THE POLYTECHNIC

FACULTY OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF LAND MANAGEMENT

INVESTIGATING THE ADOPTION RATE OF GLOBAL POSITIONING

SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY IN CADASTRAL SURVEYING IN MALAWI

SEAN-CLAIR JOB CHIHANA

NOVEMBER 2012

ii

UNIVERSITY OF MALAWI

THE POLYTECHNIC

FACULTY OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF LAND MANAGEMENT

INVESTIGATING THE ADOPTION RATE OF GLOBAL POSITIONING

SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY IN CADASTRAL SURVEYING IN MALAWI

By

SEAN-CLAIR JOB CHIHANA

A DISSERTATIONSUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF LAND

MANAGEMENTINPARTIALFULFILLMENTOFTHEREQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN LAND SURVEYING

NOVEMBER 2012

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DECLARATION

I, Sean-clair Job Chihana, do hereby declare that this dissertation represents my own

work and that, to the best of my knowledge, it has not been previously submitted to this

or any other university for the award of a degree.

Signature : ___________________________

Date : ___________________________

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CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

This dissertation by Sean-clair Job Chihana has been approved as fulfilling part of the

requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Science in Land Surveying by

the University of Malawi.

Supervisor’s name Signature Date

Dr E.J.W Chikhwenda : ____________________ ____________

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DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to my late mother Ms MATHOPIA GRACE CHIHANA who

always wanted to see me excel in life and wanted so much to see me grow up and

become a responsible citizen. It is so heartrending that I have become all that without her

bearing witness. She inspired my life to this far. I therefore, celebrate my mother’s life

and promise myself to keep on working hard in everything I do.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To My Guardians: Mr. and Mrs. Mumba, I thank you very much for

the general support I have enjoyed the entire time I have been with you since the

passing of my mother. I thank you mostly for giving me educational, spiritual and

moral support. I thank God for you.

To Other Family Members: Ms Martha Chihana, I thank you for everything

you supported me with during my elementary education. Uncle Moses Chihana, I

thank you for being there for help even in tough times you encouraged me to

stand strong. Uncle Hastings Honde, thank you for all the support you gave me

during this work.

To My Girlfriend: Thank you for your support towards this work. You inspired

and encouraged me so much. With your presence in my life, I had a very good

reason to work hard.

To My Lecturers: I am very grateful for professionally grooming me into what I

am today. Owing to you, I am now ready to face the corporate and professional

world.

To My Supervisors: I am thankful for the confidence and trust you had in me. I

appreciate the constructive criticism you gave me which pushed me in the right

direction of the project study.

To My Close Friends: Thank you for everything you did for me the whole time I

have been with you.

There are several people, who also contributed nevertheless partially, but it meant

loads and I am grateful for the support although you did not get specific mention.

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ABSTRACT

The use of Global Positioning System (GPS) in cadastral surveying has ignited much

interest over the past decades. To take advantage of the rapid expansion of the GPS

technology in both developed and developing countries, cadastral surveying firms and

government agencies are increasingly turning their attention to the delivery of services

through the GPS technology. GPS has made inroads in those applications requiring lower

precision surveys and is fast becoming a primary technology for acquiring data for input

into geographical and information system.

Unfortunately, cadastral surveyors in Malawi have a task of catching up to this

technology since Malawi is poor and undeveloped. The adoption rate of GPS technology

in cadastral surveying is not known. Therefore, to get on the same standard with our

colleagues worldwide, there is a need to find out how fast we are updating our

technology in cadastral surveying.

The research aimed at investigating the rate of adopting the use of Global Position

System technology in Malawi’s cadastral surveying industry.

The research was carried out through structured questionnaires. The questionnaire forms

were given to nine cadastral firms and were assessed using simple percentage

calculations and displayed on both tables and pie charts.

After the study, a rate of adopting the GPS technology in the cadastral surveying industry

was produced. The results showed a high rate of adopting the GPS technology at 71.43%

which as compared to the rate of both developed (78.0%) and developing (70.1%)

countries, is an indicator of progress in Malawi’s surveying industry.

Despite Malawi being poor, it can still facilitate access to the GPS technology which can

contribute towards its Economic Recovery Plan and Malawi Growth and Development

Strategy especially on poverty reduction and rural development.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. iii

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL ............................................................................................... iv

DEDICATION .................................................................................................................................. v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................... vi

ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................... vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................viii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................... x

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ xi

LIST OF PLATES .......................................................................................................................... xii

LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................................................................................. xiii

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .............................................................................. xiv

1.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background Information .................................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem Statement ............................................................................................... 3

1.3 Objectives of the Study ....................................................................................... 3

1.3.1 Overall Objective .............................................................................................. 3

1.3.2 Specific Objectives ........................................................................................... 4

1.4 Research Questions .............................................................................................. 4

1.5 Justification for the Study .................................................................................. 5

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................ 6

2.1 CONVENTIONAL METHODS OF CADASTRAL SURVEYING IN MALAWI .......................................................................................................................................... 6

2.1.1 General Scope and Applications ................................................................... 6

2.1.2 Implication of Conventional Survey Methods .......................................... 7

2.2 CADASTRAL SURVEY SYSTEM OF MALAWI ................................... 8

2.2.1 Land Survey Act on Cadastral Surveying .................................................. 8

2.2.2. Land Registration System .......................................................................... 11

2.3 ADVENT OF GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM .............................. 12

2.3.1 Land Surveying GPS .................................................................................... 12

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2.3.2. History of GPS Development .................................................................... 14

2.3.3. Navigation with the GPS ............................................................................ 14

2.3.3.1 The Space Segment .................................................................................... 15

2.3.3.2 The Control Segment ................................................................................ 18

2.3.3.3 The User Segment ...................................................................................... 22

2.4 GPS CAPABILITIES ...................................................................................... 25

2.5 FINDING LOCATION WITH GPS ............................................................ 25

2.6 GPS IN CADASTRAL SURVEYS ............................................................. 26

2.7. COMPARING CONVENTIONAL AND GPS SURVEYS ................ 27

2.8. GPS REQUIREMENTS AND LIMITATIONS ...................................... 28

2.8.1 The Dual Height Demon .............................................................................. 28

2.9 ADOPTING GPS AND OTHER TECHNIQUES IN CADASTRAL

SURVEYING............................................................................................................ 30

3.0 METHODOLOGY................................................................................................................. 33

3.1 Study Area........................................................................................................... 33

3.2 Sampling Technique ......................................................................................... 33

3.3 Data Collection Materials and Methods ...................................................... 34

3.4 Data Analysis ..................................................................................................... 34

3.5 Validation of method and data selected ....................................................... 36

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ......................................................................................... 37

4.1 Response rate to questionnaires ..................................................................... 37

4.2 Questionnaire Analysis .................................................................................... 37

4.2.1 Sole GPS Users .............................................................................................. 37

4.2.2 GPS and Conventional methods Users..................................................... 38

4.2.3 Sole Conventional Methods Users ............................................................ 38

4.2.4 The Overall Rate of Conventional Methods ........................................... 39

4.2.5 The Overall Rate of Adopting the GPS in Cadastral Surveying ........ 39

4.3 Implication and Interpretation of the Results ............................................. 42

5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................ 44

5.1. Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 44

5.2. Recommendations...................................................................................... 45

5.3. Study Limitations ....................................................................................... 46

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 47

APPENDICES ................................................................................................................................ 50

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2xLIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Methods of Data Collection and Analysis .......................................................... 35

Table 2 Response rate ....................................................................................................... 37

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Showing constellation of satellites in their orbits around earth ..................... 17

Figure 2 Showing GPS and other Mobile Technology adoption per 100 inhabitants

(2000-2010) ............................................................................................................ 32

Figure 3 Showing a Pie chart of the Rate of Adopting GPS .......................................... 41

Figure 4 Showing a Pie chart of the Overall Rate of Adopting GPS ............................. 42

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LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1 Showing constellation of satellites in their orbits around earth ........................ 18

Plate 2 Showing the Ground monitor station used from 1984 to 2007, on display at

the Air Force Space & Missile Museum .............................................................. 20

Plate 3 Showing Samples of GPS receivers ..................................................................... 23

Plate 4 Showing Samples of GPS receivers ..................................................................... 24

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Questionnaire

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

2SOPS 2nd

Space Operations Squadron

AFSCN Air Force Satellite Control Network

AUSPOS Online GPS Processing Service provided by Geosciences Australia

COPAN Software for Computing and Managing Plane Land Surveying Coordinates

DGPS Differential GPS

DoD US Department of Defense

DOS Director of Overseas Surveys

EDM Electronic Distance Measuring tool

ESE East of South East

GIS Geographic Information System

GPS Global Positioning System

GPS III Next Generation GPS

GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System

L1C, L2C, L5: GPS Carrier Signals

LIS Land Information System

MGA Map Grid of Australia

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MCS Master Control Station

NGA National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency

NMEA National Marine Electronics Association

OCS Operation Control Segment

OCX Next Generation GPS Operations Control System

PC Personal Computer

PNT Positioning, Navigation and Timing

PPS Precise Positioning Services

RTCM SC-104 Standard Serial Data Format for DGPS corrections

RTK Real Time Kinematic

RS-22 Form of RTCM SC-104 format

SCIMS Survey Control Information Management System

SiRF Silicon Monolithic Integrated Circuits in RF Systems

SPS Standard Positioning Services

SS Space Segment

SURPAC Software for Computing Survey works

SV Satellite/Space Vehicle

USB Universal Serial Bus

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WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Information

Malawi as a developing nation has experienced problems in the development and implementation

of surveying and mapping. The first surveying and mapping was done by the British who were the

colonial masters of then Nyasaland now Malawi. The country has had predominantly fixed

boundary cadastral system. However the general boundary cadastral system is also accepted

especially where the adjudication of title has been effected. The surveying exercise was mainly for

cadastre purpose in the cities and urban centers of Blantyre, Zomba, Lilongwe and Mzuzu.

Grootscholten (2011) observes that in the early days cadastral surveys were carried out using

conventional methods of surveying: the chain and compass survey methods which were much

laborious. These surveys were conducted for mainly the white communities who needed to lease

pieces of land for different purposes but most of it was for agricultural purposes. Most of the maps

were produced by hand drawing methods and the surveyors had to go to very extreme measures to

keep from getting lost. They elected monumental landmarks, laboriously drafted detailed maps and

learned to read the stars in the night sky

The fast growing technology in the use of computers and the Global Positioning System (GPS) in

the surveying and mapping sector have made many countries to lag behind in terms of adopting the

new mapping technology. In Malawi, the advent of new technology in Surveying and Mapping has

affected the mapping industry in both positive and negative manner (Gomani, 2011). The different

fields of surveying and mapping are affected differently. For instance, science has been a dynamic

aspect in most of the arts today and cadastral surveying is one of them. The production of maps

and Deed Plans in Malawi has been heavily affected by the changing technology. As technology

evolves and expands throughout the world, the surveying and mapping community is steadily

redefining the tools required to increase productivity and obtain highly accurate data.

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HEMCO (1995) observes that for many years the development of cadastral surveying and other

mapping sciences have been static. The main cadastral surveying tools were designed to last for

many years. For example, tools that included the Tripods, Theodolites, Surveying Compass, and

also other cadastral cartography instruments like the Set squares and much other drafting

equipment which were used in the production of maps. Gradually we experienced a drift from the

dominant traditional methods to the more dynamic computerized system of GPS, which is a total

shift from the traditional system to the new mapping methods. These changes have brought new

different approaches to the mapping system and cadastral survey system all together.

The GPS is a space-based satellite navigation system that provides users with positioning,

navigation, and timing (PNT) services in all weather, anywhere on or near the Earth, where there is

an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites, anywhere in the world, 24 hours a day.

The GPS was developed and is run by the United States Department of Defense (DoD). It has been

fully operational for various purposes including cadastral surveying, for over eighteen years. There

are no subscription fee or setup charges to use GPS. It was declared an international resource in

1996 by United States of America President Clinton and since then, it has been widely used

(Grootscholten, 2011).

Barnes et al. (1994) observes that over the past ten years GPS has emerged as a major tool for

undertaking precise surveys. More recently, it has made inroads in those applications requiring

lower precision surveys and is fast becoming a primary technology for acquiring data for input into

geographical and land information systems (GIS/LIS).

Nevertheless, with the fast growing use of the GPS worldwide in the surveying and mapping

sector, Cadastral Surveyors in Malawi have a task of catching up to this technology. Additionally,

despite the fact that GPS technology can be used in many fields, and people keep finding new

applications, it is still dubious as to how many people in Malawi are using it or have adjusted to

this new positioning system when it comes to the surveying and mapping field. The adoption rate

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of GPS techniques in cadastral surveying is not known. Therefore, in order to get on the same

accepted pace with our friends all over the world, there is a need to find out how we are updating

our technology

1.2 Problem Statement

The surveying and mapping profession in Malawi entirely consists of old but still practicing

surveyors who have been in the business for an equally long period. These surveyors are well

conversant with all the Conventional surveying methods developed ever since the establishment of

the cadastral surveying discipline. The UN Report (2006) says these cadastral surveyors, used

compass and chain, and later the transit and tape methods in establishing many of today’s

boundaries.

With the fast growing use of the GPS worldwide in the surveying and mapping sector, Cadastral

Surveyors in Malawi have a task of catching up to this technology. GPS was established in 1978

and has been used in surveying ever since. However, in Malawi, the adoption rate of the GPS

technology in cadastral surveying is hardly known. Therefore, in order to get on the same accepted

pace with our colleagues worldwide, there is a need to find out how we are updating our

technology in the cadastral surveying field. Thus the rate of adoption to this technology has to be

precisely known and understood.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.3.1 Overall Objective

The overall objective of the study is to investigate the rate of adopting the use of GPS technology

in Malawi’s cadastral surveying industry based on the current trends of cadastral survey standards

in the world.

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1.3.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of this study are as follows:

1 To determine the exact percentage number of change and transformation rate from the use

of conventional methods of cadastral surveys to the use of GPS in Malawi.

2 To find out the number of cadastral surveyors who are still using conventional survey

methods and those who are using the GPS techniques in their surveys, separately.

3 To find out the number of cadastral surveyors who are combining the conventional

survey methods with the GPS techniques in their surveys.

4 To determine those cadastral surveyors who have moved from using old methods of

cadastral surveying to using the GPS.

5 To investigate whether conventional methods of cadastral surveying are being totally

replaced or are being integrated with the GPS technology in surveying and mapping field.

1.4 Research Questions

1 What is the percentage rate of change of adopting GPS technology in Malawi’s cadastral

surveying industry?

2 What is the standard and level of the most common and currently used cadastral

surveying technology in Malawi?

3 Is the GPS technology, as the modern method of cadastral surveying, being used or

known at all to Malawi’s cadastral surveyors?

4 How is the knowledge of adoption rate of GPS technology in cadastral surveying going

to benefit Malawi?

5 What is the preferred equipment or technology used for cadastral surveying in Malawi?

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1.5 Justification for the Study

Knowing the adoption rate of the state of the art technology specifically the GPS, Malawian

cadastral surveyors will be able to know how much change they will have to make in order to

collect data in the field and download it into the computer to come up with plans and even the data

to update maps using modern software like Surpac, COPAN or ArcView.

Throughout the world, government agencies, scientific organizations, and commercial operations

are using the surveys and maps deriving from GPS and GIS for timely decision-making and wiser

use of resources. Therefore, any organization or agency that requires accurate location information

can benefit from the efficiency and productivity provided by the positioning capability of GPS.

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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 CONVENTIONAL METHODS OF CADASTRAL SURVEYING IN MALAWI

2.1.1 General Scope and Applications

A country Report was done for Malawi in 18th – 22nd

September 2006 on Problems and

Experience in surveying and Mapping by Action items for the seventeenth United Nation’s

Conference for Asia and the Pacific – Bangkok Thailand. Among the issues discussed was the

concern of conventional methods of cadastral surveying in Malawi and its struggle to adapt to the

ever-changing technology throughout the world. Some of these issues were as argued as in the

subsequent paragraphs.

In Malawi, cadastral surveying can be traced from the Europeans who colonized the country. The

first surveying and mapping was done by these colonial masters of then Nyasaland (Malawi). The

Surveying exercise was mainly for cadastre purpose in the cities and urban centers. Hence most of

the early surveys were for urban centers like Blantyre, Zomba, Lilongwe and Mzuzu. These

cadastre Surveys were carried out using the conventional chain and compass survey methods.

Trigonometric surveys were carried out to establish surveys controls as demand for demarcated

parcels increased. This led to the densification of controls in the 1st and 2nd order to allow for the

expansion of surveys to some of the district centers. In the early days, surveys were conducted for

mainly the white communities who needed to lease pieces of land for different purposes. Many

hectares of land were surveyed for agriculture purpose. These included mainly areas in tea growing

districts of Thyolo and Mulanje.

The report (UN. 2006), continues to explain that the mapping was limited to some selected areas.

Most of these maps were produced by hand drawing methods. It was until the early 1960s when

the British government through the Director of Overseas Surveys (DOS) started producing maps

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using photogrammetric methods. This was a step forward in producing maps for the country.

Under this new method maps were produced in 1:50000, 1:250000 and 1:1m scale. Malawi was

then one of the first countries to have full coverage of mapping of the basic map series in this part

of Africa.

The fast growing technology in the use of computers in the surveying and mapping sector have

made many countries to lag behind in terms of adopting the new mapping technology. In Malawi

the advent of new technology in Mapping has affected the mapping industry in many ways. The

different fields of surveying and mapping are affected differently.

2.1.2 Implication of Conventional Survey Methods

Gomani (2011) found out that many cartographers could not accept the change from the old system

to the new system as a result they voluntary retired or lost their jobs. The change could not be

easily accepted in many organizations as a result there has been misunderstanding between the two

groups of people, those advocating the change and those against. Some management of change

procedures were put in place in order to a smooth transition.

According to Gomani (2011) the adoption of the new technology has rendered some of the

materials, which were used in map production obsolete. This has led to the scarcity of the materials

in turn making map production impossible. In this regard the cartographers have been forced to

learn the new technology. This in other cases has led to redundancy of staff that could not cope

with the new technology.

The adoption of new mapping technology means people have to be trained in the new skills in

cartography. This has not been very possible due the lack of training institutions in Malawi. On the

other hand efforts have been put in place to provide on the job training for those who are willing to

accept the change. Many technical colleges do not provide the surveying and mapping courses in

Malawi as a result there is a cute shortage of skilled personnel in mapping technology.

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According to Barnes (2000), the most vital need in Malawi as of 2000 was for technician-level

surveyors and land administrators. It is imperative that the capacity to provide high level of

training be developed in-country, either through existing institutions (such as the NRC and the

Malawi Polytechnic), or through a public/private training centre that can offer specialized training

on the surveying discipline in general and the GPS technology. The District and National Land

Management Mapping Project (DNLMMP) as according to Barnes (2000), has the potential to

serve the latter role in the future.

Since 1992/93 no scholarship funding has been available for Malawians to pursue a surveying

degree overseas, says Barnes (2000). Within the country, limited educational opportunities in

surveying are available at the Natural Resources College (NRC) in Lilongwe and through the

University of Malawi, the Polytechnic. There is therefore not only a shortage of licensed

surveyors, but very limited capacity in-country for education and training in the field of surveying.

2.2 CADASTRAL SURVEY SYSTEM OF MALAWI

2.2.1 Land Survey Act on Cadastral Surveying

There is a well-defined system for cadastral surveying in Malawi that is described in Laws of

Malawi 2010 software, on the Land Survey Act of 1986 based on the Act of 1955 and the

accompanying Land Survey Rules. Cadastral surveying is the responsibility of licensed and

government surveyors. Under the Land Survey Act Cap 59.03, Part III, the laws deals with

Licensing, Registration and Duties of Surveyors as will be expounded herein.

Under the Qualifications of licensed surveyor it says that: No person shall be licensed as a

surveyor unless— he is immediately prior to the 1st day of January, 1975, a licensed surveyor duly

licensed under section 6 of this Act; or he has attained the age of twenty-one years; he furnishes

9

testimonials or other evidence of good character to the satisfaction of the Board; he produces

evidence that he has served at least two years as an assistant in practical field surveys to a

Government surveyor or licensed surveyor in, Malawi or in any other country approved for the

purposes of surveying. The laws continue to say that the person must either hold a degree in land

surveying from a university approved for the purposes of surveying or he possesses a commission

or a license entitling him lawfully to practice as a land surveyor in any country approved for the

purposes of surveying. The aforementioned are some of the many pre-qualifications for a licensed

surveyor in Malawi stipulated by the laws.

Notwithstanding subsection (1) the Board may, in its discretion, require any person who applies to

be licensed as a surveyor to satisfy the Board, either by carrying out to the satisfaction of the Board

a trial survey, or by such other evidence as the Board may think fit, that he is capable of

conducting surveys in accordance with this Act.

Under Section 6 of Licensing of surveyors, the Act stipulates that any person who is qualified to be

licensed as a surveyor under section 5 (1), and who, if required by the Board so to do under section

5 (2), has satisfied the Board that he is capable of conducting surveys under this Act, shall be

entitled, upon application to the Board, accompanied by the prescribed declaration and upon

payment of the prescribed fee, to receive a license as a surveyor in such form as may be prescribed.

In section 8 the Act deals with the issue of surveying instruments and measuring tapes accuracy. It

states that:-

(1) It shall be the duty of every surveyor to assure himself that all surveying instruments used

by him for the purpose of carrying out surveys are in a proper state of adjustment and that

all measuring tapes so used have been properly standardized.

(2) It shall be the duty of every surveyor, when called upon so to do by the Commissioner, to

produce to the Commissioner any such surveying instrument or measuring tape and the

Commissioner may apply such test to such surveying instrument or measuring tape as he

may think fit.

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(3) If the Commissioner finds that any such surveying instrument or measuring tape is

defective or inaccurate, the Commissioner may order such surveyor to remedy such defect

or to rectify such inaccuracy and such surveyor shall not use such surveying instrument or

measuring tape until such defect is remedied or inaccuracy rectified.

(4) If the Commissioner is of the opinion that any such surveying instrument or measuring tape

is in such a condition as to render it impossible to remedy such defect or to rectify such

inaccuracy the Commissioner may condemn such surveying instrument or measuring tape

and thereafter such surveyor shall no longer use such surveying instrument or measuring

tape for the carrying out of any survey, or the Commissioner may by order in writing

specify the class of work upon which such surveying instrument or measuring tape may be

used.

As explained under the section 8 above, the Act is dwelling much on the measuring tape and such

kind of equipment belonging to the conventional methods of cadastral surveying. It is silent or it

does not consider the new technologies like the Global Positioning System.

On the duties of surveyor, the Act states that every surveyor shall carry out every survey

undertaken by him in accordance with the Act and in such a manner as will ensure the accuracy of

such survey and of any plan, survey data, or other record of such survey. The surveyor shall

deposit with the Commissioner for filing in the Commissioner’s office such plans, survey data

and records of survey as he may be required to do under this Act. He shall, when required by the

Commissioner, without delay— correct, in conformity with this Act, any inaccuracy or error in

any plan, survey data or other record where such error or inaccuracy exceeds the limit of error

prescribed under this Act to be allowed in the execution of surveys and the preparation of plans,

survey data and other records and adjust the position of any survey mark which has been fixed,

placed or set up in accordance with any incorrect survey.

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As of 2000, there were 13 licensed surveyors in the country, 10 of whom were in private practice,

(Barnes, (2000). According to Barnes (2000), about half of the licensed surveyors were computer-

literate and only one firm was using GPS.

All records pertaining to cadastral surveys are maintained at the Surveyor-General’s Office (SGO)

in Blantyre. Typically licensed surveyors have to submit the following documentation for each

survey to the SGO:

Report

Original copy of field book

Working Plan showing graphically how the survey was done

Computations (including a full coordinate list)

The SGO examines all submitted surveys and approves them if they meet all requirements. As

Barnes (2000), states that although this process has been reduced from two years to 9-12 months,

this backlog is still unacceptable. The benefit and value of this examination must be analysed

against the cost and delays that are involved in this examination process. The Cadastral Drawing

Office in the SGO is responsible for maintaining an index map which reflects all surveys approved

by this office.

2.2.2. Land Registration System

According to Chikhwenda, (2012), Malawi adopted a fixed boundary system because it

did not have enough physical features that could be used in the general boundary system and the

system was adopted from the Roman Dutch system being practiced in most former British

colonies. The British also required surveys to be of high accuracy which could only be achieved in

the fixed boundary system.

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The corners of each surveyed property are denoted by beacons to show its extent.

The problems of the system are that processes of this system are longer and it is expensive to be

afforded by a poor Malawian because setting up beacons is expensive due to the expertise and

materials used. In addition people easily tamper with beacons. The witness to the beacons is the

surveyor and his measurements. In 1994 the adjudication exercise was carried out using the general

boundary for title registration. This system proved cheaper and simple over the

fixed system. In addition there are so many witnesses to the extent of the property than in the

fixed system. In both methods their end result is title registration. The main purpose of the survey

is to have property whose extent is known.

2.3 ADVENT OF GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

2.3.1 Land Surveying GPS

The technique widely known as land surveying has been in use for centuries and is known as the

second oldest profession humanity has ever conceived. Because humans always had the need to

know exactly where they were located and accurately determine their position in the planet,

surveying was created back in ancient Egypt with the use of rope extensions and the applications

of uncompounded geometry. Since those times, many things have evolved making tools and other

accessories easier to use and to find accurate data, especially in the always important field of land

surveying.

According to a website http://www.landsurveyors.com/index.php (2012), by the 1990s, simple and

almost remote tools were still used in land surveying, like tape measurements, rulers and

Theodolites. These were uncomplicated items that helped scientists to find their three-dimensional

position in the planet. But the need for more sophisticated and less time consuming tools pushed

scientists and researchers around the globe to find better ways to locate themselves.

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The first top of the line tools used in land surveying would contain prisms, also known as

reflectors, so they could find the measurements of the lights that would return and make it possible

for one to know the distancing of a determined spot. Nowadays the distancing measurements tools

are fully robotic, and the locations are completely satellite automated. The Global Positioning

System (GPS) is a more secure and fast way to measure a vast piece of land without having to

waste so much time to determine the area you're trying to ascertain.

The GPS tool works as a type of triangulation which does not involve any angles but is actually a

trilateration, which only means that it is a method to find the positioning of some objects using

simple geometry. This entire task is orchestrated by satellites. The GPS receiver will find the

coordinates and measurements of the distance desired using the radio signals' traveling time. To get

to a traveling time accurately, the system will use the time the signal took to reach the receiver

times the speed of light and by doing so it will have the exact distance to the satellite.

Holms (2005) say that this technology has changed immensely being used for a lot of different

purposes than its original. The uses of GPS helped land surveying turn into more than just a

profession for a few. GPS helps all types of people by giving them time and tools to help their

work to get delivered faster and more accurately.

Aside from discovering the exact location of things, the GPS is also used for navigation purposes,

mapping the Earth's areas and territories, tracking people and objects and to bring precisely timing

into our lives.

The use of land surveying and GPS by governments is widely known. It is called cadastral land

surveying and in many countries it is conducted mostly by government surveyors and this branch

of land surveying is usually needed for the re-establishing of territory and land lining.

14

2.3.2. History of GPS Development

The discovery of navigation seems to have occurred early in human history.

According to Tsui (2000), the compass was discovered and used in wars during foggy weather

before recorded history. There have been many different navigation techniques to support

ocean and air transportation.

Satellite-based navigation started in the early 1970s, explains Tsui (2000). Three satellite

systems were explored before the GPS programs: the U.S. Navy Navigation Satellite

System (also referred to as the Transit), the U.S. Navy’s Timation (TIMe navigATION), and U.S.

Air Force project 621B. The Transit project used a continuous wave (CW) signal. The closest

approach of the satellite can be found by measuring the maximum rate of Doppler shift.

The Timation program used an atomic clock that improves the prediction of satellite orbits and

reduces the ground control update rate. The Air Force 621B project used the pseudorandom noise

(PRN) signal to modulate the carrier frequency. The GPS program was approved in December

1973. The first satellite was launched in 1978. In August 1993, GPS had 24 satellites in orbit and

in December of the same year the initial operational capability was established. In February 1994,

the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) declared GPS ready for aviation use.

2.3.3. Navigation with the GPS

Grootscholten et al. (2011), attempts further to discuss the advent of the GPS as an integral tool of

navigation in general, but with much emphasis to surveying and mapping profession. He says our

ancestors had to go to very extreme measures to keep from getting lost. They erected monumental

landmarks, laboriously drafted detailed maps and learned to read the stars in the night sky. Things

are much far easier today; a pocket-sized gadget can be bought and can tell exactly where an object

or person is, on earth at any moment. As long as there is a Global Positioning System receiver and

a clear view of the sky, it is hardly possible to get lost.

15

The Global Position System is a United States-owned utility that provides users with positioning,

navigation, and timing (PNT) services. According to Grootscholten et al. (2011), the GPS is made

up of a network of 24 satellites placed into orbit by the United States Department of Defense (U.S

DoD), giving positions in real time to around 5-20m accuracy. GPS was originally intended for

military applications, but in the 1980s, the United States government made the system available for

civilian use (including individual cadastral surveyors). It works in any weather conditions,

anywhere in the world, 24 hours a day. There are no subscription fee or setup charges to use GPS.

It was declared an international resource in 1996 by U.S President Clinton and since then, it has

been widely used.

The system consists of three segments: the space segment, the control segment, and the user

segment.

2.3.3.1 The Space Segment

Air Force Space Command News Service (2011) says that the United States Air Force develops,

maintains and operates the space and control segments. The space segment (SS) is composed of the

orbiting GPS satellites or Space Vehicles (SV) in GPS parlance. The GPS design originally called

for 24 SVs, eight each in three approximately circular orbits, but this was modified to six orbital

planes with four satellites each. The orbits are centered on the Earth, not rotating with the Earth,

but instead fixed with respect to the distant stars. The six orbit planes have approximately 55°

inclination (tilt relative to Earth's equator) and are separated by 60° right ascension of the

ascending node (angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit's intersection). The

orbital period is one-half a sidereal day, specifically hours and 58 minutes. The orbits are arranged

so that at least six satellites are always within line of sight from almost everywhere on Earth's

surface. The result of this objective is that the four satellites are not evenly spaced (90 degrees)

apart within each orbit. In general terms, the angular difference between satellites in each orbit is

30, 105, 120, and 105 degrees apart which, of course, sum to 360 degrees.

16

Orbiting at an altitude of approximately 20,200 km; orbital radius of approximately 26,600 km,

each SV makes two complete orbits each sidereal day, repeating the same ground track each day.

This was very helpful during development because even with only four satellites, correct alignment

means all four are visible from one spot for a few hours each day. For military operations, the

ground track repeat can be used to ensure good coverage in combat zones.

The Air Force Space Command News Service (2011) says that as of November 2008, there were

31 actively broadcasting satellites in the GPS constellation, and two older, retired from active

service satellites kept in the constellation as orbital spares. The additional satellites improve the

precision of GPS receiver calculations by providing redundant measurements. With the increased

number of satellites, the constellation was changed to a non-uniform arrangement. Such an

arrangement was shown to improve reliability and availability of the system, relative to a uniform

system, when multiple satellites fail. About nine satellites are visible from any point on the ground

at any one time, ensuring considerable redundancy over the minimum four satellites needed for a

position. This is shown by Figure1 and Plate 1 below.

17

Figure 1 Showing constellation of satellites in their orbits

around earth

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ConstellationGPS

18

Plate 1 Showing constellation of satellites in their orbits

around earth

Source: Microsoft Student with Encarta Premium 2009

2.3.3.2 The Control Segment

According to the Air Force Space Command News Service (2011), the control segment consists of

worldwide monitor and control stations that maintain the satellites in their proper orbits through

occasional command maneuvers, and adjust the satellite clocks. It tracks the GPS satellites,

uploads updated navigational data, and maintains health and status of the satellite constellation.

Specifically, the control segment is composed of

1. a master control station (MCS),

2. an alternate master control station,

3. four dedicated ground antennas and

19

4. six dedicated monitor stations

The MCS can also access U.S. Air Force Satellite Control Network (AFSCN) ground antennas for

additional command and control capability and National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)

monitor stations. The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by dedicated U.S. Air Force

monitoring stations in Hawaii, Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Colorado Springs,

Colorado and Cape Canaveral, along with shared NGA monitor stations operated in England,

Argentina, Ecuador, Bahrain, Australia and Washington DC. The tracking information is sent to

the Air Force Space Command's MCS at Schriever Air Force Base 25 km ESE of Colorado

Springs, which is operated by the 2nd Space Operations Squadron (2 SOPS) of the U.S. Air Force.

Then 2 SOPS contacts each GPS satellite regularly with a navigational update using dedicated or

shared (AFSCN) ground antennas. These updates synchronize the atomic clocks on board the

satellites to within a few nanoseconds of each other, and adjust the ephemeris of each satellite's

internal orbital model. The updates are created by a Kalman filter that uses inputs from the ground

monitoring stations, space weather information, and various other inputs.

20

Plate 2 Showing the Ground monitor station used from 1984 to 2007, on

display at the Air Force Space & Missile Museum

Source: United States AFSCN

According to Johnny (2011), Satellite maneuvers are not precise by GPS standards. So to change

the orbit of a satellite, the satellite must be marked unhealthy, so receivers will not use it in their

calculation. Then the maneuver can be carried out, and the resulting orbit tracked from the ground.

Then the new ephemeris is uploaded and the satellite marked healthy again.

According to John (2009), the Operation Control Segment (OCS) currently serves as the control

segment of record. It provides the operational capability that supports global GPS users and keeps

the GPS system operational and performing within specification.OCS successfully replaced the

legacy 1970’s-era mainframe computer at Schriever Air Force Base in September 2007. After

installation, the system helped enable upgrades and provide a foundation for a new security

architecture that supported the U.S. armed forces. OCS will continue to be the ground control

system of record until the new segment,

21

Next Generation GPS Operation Control System (OCX) is fully developed and functional. The

new capabilities provided by OCX will be the cornerstone for revolutionizing GPS’s mission

capabilities, and enabling Air Force Space Command to greatly enhance GPS operational services

to U.S. combat forces, civil partners and myriad of domestic and international users. The GPS

OCX program also will reduce cost, schedule and technical risk. It is designed to provide

50%sustenance cost savings through efficient software architecture and Performance-Based

Logistics. In addition, GPS OCX expected to cost millions less than the cost to upgrade OCS while

providing four times the capability.

John (2009) continues to elucidate that the GPS OCX program represents a critical part of GPS

modernization and provides significant information assurance improvements over the current GPS

OCS program.

OCX will have the ability to control and manage GPS legacy satellites as well as the next

generation of GPS III satellites, while enabling the full array of military signals.

Built on a flexible architecture that can rapidly adapt to the changing needs of today’s and

future GPS users allowing immediate access to GPS data and constellations status through

secure, accurate and reliable information.

Empowers the war-fighter with more secure, actionable and predictive information to

enhance situational awareness.

Enables new modernized signals (L1C, L2C, and L5) and has M-code capability, which the

legacy system is unable to do.

Provides significant information assurance improvements over the current program

including detecting and preventing cyber attacks, while isolating, containing and operating

during such attacks.

Supports higher volume near real-time command and control capability.

On September 14, 2011, the U.S. Air Force announced the completion of GPS OCX Preliminary

Design Review and confirmed that the OCX program is ready for the next phase of development.

22

The GPS OCX program has achieved major milestones and is on track to support the GPS IIIA

launch in May 2014

2.3.3.3 The User Segment

The user segment is composed of hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied military users of the

secure GPS Precise Positioning Service (PPS), and tens of millions of civil, commercial and

scientific users of the Standard Positioning Service (SPS). According to a website

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS, it is said that in general, GPS receivers are composed of an

antenna, tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly

stable clock (often a crystal oscillator). They may also include a display for providing location and

speed information to the user. A receiver is often described by its number of channels: this

signifies how many satellites it can monitor simultaneously. Originally limited to four or five, this

has progressively increased over the years so that, as of 2007, receivers typically have between 12

and 20 channels.

GPS receivers come in a variety of formats, from devices integrated into cars, phones, and

watches, to dedicated devices such as those shown on Plate 3 and 4 from manufacturers Trimble,

Garmin and Leica (top to down).

23

Plate 3 Showing Samples of GPS receivers

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS_receiver

24

Plate 4 Showing Samples of GPS receivers

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS_receiver

The Inside GNSS - January/February (2011) issue, explains further on GPS receivers saying that

the receivers may include an input for differential corrections, using the standard serial data format

called RTCM SC-104format. This is typically in the form of an RS-232 port at 4,800 bit/s speed.

Data is actually sent at a much lower rate, which limits the accuracy of the signal sent using

RTCM. Receivers with internal DGPS receivers can outperform those using external RTCM data.

According to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS_receiver (2012), as of 2006, even low-cost units

commonly include Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) receivers. Many GPS receivers can

relay position data to a PC or other device using the National Marine Electronics Association

(NMEA) 0183 protocol. Although this protocol is officially defined by the NMEA, references to

this protocol have been compiled from public records, allowing open source tools like DGPS to

read the protocol without violating intellectual property laws. Other proprietary protocols exist as

25

well, such as the SiRF and MTK protocols. Receivers can interface with other devices using

methods including a serial connection, USB, or Bluetooth.

2.4 GPS CAPABILITIES

According to Kruczynski (2008), GPS is available in two basic forms: the standard positioning

service (SPS), or civilian signal, and the precise positioning service (PPS), or military signal. Prior

to 2000 the U.S. military intentionally corrupted or degraded the SPS signal for national security

purposes by using a process known as Selective Availability. As a result, the SPS signal was much

less accurate than PPS. In May 2000 President Bill Clinton announced that the military would stop

Selective Availability. This increased the accuracy and reliability of SPS by a factor of ten. Today,

the military and civilian GPS signals are believed to be of the same accuracy. For national security

reasons the Defense Department retained the ability to jam the SPS signal on a regional basis if

necessary. Both the SPS and the PPS signals provide a horizontal position that is accurate to about

10 m.

2.5 FINDING LOCATION WITH GPS

GPS satellites orbit high above the surface of Earth at precise locations. They allow a user with a

GPS receiver to determine latitude, longitude, and altitude. The receiver measures the time it takes

for signals sent from the different satellites (A, B, and C) to reach the receiver. From this data, the

receiver triangulates an exact position. Kruczynski (2008) says that at any given time there are

multiple satellites within the range of any location on Earth. Three satellites are needed to

determine latitude and longitude, while a fourth satellite (D) is necessary to determine altitude.

Kruczynski (2008) observes that several techniques have been developed to enhance the

performance of GPS. One technique, known as differential GPS (DGPS), employs two fixed

stations on Earth as well as satellites. DGPS provides a horizontal position accurate to about 3 m.

26

Another technique, known as WAAS, or Wide Area Augmentation System, was developed by the

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to improve the safety of aircraft navigation. WAAS

monitoring stations around the United States catch GPS signals, correct errors, and send out more-

accurate signals. A technique involving the use of carrier frequency processing, known as survey

grade GPS, was pioneered by surveyors to compute positions to within about 1 cm. SPS, DGPS,

WAAS, and carrier techniques are accessible to all users.

2.6 GPS IN CADASTRAL SURVEYS

Roberts (2005) conducted a research on GPS for Cadastral Surveying – Practical Considerations

which looked upon issues of how the GPS technology, in particular real-time kinematic (RTK)

GPS, has matured to the stage where it has become another tool for the professional surveyor. He

found out that among other factors, Commercial products of GPS offer user-friendly

hardware/software and suggest techniques that can improve productivity at a high accuracy.

Government services such as Survey Control Information Management System (SCIMS} in New

South Wales and AUSPOS (Geosciences Australia) support improved GPS positioning and

surveying for the user community.

He attempted to give an overview of the pertinent GPS theory to support the practical

considerations presented when using GPS for cadastral surveying. GPS surveying always uses high

precision carrier phase measurements. The GPS surveyor may choose to use techniques ranging

from post processed single frequency measurements up to high productivity dual frequency RTK

procedures.

GPS is just another measurement tool and that GPS techniques will rarely be used in isolation on a

cadastral survey. There will almost always be the need to connect to a mark or feature under a tree

using a total station and hence there will always be a hybridization of techniques. Many cadastral

surveyors are increasingly using GPS techniques to strengthen traverse closures, locate marks in

27

the field, eliminate unnecessary setups in difficult terrain and connect to existing Map Grid of

Australia (MGA) control over distances considered unfeasible using traversing techniques.

2.7. COMPARING CONVENTIONAL AND GPS SURVEYS

Magellan (1999) says that the GPS measurement is a three-dimensional vector from mark to mark.

It contains distance, direction and difference in height between survey points. Generally the

software will report the vector as the difference in the earth-centered earth-fixed X, Y, Z

coordinates of the survey points. A GPS vector can also be defined using a local E, N, U system or

a geodetic Distance, Azimuth, Height format. The receiver makes its measurements between its

antenna’s electrical phase centers, and the surveyors use the measured antenna heights to correct

the measurement down to the survey marks. The latter statement confirms that the antenna height

is a very important part of the measurement. In conventional surveying measurements are often

separated into horizontal (angle and distance) and vertical (elevation) parts. However, a GPS

measurement is fully three-dimensional and parts cannot be separated.

The vertical component affects the horizontal and vice versa, which is why it s critical to use fixed-

height antenna poles for performing all GPS work. Conventional tripods are fine for static work,

but the operator must be extremely careful to measure and record the antenna height correctly at

each setup. A fixed-height pole needs to be checked only periodically for wear and tear, or if there

is a change in the antenna being used. Using a fixed-height antenna pole will help to eliminate the

possibility of antenna height errors in our measurements.

According to Magellan (1999), conventional survey measurements involve a relative angle and a

distance. It is this relative direction, or direction on a backsight that causes the conventional survey

vectors to be strung together between the beginning and ending points as a traverse. Closure errors

in a conventional survey traverse are typically removed by equally distributing the angular closure

error and then prorating the remaining errors based on the lengths of the traverse legs. This method

assumes that the errors occur systemically and evenly throughout the traverse, which in reality is

28

seldom the case. However, without any information other than the closure error, nothing else can

be assumed. If a series of independent traverses are tried to be adjusted using the compass rule, it is

seen that the closure errors start to increase significantly after as few as two traverses. This occurs

because the errors have been prorated instead of being dealt with where they actually occurred.

On the other hand, Magellan (1999) explains that GPS vectors are independent of any backsight

requirements and can be put together in a format wanted. Ideally, GPS vectors should be put

together in strong interlocking networks that will allow making multiple measurements to each

point. These multiple measurements will allow identifying and dealing with any vectors that

contain a significant error (blunder). If there are no significant errors, the residual errors (random

errors) will be adjusted using the Least-squares method which will provide the most accurate

adjusted positions possible.

2.8. GPS REQUIREMENTS AND LIMITATIONS

According to Roberts (2005), even though some professional surveyors have embraced GPS

survey methods into their businesses, mainly for a range of engineering and topographic detail

tasks like the cadastral surveyors, many practitioners are still reluctant to invest in the technology.

This has been due to a number of reasons such as prohibitive cost, a lapsed understanding of

geodesy, confusion about GPS surveying capabilities and best practice techniques, uncertainty over

how to best utilize existing GPS services and infrastructure, lack of time/resources to invest into

GPS surveying training, and for the cadastral surveyor uncertainty over what is acceptable practice

to satisfy current survey regulations in their particular state or territory. This last point is of

particular importance because if a professional surveyor can justify using RTK-GPS for

engineering, detail and cadastral surveying then suddenly RTK-GPS does indeed become “just

another tool” like the ubiquitous total station.

2.8.1 The Dual Height Demon

29

Traditionally the major stumbling block in using GPS for cadastral surveying has been its

shortcomings in establishing elevation. According to Magellan (1999), the basic problem is that it

is impossible to directly measure elevation difference with GPS. With GPS, we can directly

measure ellipsoidal height differences only. To directly measure elevation differences, we need to

use a surveyor’s level. Therefore, it is possible to pace very good GPS- derived elevations on our

survey points with the help of a good geode model. This dual height system has been one of the

hardest concepts for new users to grasp.

Elevation is defined as the height of a point above a gravity surface. Magellan (1999) explains that

historically they have used the concept of mean sea level to describe the zero point, or datum, for

elevation. Today in the United States they are using a surface defined by gravity values because of

difficult in describing a mean sea level from coast to coat. This gravity surface is irregular because

it varies depending on the strength of pull of gravity in an area. The surface of a potato is a good

model for a world-wide gravity surface. Under the influence of the pull of gravity, water seeks its

lowest level (sea level). Specifically water flows downhill from a lower to a higher gravity as it

seeks this level. The only way to accurately measure the difference in height above this undulating

gravity surface is to use a spirit level and differential leveling.

Magellan (1999) defines ellipsoid height as the height of a point above a reference ellipsoid. GPS

positions are referenced to the WGS 84 ellipsoids. The center of this reference ellipsoid coincides

with the center of the mass of the earth, which is also the origin point of the earth-centered earth-

fixed X, Y, Z Cartesian coordinate system. Ellipsoid height of a point can be easily determined by

determining its distance from the center of the earth and subtracting the radius of the ellipsoid from

it. Using GPS, the ellipsoid height differences between points can be very accurately determined,

but because of the absolute positioning errors inherent in the system, there is a need to reference

the differences to points of known ellipsoidal height, just as a spirit level has to be referenced to

some benchmark.

30

The fundamental problem is that these two height systems are completely separate. Magellan

(1999) and Chikhwenda (2012), agrees that we cannot directly measure heights in one system with

the tools of the other system. We can however model the undulations of the geode surface and

extrapolate the separation between this surface and the surface of the WGS 84 ellipsoid. These

differences can then be used to derive elevations from our ellipsoid heights. Currently, for instance,

in the United States they have a very good model of the undulating surface of the geode which is

referenced to WGS 84 ellipsoid surface within about a decimeter of absolutes accuracy. If they use

this model and tie their GPS measurements to points of known elevation, they can provide very

good GPS-derived relative elevations for their new survey points in many areas of the country.

There are places where the model is not sufficiently accurate to measure elevations with survey

precision, but in many places it is quite possible to achieve relative elevation measurements with

centimeter accuracy.

One of our tasks as surveyors is to find good benchmarks, to which we can reference our model,

and to find and use a sufficient number of them to accurately align the two surfaces. If we have

only one benchmark, or if our benchmarks are distributed in a line, we will not be able to properly

align the geode with the ellipsoid, and we could have unacceptable errors in our GPS-derived

elevations. These errors will increase as we get farther away from our controlling elevations. We

should have a base minimum of three well spaced control benchmarks if we want to use GPS to

derive elevations, although the recommended minimum number is four. Having four benchmarks

allows some redundancy and provides some indication of the accuracy of the control benchmarks.

2.9 ADOPTING GPS AND OTHER TECHNIQUES IN CADASTRAL SURVEYING

Seventeenth United Nations (UN) Regional Cartographic Conference for Asia and the Pacific

Bangkok, 18 -22 September 2006 Item 6 (b) of the provisional agenda looked at several

technology issues of cadastral surveying that are affected as the techniques in the technology itself

changes in the cadastral system in Malawi. One of the issues discussed was of the GPS technology

in cadastral surveying.

31

The UN (2006) report continues to clarify that the cadastral surveying sector has not been able to

match with time technologically. The field teams are using old equipment like Theodolites. There

is advanced equipment like totals station, Electronic Distance Measuring instruments (EDMs) and

even more highly developed RTK-GPS which could be used in data capture and analysis. However

the lack of resources and skilled personnel to use the modern equipment has affected the adoption

of these new technologies.

Modern education and training programs in surveying are striving to strike a balance between the

measurement science component and the broader aspects associated with land administration and

information management (Barnes et al 1994). Barnes et al (1994) suggest that the diversity of land

tenure system to be regularized and the pressure of finding more suitable cadastral systems will

change the role of the land surveyor to a more diversified land management position. The

University of KwaZulu-Natal has responded to this demand, offering a Masters in Land

Management within the Surveying program and a Master of Environment and Development in

Land Information Management. Both programs are dominated by participants with professional

survey degrees and survey Bachelor of Technology degrees. This positive situation will facilitate

the smooth technological migration or integration of GPS-based methods.

Furthermore, like most technologies, as time goes by GPS equipment is becoming cheaper.

However, newer models offer higher accuracy and more functionality and so prices stay in the

same range. A handheld unit of < 1m accuracy is currently costing about MK 630, 000.

The rapid adoption of RTK systems of GPS and other high accuracy technologies in surveying and

other applications from the year 2000 through 2010 has increased at a rate that surprised many

industry experts. The plate below shows the rate of adopting the GPS technology and other

Information Communication Technology worldwide.

32

Figure 2 Showing GPS and other Mobile Technology

adoption per 100 inhabitants (2000-2010)

33

3.0 METHODOLOGY

This chapter looks at how the study was carried out to achieve its objectives. It

details methods of data collection on cadastral survey firms using the GPS or/and Conventional

methods when conducting their cadastral survey works. Field work was carried out from

mid July2012 to end October 2012 both in Lilongwe and to obtain the necessary information

for the research.

3.1 Study Area

The project was carried out in the two main cities and regions of Malawi, which are Lilongwe

(Central Region) and Blantyre (Southern Region). These are the capital and commercial cities of

Malawi respectively. These cities virtually cover all cadastral surveyors in Malawi and many

surveys are carried out in these cities than any other city in Malawi. The capital city has both the

Surveyor General’s office at the headquarters and Regional Surveyor’s office while Blantyre has

the Regional Surveyor offices only.

3.2 Sampling Technique

The research is looking at the rate of adopting the use of the GPS technology in the cadastral

survey industry of Malawi, therefore the survey was a qualitative survey.

All the registered cadastral survey firms in the study areas were covered as the research population.

Blantyre has a total number of seven known cadastral survey firms. These are: Land Management

Consultants, Marathon Surveyors; LACOSUS; Surveys Department; Lamport-Stokes; Theka

Surveys, and Alinafe Surveys. Lilongwe has the Surveys Department and Malawi Surveys.

34

3.3 Data Collection Materials and Methods

Questionnaires were designed and disseminated to firms of cadastral surveyors and survey

department offices in all the selected regions. These questionnaires were used to source qualitative

data from the cadastral survey firms on the use of GPS and Conventional methods when

conducting their cadastral survey works. However, the focus of the data collected was on whether

these firms use the GPS in their survey works or are still using the conventional techniques.

3.4 Data Analysis

The collected data were analyzed in the way that the total number of cadastral surveyors using the

GPS were divided by the total number of the cadastral surveyors used in the study and were

multiplied by 100%. The result was the percentage number of cadastral surveyors who have

adopted the GPS. Conversely, percentage numbers of those cadastral surveyors who are still using

the conventional methods of cadastral surveying were determined by dividing the total number of

the cadastral surveyors used in the study into the total number of the cadastral surveyors who are

still using conventional methods of cadastral surveying. Then a 100% was multiplied to the results.

The results for those combining the methods were obtained in the same way as the other two.

When all the percentage calculations were done, they were also represented on charts.

35

Table 1 Methods of Data Collection and Analysis

Item

Description

Objective 1

Kind of equipment being

used for cadastral

surveying

Objective 2

Adopting the GPS in

cadastral surveying

Objective 3

Knowing the rate of

adopting the GPS

1

Data needed

Number of cadastral

surveyors using the GPS

technology

Number of cadastral

surveyors using the GPS

technology

Number of cadastral

surveyors using the

GPS technology

2

Data Location

Registered cadastral

surveying firms in

Lilongwe and Blantyre

Registered cadastral

surveying firms in

Lilongwe and Blantyre

Registered cadastral

surveying firms in

Lilongwe and

Blantyre

3

Collection of data

Questionnaires

Questionnaires

Questionnaires

4

Treatment of data

Using simple percentage

calculations and charts

Using simple percentage

calculations and charts

Using simple

percentage

calculations and

charts

5

Interpretation of data

Conclusion basing on data

collected and the

Questionnaire

Conclusion basing on

data collected and the

Questionnaire

Conclusion basing

on data collected

and the

Questionnaire

36

3.5 Validation of method and data selected

The research is about acquiring information from registered cadastral surveying firms concerning

their survey equipment use and the GPS technology as well as their awareness and experience with

the technology that they use in their line of duty. Phiri (2009) affirms that Leedy and Ormrod

(2005: 183) wrote that the researcher poses a series of questions to willing participants,

summarizes the participants’ responses with percentages, frequency counts or more sophisticated

indexes and draws inferences about a particular population from the responses of the sample.

Descriptive research solves the research problems through the interpretation of the data that have

been gathered, concludes Phiri (2009).

37

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Response rate to questionnaires

Nine Questionnaires were sent to the nine cadastral firms concerned with the study. The table

below shows that out of the nine (9) questionnaires sent, seven (7) questionnaires were responded

to, representing seventy-seven point eight (77.8 %) percent response rate.

Table 2 Response rate

Item

Description

Quantity

Percentage (%)

1 Number of respondents 7 77.8

2 Number of Non-Respondents 2 22.2

Total Questionnaires Sent

9

100

As shown by the table, there was a response rate of 77.8 percent to the questionnaires sent to the

cadastral surveying firms. This therefore, as according to Phiri (2009) who affirms Babie (1989)

and Boussabaine (1999): and Idrus and Newman (2002), is above the 50 percent recommended

response rate to questionnaires in a research.

4.2 Questionnaire Analysis

Since only seven (7) out of nine (9) cadastral survey firms responded to the questionnaires, the

following analysis was done out of the seven questionnaires.

4.2.1 Sole GPS Users

Out of the seven (7) cadastral firms, four (4) firms were found using only the GPS technology

when carrying out their survey works.

38

Therefore:

=

= 57.14%

57.14 % is taken as the percentage rate representing the adoption of GPS technology by these

cadastral firms in Malawi.

4.2.2 GPS and Conventional methods Users

Out of the seven (7) cadastral firms, only one (1) firm was found combining both the GPS and

some Conventional methods when conducting its cadastral surveys.

Thus:

=

% = 14.29 %

Hence, 14.29 % represents the percentage rate of adopting the combination of both the GPS and

Conventional methods of Cadastral surveying by this firm.

4.2.3 Sole Conventional Methods Users

Two (2) Cadastral surveying firms out of the seven (7) were found still using only the

Conventional methods of Cadastral surveying.

Therefore:

39

=

= 28.57 %

The 28.57 % represents the rate of those firms who have not adopted the GPS technology rather

still interested in the Conventional methods of Cadastral surveying.

4.2.4 The Overall Rate of Conventional Methods

The overall rate of using conventional methods of cadastral surveying was found by combining

percentage rates of those firms using both the GPS and conventional techniques and those firms

using only conventional methods of cadastral surveying.

Therefore: 28.57% + 14.29% = 42.86%

As a result, the percentage rate of those cadastral surveying firms that are still using conventional

methods is at 42.86%.

4.2.5 The Overall Rate of Adopting the GPS in Cadastral Surveying

With the results as given above, the overall rate of adopting the Global Positioning System in

Malawi was found by combining the rates of those firms using the GPS only and those that

combine the methods when conducting cadastral surveying.

Thus: 57.14 % + 14. 29 % = 71.43 %

Therefore, 71.43 % is the overall rate of adopting the use of GPS in the Cadastral surveying

industry in Malawi.

Using tables and pie charts illustrations:

40

Group of Cadastral

Surveying Firms

Adoption

Percentage (%)

1

Adopting GPS

57.14

2 Adopting GPS plus Conventional

Methods

14.29

3 Not Adopting GPS 28.57

Total Percentage of Adopting GPS 71.43

Total Percentage of Conventional Method use 42.86

41

Figure 3 Showing a Pie chart of the Rate of Adopting

GPS

57%

14%

29%

Rate of Adopting GPS

GPS GPS & Conventional Conventional

42

Figure 4 Showing a Pie chart of the Overall Rate of

Adopting GPS

4.3 Implication and Interpretation of the Results

As it has been reviewed in the literature, the rate of adopting the GPS technology in surveying by

the entire world is at 78.0%, for developed countries is at 114.2%, and for developing countries

like Malawi is at 70.1%. Therefore, based on the findings by this study (71.43%) and as compared

to the findings of ITU World Telecommunication and as suggested by Barnes et al (1994), the rate

of adopting the GPS technology is high.

62%

38%

Overall Rate of Adopting GPS

Estimated Total Percentage of Adopting GPS

Estimated Total Percentage of Conventional Method use

43

The study found that the adoption of GPS techniques in cadastral surveying, which encompasses a

suite of high-level technologies like the RTK systems and the DGPS, can improve the efficiency of

cadastral surveying works.

However, in the course of carrying out this study, it was found that individual cadastral surveyors

have a preference to the old methods of surveying as compared to the GPS. Most surveyors are old

and said the GPS technology was complex to understand and operate, despite all its advantages.

Additionally, the fact that the GPS technology is expensive, no individual Malawian surveyor can

afford to purchase it. Thus only cadastral firms own the GPS in Malawi. This is a huge setback on

the nation positioned to move forward with technology.

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5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Conclusions

From the study it can be concluded that the adoption rate of the GPS technology in cadastral

surveying industry in Malawi is high. Currently, most cadastral surveying firms are found using

the GPS technology despite it being very expensive and complicated to understand to most of the

surveyors. Some of these surveying firms combine the old/conventional methods and the GPS

techniques, while some are still using and preferring the conventional techniques of cadastral

surveying. However, most of these cadastral surveyors borrow the available few GPS equipment

from a small number of wealthy cadastral surveying firms. Thus, the GPS equipment is owned by

few cadastral surveying firms and throughout this study, there were only four GPS equipment

known to be readily available for use in the whole Malawi.

Conversely, scholarship money for overseas study in the surveying discipline has dried up in recent

years and institutions like the NRC and the Polytechnic in the University of Malawi have not been

able to fill this gap. The lack of educational facilities in the field of surveying is becoming

apparent in the entire Southern African region. There is perhaps only one or two vibrant

university programs in the region, as according to Barnes (2000), both are in South Africa.

Resources are needed to expand the ranks of professionals in land administration through study at

programs available in the region.

Since the rapid rate at which technology advancement is occurring has outpaced the ability of

many individuals and organizations to react quickly and properly adjust the determined rate of

adoption to the GPS technology will aid Malawian cadastral surveyors to assess how far the

adjustment or change they will have to make. They will be able to collect data in the field and

download it into the computer to come up with plans and even update maps using modern software

like Surpac, COPAN or ArcView. Generally, many GPS units have enough memory capacity to

45

store maps so that users can pinpoint their map location and use it to plot routes to their next

destination.

Based on this research’s findings, the adoption rate of GPS technology in cadastral surveys is high

and accepted therefore, there should be fast and accurate information processed within a very short

period of time. Checking of information should be done within the system before the results are

produced.

The project has also established a platform that will be used for further research on the

improvement and updating of the upcoming technologies in Malawi’s cadastral surveying industry.

5.2. Recommendations

GPS and land surveying is everywhere we look at in our lives, and those who work exhaustively

for the evolution of such tools and what they can do for us do not show signs of slowing down.

Thanks to this art of land surveying, the world's population will always be aware of their stand and

what time it is, enabling societies and civilization as a whole to find better ways to use the land and

resources the earth has provided us with.

Although, the rate of adopting the GPS technology in Malawi’s cadastral surveying industry is

found to be high through this study, there is more to be done in order to improve and maintain the

pace with other cadastral surveyors worldwide.

It is therefore recommended that:-

The cadastral surveying firms in Malawi should accept the GPS technology as an

effective and most accurate tool of surveying so far.

The Malawi government should revise and reform the Land Survey Act so that it includes

surveying equipment like the GPS and other forthcoming high technologies and software

of surveying as the surveying industry itself is vastly developing.

46

The cadastral surveying firms and the Malawi government should work jointly in

promoting and training personnel on the use of the GPS in cadastral surveys.

The government of Malawi should facilitate means of finding market from where to

acquire the cheapest GPS equipment for its citizens since the GPS technology is very

expensive.

Professional cadastral surveyors and the Malawi government through the NRC and its

constituent college of the University of Malawi, the Polytechnic, should work together in

acquiring GPS equipment and offer training to land surveying undergraduates on how to

use the equipment.

Malawi should also consider educational opportunities through the Internet.

5.3. Study Limitations

This survey was targeting cadastral surveying firms in Malawi. Out of nine (9) Cadastral surveying

firms that were given an opportunity to respond to a questionnaire form, only seven (7) responded

and this represented 77.8 percent, which was a major limitation to the effective compilation of the

research.

There was failure on the part of the study’s fund financier to provide the needed funds on time;

hence time became a limiting factor in the course of carrying out data collection.

Moreover, owing to the former reason given about funds being late, the author was under pressure

in the early stages of the research to constantly try to contact the concerned cadastral firms of

which most of them needed to be relentlessly reminded about the questionnaire form.

47

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APPENDICES

Questionnaire

INTRODUCTION

Bachelor of Science in Land Surveying year 5 (BLS5) student, Sean-clair Job Chihana is

currently collecting and analyzing survey data as part of his final year project assessment. This

questionnaire seeks to Investigate the Rate of Adopting the Use of Global Positioning System

(GPS) Technology in Cadastral Surveying in Malawi. Your participation will greatly be

appreciated. Write, tick and give reasons wherever appropriate.

1. Your name

2. What is your gender?

a) Male

b) Female

3. Name and address of your cadastral surveying firm.

51

4. What kind of equipment do you use for your survey work?

5. Do you use GPS?

1. Yes

2. No

6a. If you are using a GPS, do you;

1. Own it? Or

2. Borrow?

b. How often do you use the GPS? For example, always or once a month in a survey(s).

7a. Is it easy for you to access and use the GPS technology in your cadastral surveys?

1. Yes

2. No

b. Give reason(s) to your answer above (in 7a).

8a. Which equipment do you prefer to use?

1. GPS

2. Other ( Conventional)

b. Why do you prefer the equipment you have chosen above (in 8a)?

52

9a. Do you combine the GPS with other (Conventional) equipment? For example, GPS with a

measuring tape, etc.

1. Yes

2. No

b. If you combine GPS with other equipment, list them down.

10. Any other relevant information about the GPS or other equipment you use in your cadastral

survey works?

53

THANK YOU