar
Course of
State
Behavior
- Self help
- Self
interest
- Security
can be
obtain on
self help
- National
security
- Emphasis on
economic, social
and political will
being
Power - Military
forces
- To
maintain
- Collective
security
- To achieve
collective
politician
action for
state
survival
goal/interest
- Progress and
modernization
Morale/Ethic
Value
-Self
interestbefore
regional
obligation
- Not
moralize
- Equality
- Cooperation- Democracy
- Basic right
Idealism
Human Nature - Unrealistic belief in
pursuing of perfection.
- Altruistic (welfare of
others)Most Important
Factor
- State and others including
individuals. (state are not
the sole actor on
international organization)
Nature in
International
System
- Community / collective
security
- peace
Course of State
Behavior
- psychological motive of
decision makers
Power - emphasis in cooperation toachieve progress (league of
nation)
Morale/Ethic
Value
Focuses on democratic rights
of citizens.
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SECOND QUESTION. CHOOSE FROM 5
1. The Peace of Westphalia
- Peace of Westphalia is a series of agreement,
which ended the thirty years war. Peace ofWestphalia was sign on 24 Oct 1648 between
Emperor Ferdinand III, the German princes,
representative of the Netherlands, France and
Sweeden.
- Westphalian sovereignty is the concept of
the sovereignty of nation-states on their
territory, with no role for external agents in
domestic structures.
- This treaty was a result of two separate
peace treaties. It was from the first moderndiplomatic congress and initiated a new order
in central Europe based on the concept of
state sovereignty. What were the primary
results/outcomes of this event?
a. Sovereignty and the recognition of
international boundaries (including territorial
adjustments for some European nations)
b. Non-intervention. (The principle of
legal equality between states. These principles
are shared by the realist internationalrelations paradigm.
c. Institution of diplomacy.
d. The balance of power.
e. International law via the introduction
of tenets (or rules) between nations.
f. Territorial integrity.
g. group of people united by language
and culture.
h. Peace of Westphalia is important to
modern IR theory.
i. principle of the sovereignty of statesand the fundamental right of political self
determination.
j. It was one of the first European
Agreement that dealt with the issues of
freedom of religion by allowing minority
religions the right to retain and practice their
faith.
k. In many ways it laid the foundations
for the modern concept of state by
establishing for the first time such as concepts
as sovereignty.l. The term peace of Westphalia,
referring to the two peace treaties of
Osnabruck and Munster.
Westphalian principle:
1. the principle of the sovereignty of
nation-state and the fundamental right of self-
determination.
2. the principle of legal equality among
nation-states.3. Principle binding international
agreement among countries, thus binding
contract.
4. Principle of non-intervention of one
state in another states internal affairs.
Significance
- Peace of Westphalia marked the beginning
of the modern nation-state which began as
modern diplomacy.- recognized as sovereignty of each state.
- War is not only about religion, but about the
state.
- Protestants and catholic became allies in
own countries.
- Division to be unite into a single nation-state.
Modern views
- humanity and democracy were two principle
that were not relevance to the originalwestphalian order. That Westphalia system
has limit. Principle of sovereignty , which is
basis and produced a base for rivalry instead
of union of states, exclusion instead of
integration.
- The key concept of Europe after 1945 was
still is a rejection of the principle of balance
power and hegemonic ambitions of individual
states, which emerged after the Peace of
Westphalia. This refusal took shape mixing
vital interest and the transfer of sovereignrights of nation-state on super-national
European Institutions.
Treaty of Westphalia, 1648
Rules of state relations
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Originated in Europe in the 16th
century
Key to this system was the ability of
one state, or a coalition, to balance the power
of another state so it could not gobble up
smaller units and create a universal empire.
Most powerful states in 16th-century
Europe were Britain, France, Austria-Hungary,
and Spain.
Ottoman Empire
Hapsburgs
Impact of industrialization
Napoleonic Wars
Congress of Vienna (1815)
Concert of Europe
They all could do better, butas individual rational actors
they are unable to achieve
this outcome.
Applications to the study of IRExtra info
Westphalia is often used as shorthand for a
system of equal and sovereign states; and the
peace treaties of Westphalia, concluded in
1648 at Munster and Osnabruck and endingthe Thirty Years War, are sometimes said to
have established the modern concept of
sovereign statehood.
Thedistinguishedinternationalrelationsscholar
StephenKrasner,whilecomment- ing that this
model had virtually nothing to do with the
Peace of Westphalia, nonetheless defines as
Westphalian an institutional arrangement
for organizing political life that is based on
two principles: territoriality and the exclusion
of external actors from domestic authoritystructures. According to Krasner,
Westphalian sovereignty is violated when ex-
ternal actors influence or determine domestic
authority structures. Krasner explains that he
chooses to use this terminology because the
Westphalian model has so much entered into
common usage, even if it is historically
inaccurate.
presenting it as a model of how to
deal successfully with deep religious
disagreements on a constitutional plane.However, both my historical claims and
consequently their normative upshots will be
quite different from Hills, as I will explain
below. Moreover, although my main concern
in this paper will be the constitutional,
domestic aspects of the peace treaties, the
hybrid nature of the treaties, which contained
constitutional norms for the Holy Roman
Empire as well as international legal norms for
Europe, have inevitable implications for the
international legal aspects of Westphalia.
2. Relation between State
1. In international law, a state is an entity that
is recognised to exist when a government is in
control of population residing within a defined
territory. Recognised by other states in the
international system.
2. In the study of international politics, each
state is a country. It is a community of people
who interact in the same political system.
3. State consists of government, in its
broadest sense, covering the executive, the
legislature, the administration, the armed
forces and the police the essential domestic
features of a state was a monopoly over
legitimate use of force.
4. Great power are the main actor & operate
in an anarchic system.
5. State posses some offensive military
capability.
6. States can never be certain about the
intentions of other states.
7. Main goal of state is survival.
8. State are rational actors.
9. Sovereignty is define as the principle that
within its territorial boundaries the state is the
supreme political authority and that outsidethose boundaries the state recognise no
higher political authority.
10. State sovereignty define as a principle for
organizing political space where there is one
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sovereign authority which governs a given
territory.
- IR theories hold different views of whether
state sovereignty has been transformed. IR
theories also disagree as to the whether state
sovereignty is a good way of organizingpolitical community that is state sovereigntys
normative states.
11. Country consist of :
-government, population, have their own
language and culture.
State: cover all the element of country but
state must be recognized. Recognition by IOs,
UN, and follow International law.
12. Anarchy:
implies not the complete chaos or
absence of structure or rules,
but rather than lack of a central government
that can enforce rules.
13. The starting point of thinking about
international relations.
A crucial but highly contentious concept in
international relations.
Manifest a feature of the international systemand
Defines the socio/political framework in which
international relations occur.
Descriptive rather than prescriptive, a general
condition rather than a distinct structure
Implies the absence of any authoritative
institutions, rules or norms above the
sovereign state.
The lack of a common government or
universal authority is thus what distinguishes
the international from the domestic realm ofpolitics and law.
In mainstream Anglo-American international
theory anarchy remains the fundamental
assumption of international politics and as
such it poses the key research questions in the
discipline.
14. States are the main actors existing in a
self-help environment in which the security
dilemma is always pressing.
States are presumed to act rationally in termsof perceptions of the national interest, but
they are not entirely unconcerned with rules
and norms. So, conflict and cooperation can
and do co-exist within the same social milieu.
This is the common terrain occupied (though,
of course, disputed) by the heirs of the realist
and idealist traditions.
Anarchy, in fact, is what states make of it
(Wendt, 1992) .
In sum, the tendency to view anarchy as the
basic condition of international relationsunderestimates its inherent ambiguity and
overestimates its explanatory powers.
15. state:
an organized political entity that occupies a
definite territory, has a permanent
population, and enjoys stable government,
independence and sovereignty
sovereignty: means a government has theright, at least in principle, to do whatever it
links in its own territory.
16. Sometimes called the nation-state, this is
the main actor in international relations.
It has a legal personality and as such in
international law possesses certain rights and
duties.
According to the Montevideo Convention on
Rights and Duties of States (1933):
which is widely regarded as the classic legaldefinition, states must possess the following
qualifications:
a permanent population,
a defined territory and a government
capable of
maintaining effective control over its
territory and of
conducting international relations
with other states.
In respect of the last qualification the role of
recognition by other states can often becrucial since it implies acceptance into the
international community.
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Extra Note
17. These qualifications are not absolute and
permit variations. For example there is no
necessity in international law for settled
boundaries or frontiers.
Many international conflicts take the form of
boundary disputes but their existence does
not rob the disputants of legal personality.
Israel, for example, is generally accepted as a
state even though the precise demarcation of
its boundaries has never been settled.
Although there is a general requirement that
a state has some form of government or
means of exercising control, a state does not
cease to exist when this control is in dispute
or when it is `temporarily;' deprived ofeffective control as in wartime, civil wars, or
revolutions.
18. Indeed, the attribute of sovereignty itself,
which is widely regarded as the defining
characteristic of statehood, is by no means
absolute. Some states, such as these in post-
war Eastern Europe, were regarded as
'penetrated' or satellite' states, since the
control they exercise over their internal and
external environments was circumscribed by
a powerful neighbour or hegemon.
In the real world, as opposed to the world of
political or legal theory, sovereignty can
differ in degree and intensity among states
without deprivation of international
personality status.
Regarding secessionary movements or
national liberation organization, recognition
is generally withheld until victory over the
mother state (or occupying power) issecured.
Yet even in these cases, recognition as a
gesture of support can be given though the
legal status may be in abeyance or dispute.
In sum, although the state has legal
personality and essential defining
characteristics, these are not static or
absolute. Not only is the state the main agent
in international law, politically too it is
dominant and has been for over four
hundred years. With the exception ofAntarctica no significant territorial area is
exempt from state control (terra nullis).
19. To date, there are nearly two hundred
states in the international system, an
increasing number of them being categorized
as microstates. Despite their number and
despite the fact that many liberation
movements are still actively seeking
statehood; some commentators have argued
that the state is declining as the primaryactor in world politics. Not only is it
functionally obsolete (because of its military
and economic penetrability) but it is no
longer capable of adequately handling global
problems.
The challenge of interdependence and the
proliferation of non-state actors states; have
questioned the traditional assumptions
concerning the dynamics of world politics.
Yet, on the evidence presented so far, it is
difficult to escape the conclusion of its deathhave been greatly exaggerated.) Failed
states; quasi-states.
3. Sovereignty
- In status, means that government has the
right, in principle, to do whatever it wants in
its own territory. States are separate and
autonomous answer to no higher authority. In
principle, all states are equal in us, if not inpower.
- Sovereignty also means that states are not
supposed to interfere in the internal affairs of
other state.
- Although states do try to influence each
other (exert power) on matter of trade,
alliances, war and so on, they are not
supposed to meddle in the internal politics
and decision processes of other states. More
controversially, some states claim that
sovereignty gives them the right to treat theirown people in any fashion, including bahavior
that other states call genocide.
- Sovereignty is define as the principle that
within its territorial boundaries the state is the
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supreme political authority and that outside
those boundaries the state recognise no
higher political authority.
- State sovereignty define as a principle for
organizing political space where there is onesovereign authority which governs a given
territory.
- IR theories hold different views of whether
state sovereignty has been transformed. IR
theories also disagree as to the whether state
sovereignty is a good way of organizing
political community that is state sovereigntys
normative states.