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![Page 1: Investigating the combined effects of word frequency and contextual predictability on eye movements during reading Christopher J. Hand Glasgow Language.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022062315/5697bfbc1a28abf838ca1314/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Investigating the combined effects of word frequency and contextual
predictability on eye movements during reading
Christopher J. Hand
GlasgowLanguageProcessin
g
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Background
• The ease or difficulty associated with processing a word influences when the eyes move from one fixation to another.
• Two higher-level linguistic variables in particular influence eye movements (EMs) during reading– Word frequency– Contextual predictability
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Effects of word frequency on EMs during reading
• Words can be defined as high or low frequency (HF or LF) depending on how often they occur in natural text.
• LF words are fixated longer than HF words– Inhoff & Rayner, 1986; Just & Carpenter, 1980; Raney &
Rayner, 1995; Rayner & Raney, 1996; Rayner & Duffy, 1986; Rayner, Sereno, & Raney, 1996; Rayner, Ashby, Pollatsek & Reichle, 2004; Rayner, Fischer & Pollatsek, 1998; Sereno & Rayner, 2000.
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Effects of contextual predictability on EMs during reading
• Words that are more constrained by prior context (i.e., predictable) are read quicker than words that are less constrained (i.e., unpredictable).– Balota, Pollatsek & Rayner, 1985; Binder, Pollatsek &
Rayner, 1999; Ehrlich & Rayner, 1981; Rayner et al., 2004; Rayner & Well, 1996.
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Examining the effects of word frequency and predictability simultaneously
• Reaction Time Studies– Stanovich & West (1979, 1983) West & Stanovich (1982)– Typically reported an interactive pattern of frequency
and predictability effects
• Event-Related Potential (ERP) Study– Sereno, Brewer, & O’Donnell (2003)– Evidence to suggest an interaction between frequency
and context in the early N1 ERP component (~132-192 ms post-stimulus).
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Examining the effects of word frequency and contextual predictability simultaneously
• Few EM studies have examined the joint effects of frequency and predictability as their principal focus
• A frequency × predictability interaction on EM behaviour during reading suggests that these variables affect the same stage of processing.
• Word frequency affects early lexical processing– Sereno & Rayner, 2000
• Debate as to whether context affects early, lexical processing or later, post-lexical processing.
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Examining the effects of word frequency and contextual predictability simultaneously
• Rayner et al. (2004)– Reported no interaction on target word fixation
time measures
• However, Rayner et al.’s (2004) study had perceived limitations– Few experimental items per condition– Short length of pre-target context
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Present Study
• 22 experimental items per condition vs. 8 (Rayner et al., 2004)
• Maximum item length 120 characters vs. 72 (Rayner et al., 2004)
• Present Study HF-predictable“Callum was having trouble with his homework. He asked hisuncle who was a teacher to help him with the assignment.”
• Rayner et al. (2004) HF-predictable“June Cleaver always serves meat and potatoes for dinner.”
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Present Study: Method
• Subjects– 64 participants– Native English speakers– No serious reading disorders, i.e., dyslexia.
• Apparatus– Dual-Purkinje eye tracker (Generation 5.5)
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Results
• A 2 (frequency; high, low) × 2 (context; predictable, unpredictable) ANOVA was performed both by participants (F1) and items (F2)
• A range of standard EM measures were examined– First fixation duration (FFD), single fixation
duration (SFD), gaze duration (GD), total time (TT).
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Target Word Fixation Time Data
• For FFD, SFD, GD and TT, highly significant main effects of word frequency and predictability were found by both participants and items
• However, no evidence of an interaction was found on these measures (all Fs < 1)
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Single Fixation Data• Significant 26 ms main effect of frequency
– F1 (1,63) = 104, p < 0.0001; F2 (1,43) = 148, p < 0.0001.
• Significant 10 ms main effect of predictability
– F1 (1,63) = 13.8, p < 0.001; F2 (1,43) = 12.1, p < 0.01.
• No evidence of interaction– Both Fs < 1.
Frequency × Predictability - SFD
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
Predictability
SF
D (
ms)
HF target
LF target
HF target 259 269
LF target 285 294
Pred Unpred
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Discussion
• An interaction between frequency and predictability effects may be an elusive effect, that does not manifest itself in the EM record.
• However, research has demonstrated that the ability to extract information from words viewed parafoveally is influenced by the frequency and predictability of that parafoveal word– Inhoff & Rayner (1986)– Balota et al. (1985)
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Parafoveal processing
• It may be the case that parafoveal preview operates in conjunction with the effects of frequency and predictability.
• Parafoveal preview typically manipulated by gaze-contingent display change paradigms
• Parafoveal preview benefit can also be indexed dependent on the distance of the fixation prior to fixating the target word and the beginning of the target word (launch site).
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Frequency × Predictability × Launch Site
• Initial re-analysis of the EM data from this experiment, contingent on parafoveal preview has yielded some interesting results…
• Significant three-way interaction between frequency, predictability and launch site– SFD – F1 (2,63) = 7.19, p < 0.01; F2 (2,43) = 7.49, p <
0.01– Similar patterns for FFD, GD and TT
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Frequency × Predictability × Launch Site – Single Fixation Duration
Launch site Frequency Predictability Freq × Pred1-3 chars p<0.0001 p<0.0001 p<0.054-6 chars p<0.0001 p=0.10 p<0.01
7-9 chars p<0.01 F<1 F<1
SFD Frequency × Predictability by Launch Site
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
1-3 4-6 7-9
Launch Site (chars)
SF
D (
ms)
HF-P
HF-U
LF-P
LF-U
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Conclusion
• The finding of an interactive pattern of effects when parafoveal preview is accounted for provides clear evidence of predictability effects at an early, lexical stage of processing.
• Accurately delineating the precise time-course of the effects of contextual predictability has important consequences for models of EM control during reading and will aid to resolve contention between currently equivocal theories of language processing.
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Thanks
Sébastien MielletPaddy O’Donnell Sara Sereno