Invasive Alien Species

A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 1

ASEAN SEAN CCENTREENTREBBIODIVERSITYIODIVERSITYFO

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www.aseanbiodiversity.org

Conserve Biodiversity, Save Humanity!

ASEAN Region’s Rich BiodiversityDespite occupying only three percent of the earth’s surface, the ASEAN region hosts 20 percent of all known species that live deep in the region’s mountains, jungles, rivers, lakes and seas. The region includes three mega-diverse states (Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines); several bio-geographical units (e.g., Malesia, Wallacea, Sundaland, Indo-Burma and the Central Indo-Pacific); and numerous centers of concentration of restricted-range bird, plant and insect species. ASEAN has one-third, translating to 284,000 square kilometers, of all coral reefs, which are among the most diverse in the world. Common land and water borders have allowed the ASEAN states to share many species that are biologically diverse from the rest of the world. All these make the ASEAN region significant to global diversity.

The ThreatThe region’s rich biodiversity is heavily under threat. Out of 64,800 known species, two percent or 1,312 are endangered. Seven of the world’s 34 recognized biodiversity hotspots are in the ASEAN region. If the rate of deforestation continues, the region will lose up to three-fourths of its forests, and up to 42 percent of its biodiversity by 2100. Some 80 percent of coral reefs are at risk due to destructive fishing practices and coral bleaching.

Forest conversion, forest fires, shifting cultivation, large-scale mining, wildlife hunting and trading, population growth and poverty, climate change, and lack of conservation resources greatly contribute to biodiversity loss. Biodiversity loss could trigger enormous effects on food security, health, shelter,

medicine, and aesthetic and other life-sustaining resources. Without a concerted effort to protect and conserve biodiver-sity, the ASEAN region’s 567 million people and the entire human race would be in danger.

ASEAN’s Response: ASEAN Centre for BiodiversityAs an intergovernmental regional organization, the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB) facilitates cooperation and co-ordination among the members states of ASEAN, and with relevant national governments, regional and international organizations, on the conservation and sustainable use of bio-logical diversity guided by fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of such biodiversity in the ASEAN region. ACB aims to contribute to the reduction of the current rate of loss of biological diversity by enhancing regional cooperation, capacitating stakeholders, promoting awareness for biodiver-sity conservation, and maintaining the regional biodiversity database. To contribute to the achievement of socially respon-sible access, equitable sharing, use and conservation of natural ecosystems and the biodiversity these contain, ACB builds stra-tegic networks and partnerships geared to mobilize resources towards optimally augmenting effective programmes on biodi-versity conservation.

Contact UsACB Headquarters

3F ERDB Bldg., Forestry CampusCollege, Laguna 4031,Philippines

Tel/fax: +6349 536-2865, +6349 536-1044 Website: www.aseanbiodiversity.org

General Inquiry: [email protected]


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MessageTowards a Regional Management Frameworkfor Invasive Alien Species in Southeast Asia....................................................................................5

Global Conservation News ..................................................................................................................................6

Special ReportsStatus of Global Alien Invasive SpeciesAn Overview .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................12Developing A National Framework for Invasive Alien Species ...............................................................................................................................................................................................17Cambodia’s Report on Invasive Alien Species ................................................................21National Regulations on Invasive SpeciesManagement in the Philippines.............................................................................................................................................................25Managing Invasive Alien Species and ProtectingIndigenous Species in Thailand ............................................................................................................................................................29Invasive Alien Species in Vietnam:Their Impacts and Management ..........................................................................................................................................................30Are There Benefi ts from IAS?Janitor Fish ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................36One of the World’s Worst Invaders:Mimosa pigra ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................39

4 J A N U A R Y - A P R I L 2 0 0 9 w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g


When talking about invasive alien species, what comes to mind is how a few years ago, the janitor fi sh caused alarm in Laguna Lake in the Philip-

pines. It started as a pet for cleaning up aquariums. When the fi sh was released into the Laguna waters, its population rap-idly grew and eventually disrupted the ecosystem. Fishermen complained about the pet that turned into a pest. The janitor fi sh not only gobbled up the algae in the Lake and deprived other fi sh with food, it also destroyed fi shing nets with their sharp fi ns.

Another story is that of the golden apple snail that wrought havoc in Viet Nam’s rice fi elds. The golden snail was intro-duced in Viet Nam in 1988 to encourage people to culture it in their gardens as a high protein duck and fi sh food. Two snail farms were established then as a joint venture between Viet-namese and Taiwanese companies for large-scale culture and export to Taiwan. Some snails escaped and spread to nearby ponds, trench-es and rice fi elds, where they quickly reached pest status. The government eventually banned snail farming and spent vast sums of money on con-trol programs and public awareness campaigns.

These are but two examples of how Southeast Asia has wit-nessed how the introduction of certain species into ecosystems turned into virtual nightmares. We have seen how some spe-cies, when left uncontrolled, affect the environment and the livelihood of people.

The management of invasive alien species is truly a crucial step for ASEAN Member States. As an initial step, the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity collaborated with Viet Nam’s Minis-try of Natural Resources and Environment for the conduct of a workshop to enhance the capability of the ASEAN Mem-ber States to protect the environment against invasive alien species. Among the capacity needs that have to be developed and /or addressed include capacity for the prevention of entry and control of invasive alien species; strengthening national policies, laws and regulations on invasive alien species man-agement; promoting business opportunities to utilize invasive alien species; public awareness; and inclusion of concerns on invasive alien species in regional trade agreements. – Rodrigo U. Fuentes

Invasive Alien Species (IAS) are now recognized as one of the greatest threats to the ecological and economic well be-ing of the planet, causing enormous damage to biodiver-

sity and the valuable natural agricultural systems upon which we depend. Direct and indirect health effects are becoming increasingly serious and the damage to nature is irreversible. These impacts have been recognized in the Convention on Bi-ological Diversity, which calls for the control and monitoring of alien species that threaten ecosystems, habitats and species. More signifi cantly, the Convention on Biological Diversity has declared “Biodiversity and Invasive Alien Species” as the theme of the 2009 International Day for Biological Diversity.

Invasive alien species are invading and threatening habi-tats, species and their production capacity. These species have serious negative impacts on ecosystem services including a stable hydrology for water supply and containment of fl oods;

stable soils, pol-lination and con-tainment of crop diseases for food crop production. Efforts to prevent and manage the introduction and establishment of invasive alien spe-

cies in each country are not effective as activities are spread out in various government agencies and research institutes and sometimes are not coordinated.

In Viet Nam, invasive alien species emerged as an issue in the mid 1990s and has become a major threat not only to biodi-versity but also to sustainable development and human health. The Viet Nam government had invested billions of dollars to control the spread of invasive alien species such as the golden snail, Mimosa pigra, and Brontispa longissima. Still exotic spe-cies continue to be introduced to Viet Nam for agriculture and aquaculture development, commerce and other purposes such as entertainment and decoration.

International collaboration plays an important role in managing the risks of invasive species. Region-wide shar-ing of early warnings about potential invaders, their rapid detection and identification as well as the sharing of bio-logical information, risk assessments, and monitoring and control techniques are invaluable tools to help prevent the spread and establishment of potential invasive species. – Phung Van Vui

Towards a Regional Management Framework for Invasive Alien Species in Southeast Asia

Excerpts from messages delivered by Executive Director Rodrigo U. Fuentes, ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity, and General Director Phung Van Vui, Biodiversity Conservation Agency, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment during the ASEAN

Workshop on Invasive Alien Species Management held on 17-21 December 2008 in Hanoi, Viet Nam

“The Convention on Biological Diversity has declared ‘Biodiversity and Invasive Alien Species’ as the theme for the 2009 International Day for Biological Diversity.”


GLOBAL CONSERVATION NEWS

Project to study carbon storage in Malaysian forestsMarch 22 – The Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP) of Universiti Putra Malaysia joined hands with the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia (MOSTI) in a program called “Brain Gain Malaysia”. The program aims to assess future carbon storage in Malaysian forests with the project “Control of Diversity and the Carbon Balance of Tropical Forest”. INTROP’s expertise is in the area of sustainable forest management, exploration of carbon and the dynamics of tropical forest biodiversity, as well as global climate change. – The Star Online

Law on Biodiversity to take effect in July March 20 – The Law on Biodiversity of Viet Nam will take effect on 01 July 2009, six months after its ratifi cation by the National Assembly. The Law stresses that biodiversity preservation is a decisive factor in sustainable economic development and an urgent need for Viet Nam and the whole world. Viet Nam has over 2 million hectares of forest and once the Law on Biodiversity takes effect, the country will need up to VND600 billion ($35.3 million) a year to preserve the area. – VietnamNet

Mekong Delta: more fl ood and drought March 19 – A forecast by the Climate Change Research Institute in Viet Nam shows that in 2030, drought in the Mekong Delta will be very intense because of rainfall reduction. In 2030, the rainfall from January to July will decrease by around 20 per cent compared to 1980. In addition to the drought, climate change will cause a one-meter rise in sea level, resulting in encroachment of seawater into most of the rivers in the delta. Predicted droughts, fl ooding, sea level rise and increased storms will affect economic development and cause unemployment, hunger and poverty, disease, pollution, and the decrease of biodiversity. The Climate Change Research Institute is currently developing a strategy to cope with climate change and to train local people to adapt to the situation. – VietnamNet

Critically endangered vulture saved from poisoningMarch 19 – Seven critically-endangered white-rumped vultures were found dead in Cambodia after feeding on the corpse of a poisoned buffalo. The only two survivors, an adult and a juvenile, were sick. The pair was sent to a veterinary clinic in Phnom Penh to be cared for by the Wildlife Conservation Society and the Angkor Centre for Conservation of Biodiversity. The white-rumped vulture experienced declines in the 1990s largely due to the anti-infl ammatory cattle drug diclofenac. The drug proved effective in cattle but caused

Gibbons in Bach Ma National Park

New rare orangutanfound in Borneo April 12 – A formerly unknown population of orangutans numbering around 1,000-2,000 has been found on the island of Borneo by conservation researchers who were tipped off by locals. The primates were found in a rug-ged, largely inaccessible moun-tainous region. More than 200 nests were found crammed into just a few kilometers and spotted three wild orangutans in the canopy. Researchers say that this could be a kind of orangutan refugee camp - with several groups moving into the same area following widespread forest fi res. Scientists are now working with local groups to try to protect the area. – BBC News

Endangered Philippine orchids to fi nd ‘home’ in the wild againApril 9 – A project led by Dr. Nestor Altoveros of the University of the Philippines-Los Baños has embarked on the collection and re-introduction of indigenous orchids in selected protected areas in the Philippines. The Philippines is home to more than 800 species of orchids, although unabated collection has resulted in the signifi cant loss of natural orchids growing in the wild. In 2005, some 143 orchid species in the Philippines have been listed as endangered by the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna. The team has collected 200 orchid geno-types, representing 22 genera, from nine provinces. There are now 41 orchid species with 111 accessions being reared in vitro. Of these, 73 accessions are in the rooting stage, the last stage before the plants are potted out into community pots. Cultures have been trans-ferred to partner organizations to facilitate the re-introduction of the orchids in protected areas. - Innovations Report

Whale sharks threatened by interbreeding April 8 – A new study on the whale shark, the world’s largest living fi sh, shows that it is threatened by interbreed-ing. Comparing the DNA of 68 individual whale sharks from eleven locations across the globe, geneticists found that the whale sharks had little genetic variation between the populations. This also means that whale sharks move across great distances, and may fi nd themselves in areas where they are not legally protected. The massive plankton-eating whale shark is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN Red List, but some countries still allow it to be hunted. - mongaybay.com

Marine protected areas too small April 7 – According to the Whale and Dolphin Conser-vation Society (WDCS), 40 percent of the 300 marine protected areas worldwide are too small to offer any protec-tion to whales and dolphins. A worldwide effort must be made urgently to identify and defi ne whale and dolphin critical habitats and hot spots. Whales migrate thousands of miles annually, and dolphins are wide-ranging and will fol-low food sources. The WCDS adds that probably less than 1 percent of the world’s marine mammal critical habitat has been identifi ed much less pro-tected. Strategies for address-ing gaps in marine protected areas must be implemented. – mongabay.com

Humpback whale beaching in Alaska. Photo by Rhett A. Butler



renal failure and mortality to any vulture that fed on the cow corpses that still retained the drug. Populations of white-rumped vultures dropped to a staggering 95 percent and have yet to recover. Cambodia is one of the last strongholds for the species. – mongabay.com

2008 a plan to have 1,000 tigers roaming in the wild by 2020 through increased protection of jungle corridors where poachers prey on the big cats. – The Seattle Times

Ifugao rice terraces are GMO-free March 17 – The Ifugao province in the Philippines has declared itself free from genetically modifi ed organisms (GMO). The provincial government worked with conservation organizations to encourage organic farming since GMO rice threatens the way of life of the Ifugaos. Hybrid varieties of rice are harvested faster than the local Tinawon variety. Usually, the rice cycle from planting to harvest season takes six to seven months. Use of GMO would break the cycle and the traditional activities of indigenous groups. – Philippine Daily Inquirer

announced that it would allow 8 percent of its 25 million hectares of peatlands, which harbor huge carbon stocks, to be used for palm oil. – Reuters

Hydroelectric dam threatens livelihoods and endangered species March 13 - A government plan to build a hydroelectric dam a few meters above the Mekong River fl owing through Siphandone in southern Laos would ruin a magnet for tourists and an important site for conservation. The dam would have a major impact on endangered species such as Irrawaddy dolphins and giant catfi sh, and reduce water fl ow to the Khone Falls, Asia’s largest waterfall. In 2006, the Lao PDR signed an agreement with Mega First Corporation Malaysia to do a feasibility study to build a 240MW dam across Mekong’s Hou Sahong channel, bordering Cambodia. A Project Development Agreement was signed in 2008, but construction has yet to start. Other organizations also note that the dam would affect breeding cycles and migration of 300 species of fi sh, thus reducing fi sh catch and affecting the livelihoods of thousands of fi sherfolk. – guardian.co.uk

New forests to help ease povertyMarch 12 – Viet Nam has been striving to spread its forests to cover 43 percent of the country by 2010, which will be vital in eradicating hunger and reducing poverty among its citizens. Currently, Viet Nam has 12.6 million hectares of forest (10.3 hectares of natural forests and 2.3 million hectares of plantations), and 85 percent of forest preservation areas are located in poverty-stricken regions. The new forests of 7 million hectares will also help to boost economic development, as well as reduce the impact of climate change. – BERNAMA

Tigers found in logged forests of Malaysia March 18 – Wild tigers caught on camera in Malaysia show that the endangered carnivores can thrive in partially logged forests. The rare study indicated that better wildlife protection in those areas, long thought to be less valuable in conservation efforts, can help Malaysia meet its aim of doubling its tiger population in 12 years. Offi cials estimate Malaysia’s wild tiger population has decreased from 3,000 to 500 due to illegal hunting, human encroachment and the destruction of the tigers’ natural jungle habitat. The Government announced in

Veterinarians examine a white-rumped vulture. (Allan Michaud)

Rare white-rumped vulture(Allan Michaud)

Indonesia must boost palm yields to save forestsMarch 16 – Indonesia should aim for higher yields from existing palm oil plantations. Indonesia is the world’s top palm oil producer, but plantations yield only about 2 tons per hectare, compared to 6 to 7 tons in Malaysia. Indonesia has 7.1 million hectares of palm oil estates, but is hoping to expand. Many conservation organizations state that there is no need to encroach on forests and peatlands to get increased economic benefi ts from palm oil. The government recently

Farmer in Banaue (Inquirer.net/Izah Morales)

Destroyed rainforest in Kalimantan province, Indonesia. (Reuters/Hardi Baktiantoro)

Lao fi sherman on the Mekong River. (Suthep Kritsanavarin/ONASIA)

Sea levels rising twice as fast as predictedMarch 11 – Sea levels are predicted to rise twice as fast compared to United Nations forecasts made only two years ago. Rising sea levels are caused by the thermal expansion of the ocean – where water increases in volume as it warms. Melting into the sea of land-based ice is causing the rise in sea levels. The accelerated melting of the vast, land-based ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica caused by rapidly rising temperatures is now speeding up the increase of sea levels. The Greenland ice sheet, in particular, is not simply melting but melting “dynamically” and collapsing in parts as melt water seeps down through crevices and speeds up its disintegration. These melting ice sheets are

Floods in Bangladesh last year, where coastal areas are already affected. (AFP/Getty)



likely to push up sea levels by a meter or more by 2100, swamping coastal cities and obliterating the living space of 600 million people who live in deltas, low-lying areas and small island states. – The Independent

of these mysterious animals. WWF is currently planning on resettling a portion of the rhino population in another suitable region in Java to help their chances of long-term survival. – mongabay.com

Indonesia applies for REDD partnership March 4 – Indonesia has applied to join the World Bank’s Forest Carbon Partnership Facility, becoming the largest developing country to apply to the Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD) mechanism. REDD could eventually send billions of dollars to tropical nations for forest conservation and sustainable development activities. Indonesia already has more than 20 REDD projects, most of which are in Kalimantan, Papua, and Sumatra. – mongabay.com

Unique reforestation planMarch 4 – Garut district in West Java has ordered couples planning to get married to provide 10 trees to local authorities for a reforestation program. Anyone fi ling for divorce would also have to provide at least one tree. The new regulation will help support a national reforestation program. – Reuters

Sumatran tiger faces extinction March 3 – The Sumatran tiger is in danger of becoming the fi rst major mammal to become extinct in the 21st century, as villagers fi ght a deadly war with the ferocious predator. At least four tigers and nine people have been killed this year as the shrinking of Sumatra’s already depleted forests brings an increase in attacks on farmers, hunters and illegal loggers. The Sumatran tiger is critically endangered with less than 400 Sumatran tigers left in the wild, and is the most vulnerable of the six surviving

is the only mammal known to exist on the island. According to Lawrence Heaney, curator of mammals at Chicago’s Field Museum, more new species will likely be found due to the unusual geology of the region. The museum co-led the 2006 expedition with the Philippine government. – National Geographic News

tiger subspecies. Tigers usually have little taste for human fl esh, and their attacks on humans suggest how hungry and desperate they are becoming, as economic exploitation of their habitat confi nes them to ever smaller and more impoverished patches of jungle. – The Times

Hairy-tailed rat is new speciesFebruary 18 – The Hamiguitan hairy-tailed rat is the newest member of the mammalian family. The yellow-brown rodent was discovered in 2006 in pygmy forests of Mount Hamiguitan on the Island of Mindanao, the Philippines, but was only recently identifi ed as a new species. The mammal was so distinctive that DNA testing was not needed to determine it as a new species. The rat, which scurries through a tiny habitat of less than 3.9 square miles (10 square kilometers),

Smallest whale shark discovered in the Philippines March 9 – The discovery of a baby whale shark could help protect these rare giants by shedding light on where whale sharks are born. Whale sharks feed mainly on plankton and can grow to at least 40 feet long. One key to safeguarding whale sharks, listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, is fi nding their birthing grounds. The baby whale shark’s discovery in Donsol, Sorsogon, Philippines suggests that the Donsol area may be such a place. – National Geographic News

Rarest rhino caught on fi lm March 6 – The World Wild Fund for Nature (WWF) has caught the world’s rarest rhino on fi lm. There are less than 60 Javan rhinos estimated to exist in the wild. One of the world’s most imperiled species, the rhinos are very shy and are rarely seen. Using 34 spy cameras with infrared triggers that take video every time they sense movement, the WWF team was able to get some footage

A whale shark “interaction offi cer” cradles a baby whale shark

Female Sumatran tiger (Irwin Fedriansyah/AP)

Hamiguitan rat

Forests disappear at rapid rateFebruary 18 – The Central Highland province of Dak Nong in Viet Nam is rapidly losing large tracts of tropical forests, with rangers struggling to cope with the increasing number of illegal loggers. Deforestation intensifi ed during 2008, with 440 hectares lost – an increase of 55 percent – according to the province’s Department of Forestry. The most vulnerable areas are located on borders with other provinces where offi cials’ responsibilities are not clearly defi ned and forests are inhabited by migrant slash-and-burn farmers. Even closely-guarded national parks and conservation areas like Nam Cat Tien, Ta Dung, and Nam Nung are beginning to be violated. Conservation work is complicated by the vast areas, diffi cult terrain, and massive migration by people in search of arable land. – VNS

Honeybees under attack on all fronts February 16 – The world’s honeybees are dying off in horrifying numbers, and there is no single cause for their

An agricultural worker at the Nam Nung Nature Reserve in Dak Nong, Viet Nam(VNA/VNS/Ngo Lich)



demise. Infections, lack of food, pesticides and breeding are having a synergistic effect, pushing bee survival to a lethal tipping point. A third of the world’s food supply relies on bees for pollination. There is little information on how the causes work together, but the situation should become clearer in the next few years as the United States government, the European Union and others are pouring money into bee research. – NewScientist

Agricultural expansion since 1980 came at expense of forestsFebruary 15 – More than half of cropland expansion between 1980 and 2000 occurred at the expense of natural forests, while another 30 percent occurred in disturbed forests, reported Holly Gibbs, at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) in Chicago. Gibbs analyzed more than 600 satellite images from the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization and other organizations. Forests were the primary source for new croplands as they expanded across the tropics during the 1980s and 1990s. Cropland expansion for fuel, feed or food has undoubtedly led to more deforestation, and evidence is mounting that this trend will continue. This is a major concern for the global environment, particularly as biofuels are being promoted to help reduce climate change, despite their potential to transform rainforests and savannas into expanding biofuel croplands. – mongabay.com

Crop biodiversity decreases fertilizer damage February 13 – In the “Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment” e-View paper, ecologists show that when the biodiversity of crops is high, less dissolved nitrogen can be found exiting the surrounding watersheds. Nitrogen from agricultural fertilizers leaches through soils to groundwater and runs off into rivers and lakes, increasing aquatic dissolved nitrate. Too much nitrate in the water can lead to prolifi c growth of aquatic algae, which can use up most of a water body’s oxygen when they die and are decomposed, creating “dead zones” that cannot support life. Diverse farms tend to have smaller fi elds with more edges, thus there is a greater buffering effect on nitrogen runoff by surrounding grasslands or woodlands. – ScienceDaily

Tracking the Cambodian tigerFebruary 13 – A German wire-haired pointer trained to sniff for tiger droppings will help conservationists determine if tigers still roam one of Cambodia’s largest nature reserves. The dog will begin scouring the undergrowth and sniffi ng for tiger scent on trees at the 3,000-square kilometer Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area in northeastern Cambodia, where a paw print was last spotted in 2007. Tracking the tigers is part of a 10-year initiative by the Wildlife Conservation Society and Panthera called “Tigers Forever”. It aims to increase the numbers of tigers by 50 percent in Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, the Russian Far East and Thailand through several measures that include better monitoring, assessments of threats and efforts to minimize the dangers facing the big cats. – Associated Press

Dolphins stranded at Philippine bayFebruary 11 - Dozens of Philippine fi shing boats tried to stop hundreds of disoriented dolphins from beaching themselves in Bataan, near the mouth of Manila Bay. Many of the dolphins were found in shallow water and some had come ashore. Three dolphins died, but the rest eventually went back into deeper waters after several hours. – Philippine Star

Jakarta ‘most at risk’ of climate changeJanuary 29 – The Economy and Environment Program for Southeast Asia (EEPSEA) ranked Central, North and West Jakarta at the top of a list of administrative regions prone to climate change. The report reveals that Jakarta is vulnerable to all types of climate-change related disasters except for tropical storms. EEPSEA assessed Jakarta’s history of exposure to fi ve types of natural disaster — fl oods, landslides, drought, sea-level change and tropical storms — from 1980 to 2000, along with those of 530 other areas in Southeast Asia. The results were drawn up by considering exposure to disasters and ability to adapt to such threats, and comparing those fi ndings with the vulnerability assessment framework of the United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Other vulnerable areas in Indonesia include West Sumatra and South Sumatra. The study also reveals that all regions in the Philippines, Viet Nam’s Mekong River Delta, Cambodia, North and East Laos and Bangkok are vulnerable. – The Jakarta Post

UN urges release of billions for world food crisisJanuary 27 – The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) urged donors at an international meeting on food security to quickly release $22 billion in development aid pledged at a 2008 food crisis summit. The

Honeybee populations are now in crisis (Nature Picture Library/Rex)

Forest exploitation puts endangered rhinos at riskFebruary 11 – The residents of two villages near Cat Tien National Park in the Central Highlands province of Lam Dong have affected the lives and only known habitat of a group of endangered one-horned rhinos. Illegal logging and other activities by locals were affecting the food supply of the rhinos. The residents have yet to be relocated, although in 2003, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development approved a project to move local residents out of the National Park’s core. Illegal logging has destroyed rhino habitats and pushed them into very inhospitable eco-regions where there is a lack of food and natural salt licks, which are crucial to the rhino’s survival. If efforts are not made to set aside protected areas within Cat Tien where the rhinos can live undisturbed, then the animals may become extinct. The one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) is one of the world’s most endangered large mammals. – VNS


FAO warned that the global economic crisis must not cause countries to neglect the nearly billion people in the world that do not get enough food to eat. The World Food Program identifi ed four effects the global fi nancial meltdown is already having on the hunger crisis: remittances to poor countries are down; nations that depend on exports of farm goods are suffering because of the economic slowdown in buyer countries; investment in agricultural infrastructure is declining; and the credit crunch is particularly painful for small-scale farmers who need to borrow money for seeds and other supplies. – Associated Press

Asian cities prepare for climate change January 27 – Asian cities will form a network to prevent disasters and prepare for the impacts of climate change with initial backing of around $50 million from the Rockefeller Foundation. The network, which will start with six cities in India and Viet Nam, aims to help poor and vulnerable residents become more resilient to extreme weather and rising seas. It will receive some 70 percent of the $70 million the philanthropic foundation is committing to its fi ve-year program on climate change that includes agriculture projects in Africa

and policy initiatives in the United States. – Reuters AlertNet

create “dead zones” in the ocean that would be devoid of fi sh and seafood and endure for up to 2,000 years. The authors say that deep cuts in the world’s carbon emissions are needed to break a trend capable of wrecking the marine ecosystem and depriving future generations of the harvest of the seas. At the heart of the model are two well-used scenarios that use atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide as an indicator of temperature rise. Marine “dead zones” already exist today, in shallow areas next to the coast, where runoff from agricultural fertilizer causes an explosion in oxygen-gobbling algae. The paper warns that wide oxygen depletion of the ocean, though, poses a far greater threat, touching at the heart of biodiversity. – AFP

enforcement is critical but insuffi cient alone, and also highlights that rising costs of agricultural commodities can be detrimental to tropical forests. Preserving forests in Bukit Barisan Selatan over the long run will require a strategy that reduces the incentives for coffee cultivation. – mongabay.com

Ecologists warn the planet is running short of waterJanuary 22 – The Pacifi c Institute in California warned that a swelling global population, changing diets and mankind’s expanding “water footprint” could be bringing an end to the era of cheap water. Agriculture, industry and other demands use about half of the world’s renewable and accessible fresh water. But even at those levels, billions of people live without the most basic water services. United Nations calculations suggest that more than one third of the world’s population is suffering from water shortages: by 2020 water use is expected to increase by 40 percent, and by 2025, two out of three people could be living under conditions of “water stress”. – Times Online

Wildlife trade creating “empty forest syndrome” across the globeJanuary 22 – In a talk at a Smithsonian Symposium on tropical forests, the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) emphasized that for many endangered species, it is not the lack of suitable habitat that has imperiled them, but hunting. In certain areas, pristine forests stand empty and quiet, drained by hunting for bush meat, traditional medicine, the pet trade, and trophies. Hunting in the last few decades has increased exponentially and most of the species targeted by hunters are not able to recover fast enough to sustain the levels


People wade through a fl ooded road in India. (Reuters)

Invasive alien species mapped in the EUJanuary 27 – The fi rst map of the level of alien plant invasions in the European Union has been published in the Wiley-Blackwell journal, Diversity and Distributions. A team of plant ecologists investigated the species composition of vegetation in more than 50,000 sites in northwestern, southern and central Europe. In each of these sites, they quantifi ed the proportion of alien to native plant species. The team also found that the highest risk of alien plant invasions was in agricultural and urban ecosystems. Low levels of invasion were noted in natural and semi-natural grasslands and most woodlands, and the lowest levels in the Mediterranean evergreen vegetation, heathlands and peatlands. This pattern was quite consistent among European regions with contrasting climates, biogeography, history and socio-economic background. – ScienceDaily

Global warming could unleash ocean ‘dead zones’ January 26 – In a study published by the journal Nature Geoscience, scientists in Denmark built a computer model to simulate climate change over the next 100,000 years. The study showed that global warming may

Giant Knotweed, originally from the Far East Sakhalin Island, threatens the natural habitats in Europe. (Milan Chytr)

Prices of agricultural products affect deforestation January 22 – The Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology and the Wildlife Conservation Society’s Indonesia Program assessed the effectiveness of conservation in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park in Indonesia over a 34-year period using satellite imagery, ecological data, interviews, and GIS modeling. The study found that law enforcement effectively “reduced deforestation to nil” in areas where it was undertaken. In areas where enforcement activities were lax or non-existent, forest areas were rapidly replaced by coffee plantations, the expansion of which was closely correlated with coffee prices. This indicates that law

Deforestation in Sumatra. (David Gaveau)


at which they are hunted. Primates are very vulnerable to overhunting due to a slow breeding process, as are other species like elephants and tapirs. Animals that live in groups, like birds and primates, are also vulnerable since one population can be wiped out by a single hunter. The implications of all this for loss of ecosystem function are still not fully understood, although many studies show that tropical forests depleted of large vertebrates experience reduced seed dispersal, altered patterns of tree recruitment and shifts in the relative abundance of species. – mongabay.com

Flying eye maps rain forest’s health January 22 – Greg Asner, an ecologist at the Carnegie Institution in Washington DC, is developing an imaging device to assess the plant diversity within a rainforest without setting foot there. It will also be used to measure deforestation and the damage done by logging. Asner uses a laser scanner linked to a spectrometer on board an

aircraft to fi re visible light towards the ground and analyze the wavelengths that are refl ected from the leaves. This generates a three-dimensional map of the chemical composition of the trees, from the canopy to the forest fl oor, and hence the biodiversity of the forest. – NewScientist

New species hotspot in remote Cambodian MekongJanuary 15 – A series of surveys jointly conducted by WWF Cambodia, the Fisheries Administration (FiA) and the Forestry Administration (FA) of the Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) in 2006 and 2007 has resulted in the discovery of 24 species, including the Cantor’s Giant softshell turtle. The study area is home to a near-pristine region of tall riverine forests, waterways and island archipelagos, and is described by scientists as including one of the last suitable freshwater habitats for the critically endangered Irrawaddy Dolphin. This region used to be one of the last strongholds of the Khmer Rouge and was off-limits to local and foreign agencies until as late as 1998. WWF Cambodia has sought to get the “Central Section” designated as a special management site, ensuring that the region’s plant and animal life are afforded adequate protection and integrated into the government’s national biodiversity strategy. – WWF

known ecosystem commodity is carbon. The global carbon market - exchanges of mandatory or voluntary greenhouse gas reductions - rose 84 percent in value last year, according to the research group, New Carbon Finance. Programs for biodiversity banks, wetland, and water markets are also being developed. As a sign of the growing interest in ecosystem markets, the U.S. Department of Agriculture is creating the fi rst offi ce dedicated solely to these emerging conservation strategies. The new Offi ce of Ecosystem Markets and Services is tasked with creating uniform guidelines for the numerous markets, with an initial focus on carbon sequestration standards for agriculture and forestry. – Environmental News Network

State of the World 2009: Into A Warming WorldJanuary 10 – Worldwatch Institute has just published State of the World 2009: Into a Warming World, which is based on the fi ndings of the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and provides a comprehensive overview of the policy imperatives facing humanity in the face of current environmental challenges. This edition of State of the World brings out the difference between inaction based on a business-as-usual approach and action to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions to avoid the worst impacts of climate change. It also emphasized the importance of new technologies and different approaches in terms of human behavior and choices. An important element of future solutions is a different form of global governance-one that would create a high level of seriousness in the implementation of global agreements. – Environment News Network


More than 600 elephants found in Malaysian parkJanuary 15 – Using new survey techniques, the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) and the Department of Wildlife and National Parks of Malaysia estimated that there are 631 Asian elephants living in Taman Negara National Park in the center of peninsular Malaysia. Rather than visually counting the elephants, researchers counted dung piles. This has become an internationally recognized technique and has been endorsed by UN Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. Asian elephants are endangered due to habitat loss and poaching; between 30,000 and 50,000 may remain in 13 Asian countries, according to the WCS. The Taman Negara protected rainforest jungle, known simply as the “Green Heart” by Malaysians, spans about 4,343 square kilometers (1,676 square miles). – The Times of India

Ecosystem markets take offJanuary 13 - Ecosystem markets, exchanges of nature’s various services, are adding new dimensions to conservation. In addition to using regulation to restrict development, more countries are turning to the invisible hand of the market to protect biodiversity, clean waterways, and fi ght climate change. Market-based approaches assign an economic value to ecosystem services such as erosion control, fl ood buffers, and clean air. Supporters praise the approach for its promotion of conservation funding at a time when fi nancial resources are scarce. But critics suggest the market is a last resort that indicates governments may be neglecting their duty to protect ecosystems as habitats come under increasing levels of stress. The most widely

Tapirs are especially vulnerable to over-hunting.

Red howler monkey killed for food.

Amorphophallus species


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Invasive alien species are organisms that cause damage or disturbance to biodiversity, human livelihoods and development. When working with the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Global Environment Facility (GEF), it is best to use the two relevant CBD

defi nitions from Article 8 (h). The fi rst refers to alien species that cause damage to biodiversity. The second refers to invasive alien species (IAS) that cause damage to biodiversity. A species can become invasive only when it is introduced to a new ecosystem or habitat that is different from its native situation. Species can become invasive if they stay in one place despite changes in environmental conditions in the area.

* The article is condensed from the presentation by Geoffrey Howard at the ASEAN Workshop on Invasive Alien Species Management held on 17-18 December 2008 in Hanoi, Viet Nam. The workshop was organized by Viet Nam’s Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE), in cooperation with the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB). Geoffrey Howard is the IUCN Global Coordinator of IAS, and Technical Director of Species and Ecosystems of the Global Invasive Species Programme, IUCN, Nairobi, Kenya

STATUS OFGLOBAL ALIEN INVASIVE SPECIES*

AN OVERVIEW



Introduction is part of the devel-opment of the invasive characteristics or invasiveness of a species. Biological invasions are caused by species that be-come invasive after introduction. But not all species that are introduced be-come invasive even if they have caused invasions in other places. An example would be the water hyacinth (Eichhor-nia crassipes), the “world’s worst water weed.” When the water hyacinth grows in its native habitat, together with na-tive competing plants, it is not invasive.

Invasions by alien speciesThe following steps show the prog-

ress toward the invasion of species:

1. Introduction – Species introduction may be intentional or unintentionalIntroductions are mostly due to

human activity and can or may result in the establishment of species in new habitats. “Intentional introduction” occurs when species are introduced as sources of food, medicine, ornamental plants, among others, and are used in agriculture, forestry, horticulture, and other industries. “Unintentional intro-duction” happens when species move with other imports or travel when they attach themselves to various modes of transportation such as ships, and gar-bage that fl oat in the sea.

2. Establishment – Species survive but do not spreadEstablishment happens when a

plant or animal enters a new environ-

ment, habitat or country and survives in the wild without human help (such as horticulture, aquaculture, aquarium support or domestication). This is usually the case with many “low-level weeds” and accidentally introduced in-vertebrates.

duce without assistance and the young survive and begin to spread. Wild canna (Canna indica), for example, was natu-ralized as a weed and began spreading in Eastern Africa. Naturalization can thus be equated with plants that have “escaped from human care.”

3. Spread3a. Naturalization – Species become

part of the fl ora and fauna of its new habitat.Naturalization begins when the es-

tablished animal or plant starts to repro-

Ornamental canna established

South American Senna spectabilis in Africa begin to regenerate independently after decades or centuries of establishment.

Wild canna

Water hyacinth in tropical Central America

Wild canna established



3b. Invasion – Species expand and impact on other species and ecosystems as well as people and development.

When established and naturalized species spread and “get out of hand”, and begin to compete with native (and other established) species, this can be defi ned as “invasion”. Species invasions impact ecosystems, cause environmen-tal damage and also affect human wel-fare and development.

The probability for the development of invasive species is 10% (for establish-ment) x 10% (for naturalization) x 10% (for invasion) = 0.1%. This means that only 1 in 1,000 introduced species ever become invasive, or usually less, some say 1 in 1,000,000.

Once species have been introduced, established and naturalized, there is of-ten a “lag time” before further spread and invasion occurs. For some species (e.g. trees), this may be more than 100 years; in others (e.g. water hyacinth), may be a few weeks. As the invading species consolidates, affected plant or animal habitats may decline or become degraded.

Invasive taxa (types)Invasive species can be animals,

plants or micro-organisms (including those causing disease in plants, animals and people). They can be terrestrial, aquatic or marine as well as pathogens, parasites or predators. They can be min-ute, small, large, and widespread or lo-cally abundant as well. Microorganisms may include plant and animal viruses, bacteria, yeasts, and fungal pathogens of both animals and plants. Invertebrates may encompass mollusks (both terres-trial and aquatic), insect pests, crusta-ceans, and other arthropods.

Vertebrate invasive species include fi sh, reptiles, birds and mammals. The Nile tilapia, for example, was inten-tionally introduced to many water sys-tems in Africa, Asia and Latin America, with devastating effects on the native fi sh.

Australian possums invaded New Zealand

The alien house sparrow has in-vaded Tanzania 90 years ago and spread throughout.

The common carp from China is now invasive in water bodies on four continents including Africa.

Tilapia

Lantana camara is a classic invasive alien species; after 160 years, the species is still spreading across Africa and in-vading new lands such as Australia, Asia and North America. Lantana replaces native vegetation and pasture, is poison-ous to livestock and harbors tsetse fl ies (Glossina sp.) and rats.

Common carp

Lantana

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Australian long-horned tree borer now invades eucalypts in many African countriesHouse sparrow

Latin American green apple snail invaded Asia



Mesquite (Prosopis spp.) from Cen-tral America is an invasive alien species introduced for agrofrestry, and grows well in dry (pastoral) areas. It causes wounds with its spines, replaces native dryland vegetation and destroys pas-tures for livestock and wildlife.

“Invasiveness” of alien speciesWhat makes a good invader? Good

invaders are generally characterized by the following:

• Rapid growth rate,• Great dispersal characteristics,• Large reproductive capacity,• Broad environmental tolerance,

and• Effective competitor with local

species

All invasive plants can be called “weeds”, but not all weeds are invasive.

Invading species affect ecosystems by altering or replacing natural sys-tems through competition, exclusion, predation, parasitism, and pathogen-esis. They also alter or cause changes in micro-climate, nutrient availability, and ecosystem cycles (energy, water, minerals, organics). All this, in turn, af-fects ecosystem function, health, goods and services, and impacts humankind by damaging livelihoods, well-being, health, and development.

An example of the impacts of the spread and invasion of species can be seen in the Kafue Floodplain. The Ka-fue River, a major tributary of the Zam-bezi, is about 1,000 kilometers long,

and is found entirely in Zambia. It is a source of potable water for about 40 per cent of the Zambian population and the major source of water for the capital city, Lusaka. The Kafue Floodplain was home to many wild animals and plants and supported cattle grazing, fi shing, conservation and tourism activities. In 1974, the plant Mimosa pigra could be found occasionally on the edges of the Kafue River. A heavy fl ood in 1981 then brought a few plants of Mimosa pigra to the fl oodplain. After a slow start in the late 1980s, Mimosa pigra began to spread and, by 2000, it was covering a few hundred hectares. By 2007, Mimosa pigra was growing up to four meters high and was largely excluding almost every other plant and most animals in the area. Out of 12,000 hectares in the fl oodplain, 3,000 hectares are now com-pletely covered by Mimosa pigra. Today, there is no livestock, no fi sheries, and no tourism on this part of the Kafue Floodplain. Mimosa pigra has severely affected the livelihoods and production of people living in the area.

In freshwater ecosystems, aquatic in-vasive plants pollute drinking water, re-duce fi sheries, exclude other biodiversity, block waterways and water pipes, reduce oxygen, and reduce the entry of sunlight.

When freshwater fi sh are introduced for aquaculture, they may escape into wild water systems, destroy vegetation and fi sh faunas and hybridize with lo-cal species. While they may bring some benefi ts, they also cause great damage to indigenous species. The Nile tilapia

(Oreochromis niloticus), for example, which originally comes from the Nile in Zambia, has become a problem in Asia and the Americas.

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An example of invasion impacts of species on terrestrial ecosystems is the Old World climbing fern (Lygodium microphyllum), which is smothering the bald cypress in Florida, in the United States of America.

Tilapia

The Indian House crow (Corvus splendens) has invaded most coastal cit-ies in Eastern Africa and the Middle East. It kills domestic and wild birds, spreads human diseases, raids food, and destroys radio aerials, among others.

Climbing fern

House crow

Mesquite



In marine systems, alien invasives al-ter the production and life cycles of fi sh, crabs, oysters, prawns, barnacles, mus-sels, comb jellies, seaweeds, plankton through competition, exclusion, preda-tion, and pollution of marine waters.

Alien species can also invade pro-duction ecosystems, native or cultured, that are used for food and commodity production. These species can cause ma-jor production and economic impacts

in forestry, fi sheries, agriculture, and aquaculture. Parasitism, pathogenesis, predation, competition, exclusion and destruction of productive systems are all recorded in these industries, and are most common in farming, horticulture

pigra, water hyacinths have affected the Kafue Gorge Dam and hydropower sta-tion in Zambia.

The water hyacinth and similar spe-cies that establish themselves in dams increase water loss, block water fl ows, jam hydropower generators, prevent water traffi c, encourage growth in the population of snakes and crocodiles, suppress fi sheries and aquaculture, and harbor vectors of human diseases. Some invasives are themselves human patho-gens (e.g. ebola, SARS, and H5N1).

Management of invasionsAvoiding or lessening the impacts of

invasion could be done through any of the following courses of action:

1. Prevent their introduction,2. Eradicate a new invasion soon-

est,3. Contain a small, expanding in-

vasion, or4. Manage the impacts and the

presence of an established inva-sion.

According to the Convention on Biological Diversity, the fi rst step is the best and cheapest. As all these actions have relevant costs to the environment, economy, and society, the prevention of invasions should be the primary con-sideration in dealing with invasive alien species.

The last step should be the “last resort” as it entails extensive and long-term management of invasions.

and livestock production.Invasion impacts include effects on

human development. Aside from M.

Seaweed (Caulerpa taxifolia) invading a new site in the Mediterranean

D. L

ugue

t, Fr

ance

Tall trees of Senna spectabilis from South America are replacing native forest in Uganda

Water hyacinth


Kafue Gorge dam


SPECIAL REPORTS

* The article is condensed from the presentation by Geoffrey Howard entitled “Development of National Frameworks for Invasive Alien Species” at the ASEAN Workshop on Invasive Alien Species Management. The workshop was organized by Viet Nam’s Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE), in cooperation with the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB) and held on 17-18 December 2008 in Hanoi, Viet Nam. Geoffrey Howard is the IUCN Global Coordinator of IAS, and Technical Director of Species and Ecosystems of the Global Invasive Species Programme, IUCN, Nairobi, Kenya.

A national framework aimed at addressing biological invasions, with an agreed set of policies and supported by the government and people, should be developed, whether as a dedicated national activity or as part of a

regional programme of biosecurity. Invasive alien species are the second greatest threat to

biodiversity and ecosystem services – and are increasingly spreading worldwide. Biological diversity is being decreased and “sameness” is spreading.

DEVELOPING A NATIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR INVASIVEALIEN SPECIES*



Invasives threaten terrestrial, fresh-water and marine ecosystems with in-creasing or continuing impacts. They are also becoming an even greater threat due to increasing climate change.

Invasions begin with the introduc-tion of species alien to a country or eco-system. An introduced alien species then establishes itself, spreads and begins to cause damage to biodiversity, infrastruc-ture and livelihoods. How then can we prevent the introduction or spread of invasive alien species (IAS), or control their spread or eradicate these, and re-pair the damage done by these IAS?

All of these need the elements of an IAS Framework that includes policies and institutions; strategies for prevention and management; capacity to recognize

and prevent introductions and manage invasions; infrastructure to support the strategy; and awareness to involve all stake-holders.

Policy and institutionsCountries and regions need to de-

cide how they want to address IAS, as well as assign a level of importance to this issue. Existing policies that include biological invasions (if any) need to be coordinated and enhanced for action. Responsible government ministries or agencies need to be assigned based on the proposed and agreed level of impor-tance.

Some countries place IAS issues under agriculture or forestry; environ-ment and/or biodiversity (related to the

Convention on Biological Diversity); or a separate (new) biosecurity agency with high status. Regions might utilize the Plant Protection Convention and its regional agencies (e.g. European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Or-ganization or EPPO), or a separate re-gional organization for IAS (e.g. Pacifi c Invasive Initiative or PII), or a regional economic organization (e.g. Southern African Development Community or SADC).

Strategies in developing policy1. National Invasive Species Strat-egy and Action Plan or NISSAP. Some countries have developed a NISSAP, which is related to the National Biodiver-sity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP). A NISSAP would outline the agreed ap-proach to issues such as:

• Prevention, eradication and control;

• The Ecosystem Approach (from the CBD) for action against IAS;

• The Precautionary Approach (if there is insuffi cient infor-mation, then one can refuse entry to likely IAS);

• Policies and institutions and responsibilities

2. Regional approach. Invasive species do not stop at national boundar-ies. A regional approach (as well as a national strategy) is impor-tant so that nations can cooperate and help each other. Nations can assist each other with expertise, information, experiences in man-agement, and release alerts con-cerning new invasions that might spread to neighboring countries.

Recognizing invasive alien species

Many species are introduced - in-tentionally or unintentionally - to an ecosystem, a country or a region each year. From these species, a small pro-portion may become established and a small proportion may spread and be-come invasive. From the onset, there is a need to identify new species and then assess their possible impacts on the en-vironment.

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The capacity to recognize species and to access information on their like-lihood for invasiveness is important. One can rely on and make evaluations based on existing information such as personal experiences, literature, and internet websites (e.g www.gisp.org, www.issg.org, Global Compendium of Weeds). Some countries develop a list of species that may never be intentionally introduced and a list of some that are allowed.

Species must be recognized when these are found at various stages of inva-sion such as introduction, establishment and spread, and invasion, in all types of ecosystems. A strategy or framework for IAS should include capacity to address each of these stages. Strategies for pre-venting introductions include:

• Checking for introductions – in-tentional and unintentional,

• Listing unwanted species and al-lowable species,

• Conducting inspection at entry points,

• Developing means to prevent (and destroy if necessary) intro-duction of IAS,

• Establishing permits and condi-tions,

• Monitoring and general surveil-lance, and

• Developing regional coopera-tion programs and sharing of information.

Rapid responses to establishment and spread

Again, knowing what might be a problem if IAS is established is cru-cial. Mechanisms for surveillance (ex-isting and new) are needed and the proper agencies should have the phys-ical and legal capacity to respond to IAS issues. They should be reinforced with:

• Equipment and resources,• Policies and laws,• Systems in place for in-country-

cooperation, and• Regional communication and

alerts.

Rapid response and eradication or containment

Prevention is the best protection against biological invasion. If preven-

tion fails and a known invasive species is detected, rapid response is required. This will require knowledge and coop-eration at local government and civil so-ciety levels as well as among frontliners such as landowners, farmers, and cus-toms offi cials.

A very recent example follows the “African Barriers Project” in Uganda.

1. Recognition and awareness - During annual meetings of the Project teams, all saw the seri-ous invasion of Parthenium hys-terophorus in Ethiopia. Thus the three countries which do not have this plant became sensitized to the threat of its introduction and establishment. This plant is a rapidly spreading weed with impacts on agriculture, livestock and human health

2. Preparation for recognition of the threat - The Project used the “Climex” process to map the potential distribution of P. hysterophorus if it spreads. Addi-tional information was gathered from the experiences of other countries and relevant websites.

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20 J A N U A R Y - A P R I L 2 0 0 9 w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g20 J A N U A R Y - A P R I L 2 0 0 9 w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g

3. Initiated vigilance in Uganda and other countries - Gen-eral mapping was developed based on existing information. Roadside mapping was used be-cause many IAS are transported through road and rail net-works. The Project established an agreed system in all four countries using Project vehicles and staff and Global Positions Systems (GPS) – for mapping with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) - of any detected possible (or known) invasive species of plants.

4. First detections in Uganda - Two separate small infestations were detected on 16 November 2008

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during roadside mapping.5. Rapid response - More suspect

areas were examined and three more small infestations were all detected and eradicated. At the same time, local people were alerted and the media were in-formed, resulting in four more reports in early December 2008

Managing invasionsOnce invading species have es-

tablished and spread, their infestation has to be managed or controlled. This requires access to experience and in-formation and capacity to be built (including additional funds). In a project for framework development, this is best done through pilot site projects to manage known invasions and to attempt to restore af-fected ecosystems.

Mechanical, chemi-cal, and biological con-trol and procedures for approval of actions should be established.

The necessary infra-structure should be set in place in managing inva-sions. All activities neces-sary to prevent and control biological invasions re-quire interaction between separate government and other organizations. Ar-rangements for coordina-tion and cooperation need to be established. Some countries develop an IAS agency or a dedicated group to address IAS con-cerns. Sometimes invasive

species operations are part of biosecu-rity. All these arrangements need to be established and funded for quick and effective action.

Stakeholders should be made aware of the impact and prevention of invasive species through an awareness strategy that is essential to an invasive species framework. This applies to leadership and policy-making levels, government personnel, private sector and civil soci-ety, as well as “the general public” and children.

Regional cooperation programs must also be developed since all in-

vasive species are re-gional issues. This is particularly true on continents with many countries, such as Asia, the Americas, Africa, and Europe, where species can easily travel and cross borders. Thus there is a need for regional cooperation and exchange – espe-cially about new inva-sions.

Raising awareness at the local level

Roadside wasteland

Farm wasteland


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Cambodia’s ReportCambodia’s Reporton Invasive Alien Specieson Invasive Alien Species**

Cambodia has a total land area of 181,035 square kilometers and is dominated by low land along the Mekong River and Tonlé Sap Lake, and three

mountain regions in the Southwest, North and Northeast. In the 1960s, the forest of the country covered 73 percent of the total land area. However, ensuing demographic growth and economic development had led to a decline in forest cover from 73 percent to 61 percent in 2002. The main forest habitats in Cambodia are:

• Evergreen forest• Semi-evergreen forest• Deciduous forest• Hill evergreen forest• Sub-montane and montane forest• Pine forest with grasslands• Bamboo forest

• Mangrove forest• Melaleuca forest• Flooded forest around Tonle Sap Lake.

These forests are homes to the following species:• 212 species of mammals• 500 species of birds• 240 species of reptiles• 62 species of amphibians• 500 species of freshwater fi sh and 357 species of

marine fi sh• More than 2,300 species of vascular plants with

new species being discovered every year• Species that have yet to be discovered.

Biogeographically, there are three distinct areas with distinct fauna and fl ora in Cambodia: Cardamom Moun-


* The article is from the presentation by Neang Thy at the ASEAN Workshop on Invasive Alien Species Management held on 17-18 December 2008 in Hanoi, Viet Nam. The workshop was organized by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE), Viet Nam in cooperation with the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity. Neang Thy is the head of the Botanical Garden Offi ce, General Department of Administration for Nature Conservation and Protection, Ministry of Environment, Cambodia.


Table 2. List of introduced animal species

tains in the southwest; Annamite Mountains in the northeast; and the Northern plains. Lowland areas along the Mekong River and Tonle Sap Lake are mainly covered by grass and rice fi elds and have the most number of in-vasive species.

Based on this division of geography, the World Con-servation Society conducted in 2006 the fi rst interview and literature-based survey on invasive species around Tonle Sap Lake to fi nd out which species are there and their pos-sible impacts on agriculture, as the conditions are suitable for them to reproduce rapidly. Invasive species refers to alien species whose introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm to the country and hu-man health.

The results of the invasive species survey showed the existence of the following introduced species:

• 14 plant species • 3 reptile species • 1 amphibian species• 1 mollusk species• 1 crustacean species• 1 insect species• 2 mammal species• 30 fi sh species

Other exotic species of plants occur in forested areas and appear only in the clearing mosaic.

These are:• Imperata cylindrica, which originated from South-

east Asia• Chromolaena odorata from tropical America, and• Arundo donax from India.

Common name Scientifi c name Reported Status Origin

1. Water lettuce Pistia stratiotes Common Africa or South America

2. Purging nut Jatropha curcas Planted Caribbean region

3. Giant sensitive plant Mimosa invisa Present South America

4. Catclaw mimosa Mimosa pigra Abundant Tropical America

5. Sensitive plant / ‘touch-me-not’ Mimosa pudica Present Tropical America

6. Candlebush Cassia alata Planted South America

7. Watersnowfl ake Nymphoides indica Present Africa, Asia, Australia

8. Seedbox Ludwigia hyssopifolia Present Uncertain

9. Peruvian primrose Ludwigia peruviana present Tropical America

10. Para grass Urochloa mutica Common Africa

11. Hippo grass Echinochloa stagnina Common Africa

12. Cutgrass Leersia hexandra Present Pantropical

13. Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes Common Amazon Basin

14. Silk cotton tree Ceiba petandra Present –

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Table1. List of introduced plant species

Tonle Sap Lake




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Common name Scientifi c name Reported Status Origin

Reptiles

1. Hybrid crocodile Crocodylus rhombifer Siem Reap Cuba, Australia, Cambodia

2. Chinese softshell turtle Pelodiscus sinensis Not reported China, Taiwan, Korea, North Viet Nam

3. Red eared slider turtle Trachemys scripta elegans Not reported America

Amphibians

North American bullfrog Rana catesbiana Not reported America

Mollusks

Apple snail Pomacea spp. Not reported South America

Crustaceans

Louisiana crayfi sh Procambarus clarkii Not reported Mexico and America

Insects

European honeybee Apis mellifera Not reported Tropical Africa, Eurasia

Mammals

Domestic rats Rattus rattus Reported Asia

Rattus norvegicus Reported Asia

Fish

1. Japanese eel Anguilia japonica Not reported Japan, South Hainan and northern Philippines

2. Arapaima Arapaima gigas Not reported South America

3. Pacu Colossoma macropomum Not reported South America

4. Red bellied pacu Piaractus brachypomus Not reported South America

5. Blue tilapia Oreochromis aureus Not reported Africa and Middle East

6. Mozambique tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus Not reported Southern Africa

7. Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus Reported Africa and Middle East

8. Red breast tilapia Tilapia rendalli Not reported Africa

9. African catfi sh Clarias gariepinus Reported Africa and Middle East

10. Chinese false gudgeon Abottina rivularis Not reported Northeast Asia, Japan

11. Goldfi sh Carassius auratus Not reported Central and Eastern Continental Asia

12. Mrigal Cirrhinus cirrhosus Not reported Indian Subcontinent

13. Grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella Not reported Northeastern continental Asia

14. Common carp Cyprinus carpio Reported Asia

15. Catla Gilbelion catla Not reported Indian Subcontinent

16. Barbel steed Hemibarbus labeo Not reported Central and East Continental Asia

Continued next page



All the species listed are at low risk at the moment, except for Mimosa pigra.

Mimosa pigra is believed to have ap-peared in Cambodia in the late 1970s or early 1980s. Its rapid proliferation in Cambodia started around the early 1990s and currently, M. pigra has been reported to occur in at least 13 prov-inces that are located along the Mekong River and Tonle Sap Lake. It is an ag-gressive plant and regarded as one of the worst environmental weeds in season-ally fl ooded areas.

The impacts of M. pigra are mas-sive, as it can completely alter vegeta-tion structure. Large stands of Mimosa support fewer animals, less herbaceous vegetation and fewer native tree seed-lings. This then affects water birds that rely on grassland areas, as well as reduces fi sh production especially non-scaly fi sh species. They are also major barriers to agriculture development. Methods employed to control the spread of M. pigra include manual methods, chemi-cal control, burning and prevention of introduction in other areas.

The article is from the presentation by Neang Thy at the “ASEAN Work-shop on Invasive Alien Species Man-agement” held on 17-18 December 2008 in Hanoi, Viet Nam. The work-shop was organized by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE), Viet Nam in cooperation with the ASEAN Centre for Biodiver-sity (ACB).

Table 2. List of introduced animal speciesCommon name Scientifi c name Reported Status Origin

Fish

17. Spotted steed Hemibarbus maculatus Not reported East Continental Asia

18. Silver carp Hypophthalmichthys molitrix Reported East Continental Asia

19. Bighead carp Hypophthalmichthys nobilis Not reported China

20. Rohu Labeo rohita Not reported Indian Subcontinent

21. Stone moroko Pseudorasborapaparva Not reported Eastern Asia

22. Oriental weatherfi sh Misgurnus anguillicaudatus Not reported Myanmar, Northeast Asia to Central China

23. Brown bullhead Ictalurus nebulosus Not reported North America

24. Channel catfi sh Ictalurus punctatus Not reported North America

25. Suckermouth catfi sh Hypostomus plecostomus Not reported South America

26. Mosquito fi sh Gambusia affi nis Reported North and Central America

27. Guppy Poecilia reticulata Not reported South America

28. Sailfi n molly Poecilia velifera Not reported Central America

29. Green swordtail Xiphophorus helleri Not reported North and Central America

30. Southern platyfi sh Xiphophorus maculatus Not reported North and Central America

All the species listed are at low risk at the moment, except for Mimosa pigra.

Mimosa pigra is believed to have appeared in Cambodia in the late 1970s or early 1980s. Its rapid proliferation in Cambodia started around the early 1990s. Currently, Mimosa pigra has been reported to occur in at least 13 provinces that are located along the Mekong River and Tonle Sap Lake. It is an aggressive plant and regarded as one of the worst environmental weeds in seasonally fl ooded areas.

The impacts of Mimosa pigra are massive, as the species can completely alter vegetation structure. Large stands of Mimosa support fewer animals, less herbaceous vegetation and fewer native tree seedlings. This then af-fects water birds that rely on grassland areas, as well as reduces fi sh production especially non-scaly fi sh species. They are also major barriers to agriculture development. Methods employed to control the spread of Mimosa pigra include manual techniques, chemical control, burning and prevention of introduc-tion in other areas.Mimosa pigra

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National Regulations onNational Regulations onInvasive Species Management Invasive Species Management in the Philippinesin the Philippines**

The biodiversity of the Philippines is truly impres-sive both in global terms, and in overall diversity, and, more so, as regards endemism. In absolute

numbers, its endemic species in groups like plants, mam-mals, birds, reptiles, butterfl ies are comparable to and often exceed the much larger megadiversity countries.

The Philippines harbors some 8,000 species of fl ower-ing plants distributed in about 1,600 genera and 191 fami-lies. There are more than 6,490 species of non-fl owering plants (i.e. algae, fungi, mosses, ferns), which when com-bined with vascular plants, would total about 14,490 plant species. Of this number, between 30 to 40 percent are said to be endemic to the country and found nowhere else.

Man’s activities however, have badly damaged the pri-mary forests of the Philippines that conservationists rank the country as one of the 10 hotspots of the world. Because of this, the public and private sectors have joined hands in seeking remedies to this environmental crisis.

Several species of trees and agricultural plants were in-troduced in the Philippines during the prehistoric (Malay-Polynesian settlers), Spanish and American regimes. The foremost intention was to provide for cover crops and mul-tiple-purpose species to meet the various needs of the coun-try. Paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera), for example, was introduced in 1935 to augment bast fi ber-producing tree crops in Makiling, within the University of the Philip-pines School of Forestry campus, at Los Banos, Laguna. Like the coronitas (Lantana camara) from Hawaii, the paper mulberry escaped to become a serious pest as both invade young secondary forests thickets. Lantana camara was introduced as an ornamental in orchards and farms. The large leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) was fi rst planted in 1907 and the small leaf mahogany (Swietenia mahogani) in 1911, both intentionally introduced for cul-tivation. These three species are now all over the Philippine archipelago.

The mahogany became invasive because of several at-tributes of the species. Each fruit of mahogany in a capsule contains an average of 62 winged seeds. Assuming 50 cap-sules per tree can be dispersed per fruiting season, that’s 3000 seeds, blown at a distance of 20 to 40 meters. Being

Paper mulberry

Lantana camara


* Paper presented by Elpidio F. Rimando during the ASEAN Workshop on Invasive Alien Species Management held on 17-18 December 2008 in Hanoi, Viet Nam. The Workshop was organized by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Viet Nam in cooperation with the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity. Elpidio F. Rimando is the Chief of the Forest Protection Section, Forest Ecosystem Research Division, Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau-Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Philippines.


recalcitrant, the seeds germinate in less than a month. Dip-terocarps fruit and seed irregularly in intervals of four to fi ve years and therefore stand no chance in competing with mahogany. Mahogany seeds contain food reserves and ger-minate hypogeal. This means that even if the initial light is relatively poor, the young mahogany plant develops even without initial photosynthesis. True photosynthetic leaves come later and are adopted even in sun-fl ecked shade to partial shade. Hardened mahogany seedlings are even rela-tively drought resistant. It is a common observation in ma-ture mahogany plantations in the country that the under-story vegetation is dominated by mahogany wildlings.

The coronitas is another plant/weed that may occur as a compact shrub or a scrambler since it grows more than 5 meters high and is often used as a hedge plant because it forms impenetrable barriers. However, that same quality makes it such a menace when it invades agricultural land and forestry plantations. The leaves and fruit can poison cattle and sheep that eat them.

Other agricultural plants introduced in the country are now becoming pests or weeds in forest areas. The mile-a-minute (Mikania micrantha) from the South and Central America was introduced as a cover crop or garden orna-mental. The plant is now considered an invasive species and is a problem weed throughout the warm, humid region of Southeast Asia including the Philippines. The vine was able to spread rapidly because it reproduces fast. A single plant can produce up to 40,000 seeds per year. The small, black seeds with bristles at one end are dispersed by wind and adhere to clothing or animal fur. Vegetatively, the plant can regenerate from small fragments, with each nodal stem being able to produce roots on contact with the soil. The weed climbs up other plants to reach the sunlit tree canopy, smothering the host plants in the process, depriving them of light needed for photosynthesis and competing with hosts for nutrients and water.

The hagonoy (Chromolaena odorata) is another invasive weed shrub present almost everywhere in the Philippines. It thrives on disturbed lands and forms dense thickets that smother indigenous vegetation, thus reducing biodiversity. Its growth decreases the productivity of any main crop or trees that grow with it.

Regulations and policy on invasive alien speciesInternational policy/regulations

Mainstreaming sustainable management of biodiver-sity cum invasive alien species is based upon international agreements, which are as follows:

1. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Wild Flora and Fauna - CITES has been proven to be effective in contributing to the conservation of a wide range of plants and animals through a rigorous system in issuing permits and certifi cates. CITES has the ability to control commercial trade when it is proven to be detrimental to the population of the species.

2. Convention on Biological Diversity – The Conven-tion mandates Parties/countries to take appropriate measures to conserve biological diversity, ensure the sustainable use of resources and promote fair and equitable sharing of benefi ts arising from the utiliza-tion of genetic resources.

3. RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands - RAMSAR mandates the development of guidelines and pro-motes protocols and actions to prevent, control, and eradicate invasive alien species in wetland systems.

National policy and regulations1. Executive Order No. 430. (15 October 1990) - This

Order constitutes the National Committee on Bio-safety of the Philippines, a multi-disciplinary, inter-agency technical advisory body tasked to undertake the study and evaluation of existing laws, policies,

Mikania micrantha

Chromolaena odorata

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and guidelines on biotechnology with respect to the introduction, use and transfer of genetically modi-fi ed organisms (GMOs) and potentially harmful exotic species (PHES) and the recommended mea-sures for their effective utilization and prevention of possible pernicious effects on the environment.

2. Department of Agriculture –Administrative Order No. 8 Series of 2002 - This Order prescribes regula-tions for the importation and release into the envi-ronment of plant and plant products derived from the use of modern biotechnology. It also institution-alizes existing operational arrangements between the Bureau of Plant Industry and the National Com-mittee on Biosafety of the Philippines by providing regulations to govern the release of such products for propagation or for direct use as food, feed, or for processing.

3. Department of Agriculture-Memorandum Circular No. 7 and 8 Series of 2003 - These Circulars were promulgated pursuant to Section 3 of AO 8 to es-tablish Guidelines for the Conduct of Risk Assess-ment for Applications using an Approved Transfor-mation Event and the Phytosanitary Inspection of Regulated Articles for Foods, Feeds and Processing.

4. Plant Quarantine Law - This Law restricts the im-portation and/or introduction of plants, plant prod-ucts, soil, and packing material of plant origin that are capable of harboring species, and are sources or medium of infection/infestation of plant pests.

5. The Revised Forestry Code - The Revised Forestry Code mandates the Forest Management Bureau-Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) to be responsible for the protection, de-velopment, management, regeneration, and refores-tation of forest lands; implementation or multiple use and sustained yield management in forest lands; protection, development, and preservation of na-tional parks, marine parks, game refuges, and wild-life; implementation of measures and programs to prevent kaingin and managed occupancy of forest and grazing lands; and the enforcement of forestry, reforestation, parks, game and wildlife laws, rules and regulations, among others. The Forestry Code provides incentives to qualifi ed persons engaged in industrial tree plantation, tree farming, and/or agro-forest farming. The law is relevant in that genetically modifi ed (GM) trees that are introduced and used for higher timber yields or greater carbon sequestra-tion abilities, may pose risks to natural stands.

6. National Integrated Protected Areas System (NI-PAS) Act – NIPAS encompasses outstanding re-markable areas and biologically important lands that are habitats of rare and endangered species of plants and animals, biogeographic zones, and related eco-

systems, whether terrestrial, wetland, or marine, all of which shall be designated as protected areas. It provides for categories of protected areas: (a) strict nature reserve, (b) natural park, (c) natural monu-ment, (d) wildlife sanctuary, (e) protected land-scapes and seascapes, (f ) resource reserve, (g) natu-ral biotic areas and (h) other categories established by law, conventions, or international agreements to which the Philippine government is a signatory. Ac-tivities within protected areas are highly regulated, especially in strict nature reserves and natural parks, thus the release of GMOs and GM trees and prod-ucts in such areas are most likely prohibited.

7. Executive Order No. 247 - This Order prescribes guidelines and establishes a regulatory framework (the Inter-Agency Committee on Biological and Genetic Resources) for the prospecting of biologi-cal and genetic resources, their by-products and de-rivatives that are used for scientifi c and commercial purposes. The Committee is tasked, among others, to ensure that no biological and genetic materials are taken from the Philippines and exported, except under a valid research agreement; and to study and recommend appropriate laws on the utilization of biological and genetic resources including new laws on intellectual property rights.

8. Wildlife Resources Protection Act - This Act pro-vides that no exotic species shall be introduced into the country, unless a clearance from the DENR Secretary or his authorized representative is fi rst obtained. In no case shall exotic species be intro-duced into protected areas covered by NIPAS and to critical habitats under Section 25 of the Wildlife Act.

9. Seed Industry Development Act - This Act pro-hibits the importation, in commercial quantities, of species of seeds that are being produced lo-cally, except seeds that are difficult to grow un-der ordinary conditions or when allowed by the Seed Industry Council. The Act also prohibits the exploitation of rare species, varieties, lines and strains of plants from the country, except for scientific or international exchange purposes that shall be determined by the Council.

Research project on invasive alien speciesThe DENR-Ecosystems Research and Development

Bureau (ERDB) has an ongoing research project on the Development of Pest Surveillance System for Forest Inva-sive Species in the Philippines, which started in November 2008. The project objectives are to:

1. Determine appropriate pest/disease targets and survey plantation areas to maximize the chance for early detection of forest invasive species; and

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2. Formulate guidelines on forest-pest/forest invasive species surveillance, reporting and monitoring sys-tem.

Regional cooperation in the management of invasive alien species

Regional cooperation is very important to prevent the introduction of IAS into the country. A list of potential IAS based on risk assessment undertaken at the regional level must be developed and be available to the network-member countries. Experts on IAS are required to conduct such assessments.

With the available list of high-risk invasive species, the mechanism to prevent and control the movement of IAS must be formed. The CITES permitting mechanism sys-tem could be applied and strengthened to suit network-member countries.

ConclusionThe prevention, control and management of invasive

References

Baguinon, N.T; M.O. Quimado; and G.J. Francisco, 2003. Country Report on Forest Invasive Species in the Philippines. Paper presented at the Asia-Pacifi c Forest Species Conference held on 17-23 August 2003 at Yunan, China

DENR-PAWB. Developing the National Biosafety Framework for the Philippines. 2004. Department of Environment and Natural Resources–Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau. p.146.

San Valentin, H. 2001. Insect pests of forest plantations: Present and future possible problems. Paper presented during the Seminar workshop on biodiversity and management of alien invasive species in the Philippines. RCBC/DENR/EU Quezon City, Philippines, 22-23 May 2003.

Sample of Outline-Framework for Invasive Alien Species

alien species particularly on forestry species is still in its early stage because of very limited qualifi ed staff, low budget/fi -nances, inadequate research information and database, lax implementation of legislation, regulation and administrative orders and the low level of people’s awareness on the nega-tive impacts of IAS. The Philippines must seriously tackle the crucial problems and issues related to IAS before these IAS create havoc and make major economic, social, and en-vironmental impacts in the Philippines.

Section 1. Constitutional Policies1.1 Right to People’s Health1.2 Right to a Healthy Environment1.3 Priority to Science and Technology1.4 Role of Stakeholders1.5 Rural Development1.6 Right of Indigenous Peoples/Cultural Minorities

and Communities1.7 Right to Information1.8 Local Autonomy1.9 Right to Participation1.10 Consumer Protection

Section 2. Principles2.1 Policy on Modern Biotechnology2.2 Policy on Sustainable Development2.3 Scientifi c Approach2.4 Balance Approach2.5 Socio-economic, Cultural and Ethical Considerations.2.6. Using Precaution2.7 Transparency and Public Participation2.8 Consensus Building2.9 Availability of Remedies2.10 International Obligations and Cooperation2.11 Public Interest and Welfare

Section 3. Scope, Objectives and Defi nitions3.1 Scope3.2 Objectives3.3 Defi nitions

Section 4. Administrative Mechanism

Section 5. Decision–Making Processes5.1 Standard of Precaution5.2 Risk assessment 5.2.1 Principles of Risk Assessment 5.2.2 Risk Assessment Guidelines5.3 Role of Environmental Impact Assessment5.4 Socio-economic, Ethical, Cultural and Other Considerations5.5 Monitoring and Enforcement

Section 6. Access to Information

Section 7. Public Participation

Section 8. Capacity Building and Financial Resources

Section 9. Remedies

Section 10. Review

Section 11. Legislation

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Managing Invasive AlienManaging Invasive AlienSpecies and ProtectingSpecies and ProtectingIndigenous Species in ThailandIndigenous Species in Thailand**

Studies show that there are more than 3,500 alien spe-cies in Thailand. Most of these species provide ben-efi ts and few are considered invasive. On record there

are around 274 invasive species in the country. Studies and surveys on exotic species in all ecosystem

types in Thailand began in 1995. In 2006, a Working Group on Invasive Alien Species was set up to address con-cerns on invasive alien species (IAS). Measures to manage IAS are currently incorporated into Strategy III (Reduce threats to biological diversity) of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2008-2012.

The Working Group currently undertakes the follow-ing:

• Study current rules and all related regulations – including the Plant Protection Act BE.2507, the Animal Epidemics Act BE.2499, and regulations by the Biosafety Committee of the Fisheries De-partment,

• Evaluate national mechanisms to address invasive alien species, and

• Develop measures to control invasive alien species and protect indigenous species

A draft national measure on the protection of indig-enous species and the control and eradication of alien spe-cies has already been developed. It defi nes and provides standards for the identifi cation of invasive alien species, and provides a list of species that require protection as well as those that should be controlled and eradicated due to their adverse impacts on the local environment. The draft measure is currently awaiting approval from the Cabinet. After its approval, all levels of related government agencies should defi ne or set up an appropriate work plan or activi-ties to implement that measure.

The draft measure also provides information on the fol-lowing:

1. Management of alien species,2. Observation and monitoring of alien species,3. Supporting studies and researches on alien species,

and4. Strategies for information dissemination, education

and raising of public awareness on alien species.

Invasive alien species in Thailand have been categorized as follows:

• Invasive alien species (82),• Nearly invasive species (52),• Invasive alien species in neighboring countries but

have yet to invade Thailand (49), and• Invasive alien species that are banned entry into

Thailand (91).

Data and steps to manage the spread of invasive alien species in Thailand came from scientifi c databases, con-sultations with national experts, researchers and ecologists from related agencies, as well as other relevant institutions in the private sector.

* The article is from the presentation by Ms. Somawan Sukprasert at the “ASEAN Workshop on Invasive Alien Species Management” held on 17-18 December 2008 in Hanoi, Viet Nam. The workshop was organized by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE), Viet Nam in cooperation with the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB). Ms. Somawan Sukprasert is a staff of the Biological Diversity Division of the Offi ce of Natural Resources and Environment Policy and Planning, Thailand

Rosy Wolf Snail


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Invasive Alien Species Invasive Alien Species in Viet Nam: Their Impacts in Viet Nam: Their Impacts and Managementand Management**

Invasive alien species (IAS) became an emerging issue in Viet Nam in the mid-1990s and has become a threat not only to biodiversity but also to sustainable devel-

opment and human health. Initial statistics reveal that there are 92 exotic plant spe-

cies belonging to 31 families and 41 aquatic animal species currently found in the country and many of these have caused serious impacts on biodiversity and agriculture. Some dangerous IAS in Viet Nam include:

• Mimosa (Mimosa pigra)• Golden apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata)• Snails (Achatina fulica)• Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)• Lantana (Lantana camara)• Nutria (Myocastor coypus)• White butterfi sh (Piaractus mesopotamicus)• White-legged prawn (Litopaenaeus varanamei)• Ty ba fi sh (Hypostomis punctatus)• Red-eared turtle (Trachemys scripta)• Coconut-leaf eating insect (Brontispa longissima)• Pine caterpillar (Dendrolimus punctatus walker)

There is a noticeable quantity of imported alien plants in Viet Nam. An inventory found about 94 species of 31 families. These account for about 0.77 percent of the total current natural species of plants in Viet Nam (12,000 spe-cies). In the list of invasive alien plants in the world, fi ve have been found in Viet Nam: Imperata cylindrica, Mimosa pigra, Acacia holosericea, Eucalyptus urophylla, and Eichhor-nia crassipes.

Out of the identifi ed alien plants, the species seen as showing threats by competition to environment and biodi-versity include the following: Mimosa pigra, Eucalyptus uro-phylla, Eichhornia crassipes, Lantana camara, Amaranthus spi-nosus, Ageratum conyzoiotes, Cyperus rotandus, Chromolaena odorata, Imperata cylindrica, and Pistia stratioles.

In aquatic and marine mammals, there are 41 species of alien water animals in Viet Nam (Le Thiet Binh, 2005) that have been categorized as follows:

• White List: 9 species (22 percent of the total alien water animals in Viet Nam)

• Gray List: 18 species (44 percent of the total alien

White butterfi sh

Red-eared turtle

* The article is from presentations on the Management of Invasive Alien Species in Viet Nam by Ms. Hoang Thanh Nhan, Ms. Tran Kim Tinh and Mr. Pham Quang Thu, and Forest invasive Species in Vietnam by Pham Quang Thu. The presentations were made at the ASEAN Workshop on Invasive Alien Species Management organized by Viet Nam’s Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, in cooperation with the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity and held on 17-18 December 2008 in Hanoi, Viet Nam.


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water animals in Viet Nam)• Black List: 14 species (34 percent of the total alien

water animals in Viet Nam)

Some of the species used to be found in Viet Nam but presently have been eliminated like the Cuba frog, Nutria (Myocastor coypus).

Impacts of invasive alien species The Viet Nam government annually invests millions

of dollars to control the spread of IAS such as the golden apple snail and the coconut-leaf eating coleopteran due to economic impacts (such as damage to crops), environmen-tal impacts (including pollution, epidemic diseases, and others) and impacts on biodiversity (reduction of genetic resources; degradation and loss of native species).

Some examples of IAS impacts include the following:• The Spike Rush (Eleocharis spp) in Cham Trim Na-

tional Park, which is the important habitat for the sarus crane (Grus antigone), has been gradually in-fested by Mimosa pigra, leading to the decline of the crane from 600-800 individuals in the mid-1990s to less than 100 individuals in 2003.

• Due to the damage caused by the coconut-leaf eat-ing coleopteran, the Vietnamese coconut industry lost an estimate of 3.5 million USD.

• The government has to annually invest billions of Vietnamese dollars to control the spread of the golden apple snail. In the report of the Department of Plant Protection dated 26 December 2006, agri-cultural land area infested with golden apple snails in the whole country totalled to 242,663 hectares, of which 5,316 hectares showed a high density of infestation. In southern provinces, the infested area is recorded at 217,328 hectares (approximately equal to the infested area in 2005), of which 2,647 hectares showed a high density of infestation.

Management status of invasive alien speciesWith the negative impacts of IAS on the country’s bio-

diversity, sustainable development and human health, the government of Viet Nam has carried out several initiatives including preventing the introduction of alien species, and controlling and eradicating invasive alien species. These issues have been mentioned in different policies and legal documents.

Some researches and inventories on IAS have also been car-ried out. Two major ministries involved in IAS management are the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development

Some of the important policies on IAS management include the National Biodiversity Action Plan 2010–2020. The Plan indicates the need to strictly control and manage invasive alien species by making an inventory of IAS and

developing and implementing a strategy on the prevention and control of these species. Steps to monitor, evaluate and prevent IAS should be set in place, and relevant agen-cies must check and verify the breeds, species and genetic sources of imported organisms. IAS policy is also embed-ded in the Strategy of Environmental Protection in Viet Nam (2010 – 2020).

The legal framework on IAS management is also in-cluded in the Biodiversity Law (2008) and Environment Law (2005). Some aspects of invasive alien species have also been partly mentioned in other laws such as the Law on Fisheries, Law on Forest Protection and Development, Ordinance on Plant Protection, Ordinance on Animal Pro-tection, Ordinance on Plant Varieties, and Ordinance on Animal Breeds.

Challenges to the management of IAS in Viet Nam in-clude:

• Lack of an orientation policy framework for IAS management at different levels,

• Planning of prevention and control issues is not comprehensive and synchronized,

• Legislation system has many drawbacks and incon-sistencies, and legal documents are scattered among different agencies,

• Management systems are incomplete with overlap-ping and unclear functions and responsibilities and weak coordination, and

• Management capacity in IAS is limited, and not yet ready to meet the demand of socio-economic devel-opment.

Proposed scheme on IAS prevention and controlThe principles of the proposed scheme focus on the

prevention, control and elimination of IAS balanced with the protection, conservation and sustainable development of biodiversity, environmental protection, human health, and sustainable development of the country. It should also mobilize local, national, and international resources for the prevention and control of IAS.

The overall objective of the scheme is the prevention and control of IAS to protect biodiversity, promote con-servation and sustainable use of natural resources, protect human health and well-being; ensure food security and so-cial safety in order to contribute to economic and social development according to the country’s sustainable devel-opment program.

Major tasks in the scheme include the following:• Prevention of the introduction and establishment of

IAS.• Early detection, rapid assessment and rapid re-

sponse to IAS introduction and establishment in Viet Nam.

• Control, mitigation and elimination of IAS existing in Viet Nam.


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• Restoration of high-value ecosystems degraded by impacts of IAS.

• Improvement of the management capacity on IAS.

Some of the identifi ed measures that would help re-solve IAS issues in Viet Nam are the following:

• Improve the organizational structure system and management capacity on the control of IAS;

• Apply scientifi c and technological solutions in ad-dressing IAS issues;

• Enhance the awareness active participation of the pub-lic in preventing, controlling and eliminating IAS;

• Increase and diversify investment sources for IAS prevention and control; and

• Promote international cooperation on IAS preven-tion and control.

Implementation of the proposed IAS scheme will de-pend on the mobilization of relevant agencies including the Ministries of Natural Resources and Environment; Ag-riculture and Rural Development; Health; Education and Training; Information and Communication; Science and Technology; and Finance. The participation of the police, provincial/municipal people’s authorities and other orga-nizations, including non-government organizations and CBOs are crucial to the success of the IAS program.

Forest invasive species in Viet NamThe forest invasive species in Viet Nam include the fol-

lowing:

Table 1. Weeds and plants

Species Origin Threat level

Pennisetum polystachyon National Forest plantations

Chromolaena odorata South and Central America National Forest plantations

Eupatorium adenophorum Central America National Forest plantations

Mimosa pigra Mexico, South and central America National Forest plantations

Mimosa diplotricha Brazil National Forest plantations

Imperata cylindrica Philippines, India National Forest plantations

Lantana camara Tropical America National Forest plantations

Mikania micrantha South and Central America National Forest plantations

Eupatorium adenophorum found north west of Viet Nam.

Mimosa diplotricha occupies forest lands


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Table 2. Fungi


Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum Australia National; Host: Eucalyptus spp.

Cryptosporiopsis eucalypti Australia National; Host: Eucalyptus spp.

Cryphonectria cubensis Cuba National; Host: Eucalyptus spp.

Kirramyces destructans East Timor, Australia National; Host: Eucalyptus spp.

Cercospora pini-densifl orae Japan National; Host: Pinus spp.

Spaeropsis sapinae South Africa, USA National; Host: Pinus spp.

Cronartium orientale Asia National; Host: Pinus kesiya

Hemileia vastatrix National; Host: Coffea spp.

Bursaphelenchus sp. Regional; Host: Pinus kesiya

Oidium heveae Brazil, Cuba National; Host: Hevea brasiliensis

The pathogen Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum was found for the fi rst time in Viet Nam in 1995. It caused great damage to eucalyptus in high rainfall areas especially in central and southeastern Viet Nam.

Cryptosporiopsis eucalypti is another pathogen that was fi rst discovered in Viet Nam in 1995. Since then it has been causing great damage to eucalyptus trees in the whole country.

Cryphonectria cubensis/Chrysoporthe cubensis is another fungus associated with Eucalyptus spp.

Kirramyces destructans is a disease that was found in the country for the fi rst time in 2002. The fungus spread very fast and can be found all over Viet Nam. Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum

Pinus kesiya infected by Bursaphelenchus sp.Kirramyces destructans


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Table 3. Insects


Dendrolimus punctatus China National; Host: Pinus spp.

Dasychira axutha China Regional; Host: Pinus massoniana

Diprion pini China National; Host: Pinus massoniana

Sarothrocera lowi Malaysia Regional; Host: Eucalyptus urophylla

Aristobia testudo Regional; Hosts: E. camaldulensis

Trirachys bilobulartus Regional; Host: Rhizophora apiculata

Celosterna pollinosa sunphurea Thailand Regional; Host: Anisoptera apiculata

Leptocybe invasa Australia National; Host: Eucalyptus spp.

Quadrastichus erythrinae Africa National; Host: Erythrina variegata

Xylosandrus crassiusculus Sub-tropical Asia National; Host: Acacia mangium

Samples of pests that have invaded Viet Nam in-clude:

• Dasychira axutha – Outbreak of this pest was dis-covered for the fi rst time in Viet Nam in 2005 and damaged thousands of hectares of forest. Its distribution is only in the North (near the Chi-nese-Vietnamese border). Its host tree is Pinus massoniana.

• Dendrolimus punctatus – This pest was found for the fi rst time in Viet Nam in the 1970s. Outbreaks have occurred every two or three years, and each time with tens of thousands of hectares damaged. The host tree is Pinus spp.

• Diprion pini – Outbreaks have occurred every two or three years. The host tree is Pinus massoniana.

• Aristobia testudo – This stem borer has attacked E.

Dendrolimus punctatus Aristobia testudo

Dasychira axutha Diprion pini


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camaldulensis and E. tereticornis, and was found for the fi rst time in 2002 in the Mekong delta only.

• Sarothocera lowi - The long-horned beetle damages Eucalyptus urophylla and was fi rst recorded in 2008.

• Celosterna pollinosa sunphurea – First recorded in 2005, the long-horned beetle damages Anisoptera costata.

• Trirachys bilobulartus – The long-horned beetle damages Rhizophora apiculata and was fi rst recorded in 2008.

• Quadrastichus erythrinae – The wasp is associated with Erythrina variegate and was fi rst discovered in Viet Nam in 2006.

• Xylosandrus crassiusculus – The ambrosia beetle is associated with acacia hybrid and Acacia mangium and was fi rst discovered in Viet Nam 2008.

There are several key challenges in addressing forest invasive species (FIS) in Viet Nam, which include the lack of professional staff on FIS. Funds are also scarce, and these are necessary to systematically survey forest pests in the whole country. Biological studies of forest pests are rare, resulting in diffi culty in forecasting and pest man-agement. There is a need to raise awareness of the dan-gers of IAS among stakeholders and frontliners, such as protected area managers and staff, customs offi cials, and police, so that they can immediately identify IAS at entry points.

The general public must also be more aware of the dangers of species introduction since some people release pets into the wild or these pets escape from their homes,

and then become invasive in new habitats. Forest pest re-search collaboration in regional and international level is also limited and this adds to challenges in dealing with IAS across borders.

The following action plans have been developed to ad-dress mounting concerns over IAS:

1. Build capacity of professional staff through train-ing, workshops and participation in forest pest sur-veillance projects.

2. Strengthen collaboration between research institu-tions and management agencies to build institu-tional framework from the central level to the pro-vincial level in the surveillance and monitoring of FIS

3. Identify research priorities for FIS; fi rst of all, se-rious and potential FIS should be listed and their impacts also identifi ed.

4. Provide obtained information on FIS to manage-ment agencies to issue appropriate policies and to reform quarantine orders.

5. Promote regional and international cooperation for exchange of information, collaborative research and professional trainings

6. Apply advanced methodology in investigating and monitoring FIS

Ms. Hoang Thanh Nhan, Ms. Tran Kim Tinh and Mr. Pham Quang Thu are from the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Viet Nam Environment Administration. Pham Quang Thu is from the Forest Science Institute of Vietnam.

Celosterna pollinosa sunphurea

Sarothocera lowi

Xylosandrus crassiusculus


SPECIAL REPORTS

Can there ever be any benefi t derived from organisms categorized as invasive alien species (IAS)? Their very name suggests that they can cause great damage to the environment and people’s livelihood and health, to the point

that their very entry into a new ecosystem is cause for alarm. In areas where these species have established themselves, can society derive benefi ts from IAS as part of a program for their eventual eradication? This is a question that has been applied to the janitor fi sh in the Philippines.

JANITOR FISHARE THERE BENEFITSFROM IAS?


Potential benefits from the dreaded fish

A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 37A S E A N B I O D I V E R S I T Y 37

There are two species of janitor fi sh, also known as sucker mouth or sailfi n catfi sh, in the Philippines: Pterygopli-chthys pardalis found in the Marikina River and Lake Paitan in Cuyapo, Nueva Ecija; and the Pterygoplichthys disjunctivus found in Laguna de Bay. Considered a major nuisance in these areas, this South American aquarium catfi sh was introduced in the country possibly by hobbyists. They have since escaped into local freshwaters and seri-ously threatened the livelihood of local fi shermen.

In its natural habitat, the janitor fi sh feeds on tadpoles and insects. Locally, they are voracious algae eaters, and thus displace native species when they com-pete for algae and detritus (organic mat-ter) on the bottom. When it breeds, the janitor fi sh builds nests in mud banks and thus contribute to water turbid-ity. This also causes the erosion of riverbanks. Its bone structure can damage aquaculture struc-tures and gill nets used by f i she rmen . The uncon-trolled pro-liferation of this invasive spec ie s poses a

t h r e a t to the liveli-

hood of thousands of small-scale fi shing fami-

lies, and also to the biodiversity of lakes and rivers.

Potential uses of janitor fi shSeveral studies have been initiated

to control their rising population in

Laguna de Bay and the Marikina River. In Laguna de Bay, growing concern for the fate of the aquaculture and fi shing industry led to the development of the Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA) project to determine economic benefi ts from the janitor fi sh. Funded by the World Bank, the project aims to control the species’ invasiveness while providing additional income to the lo-cal fi sherfolk. The premise is to use the janitor fi sh as an ingredient of feeds for pig and poultry. Specifi cally, the proj-ect aimed to address the invasiveness of the janitor fi sh by reducing its impacts on the local ecosystem; establish the vi-ability of processing the fi sh into fi sh meal and using it as basic raw material for fi sh and livestock or animal feed and

p r o -m o t e i t s utiliza-

tion as such among

the fi sh farmers, hog raisers or feed

millers in the region; and help create the conditions where mar-ginalized fi shermen and backyard scale hog raisers can continue to undertake livelihood activities in a sustainable manner.

The project paid fi sherfolk PhP10 per kilogram of the janitor fi sh, which is converted into fi shmeal for pig feed by a cooperative in Siniloan, Laguna. Scien-tists then studied the viability of using janitor fi sh meal as feeds for hogs and

broilers by conducting chemical analy-ses on the developed fi sh meal and their impacts on livestock.

The project yielded the following results:

1. Nutrient-wise, laboratory analyses showed that the pro-cessed janitor fi sh meal can be an alternative source of protein.

2. Field experiments evaluating the effects of feeding janitor fi sh meal to chickens and pigs showed that its inclu-sion in the diet of both the animals improved their growth.

3. The use of janitor fi sh meal is very

much comparable with the use of commercial feeds since livestock producers may earn roughly the same income from both types of feeds.

4. The most benefi cial use for the janitor fi sh is as fi sh meal, but it can also be used as organic fertil-izer, bio-fuel, leather, fi sh silage. Silage is fermented, high-mois-ture fodder that can be fed to cud-chewing animals like cattle and sheep, or used as a bio-fuel feedstock.

In Marikina, the city government also has an ongoing campaign to rid the river of the janitor fi sh. Some ex-periments have involved using the skin of the janitor fi sh as leather for wallets, watch straps, billfolds, and key chains. Skin from the fi sh’s belly can be cooked and tanned to make various leather products or embellishments. Its poten-tial use as leather is great though a more effi cient production process has to be developed.

Oil has also been extracted from janitor fi sh, which raises the possibility of its use as bio-fuel.

Perhaps the easiest way to eradicate janitor fi sh would be to eat them, par-ticularly in the Philippines where fi sh

SPECIAL REPORTS


fi gures prominently in the local diet. The janitor fi sh in Laguna de Bay has been declared safe for human consump-tion by the LLDA and do not contain toxic levels of heavy metals. Though edible, local residents however do not want to eat janitor fi sh because their current habitats are heavily polluted. In South America, where the janitor fi sh originates, locals usually gut the janitor fi sh and grill them whole or use the fi sh to make soup.

Managing the janitor fi sh population

Based on the results, the LLDA project has recommended that janitor fi sh collection activities be sustained; a modest budget by concerned agencies

be allocated; and activities to reduce the janitor fi sh population be funded. Since janitor fi sh can be used a substrate for fi sh meal, concerned agencies may con-sider promoting its utilization and en-courage feed manufacturers to use jani-tor fi sh meal as an alternative protein source and ingredient for animal feeds.

Also, since janitor fi sh breeds and grows quickly, scientists suggest that the best way to reduce its population is by catching the adults through grill nets or traps at their nesting sites.

Other livelihood opportunities may be explored and refi ned in the years to come. However, it is necessary that further studies on the janitor fi sh be conducted to effectively address their impacts on livelihood and biodiversity,

SPECIAL REPORTS


and prevent their introduction in other areas. A comprehensive bio-ecological research should be conducted so that a realistic plan to eradicate the janitor fi sh or control its proliferation in the Philippines may be formulated and implemented.

References

Alve, Kristine L. 2007. More Ways to Skin the ‘Pest.’ Philippine Daily Inquirer, 13 May 2007.

Cariño III, Jose K. 2009. Benefi ting from the Dreaded Janitor Fish. Paper presented during the Agriculture and Development Seminar Series (ADSS), SEARCA, Los Banos, Laguna, held on 13 January 2009. Laguna Lake Development Authority.

Guerrero III, Rafael D. Fresh Look on the “Janitor Fish”. S&T Post. PCAMRD (http://www.stii.dost.gov.ph/sntpost/frames/JultoSept05/Fresh%20look%20on%20the_janitor%20fi sh_pg33a.htm)


SPECIAL REPORTS

What is Mimosa pigra?

The shrub Mimosa pigra is invasive, especially in parts of Southeast Asia and Australia. It reproduces through buoyant seed pods that can be spread long distances in fl ood waters. Mimosa pigra

has the potential to spread and convert natural grassland fl oodplain ecosystems and pastures into unproductive scrubland, which are only able to sustain lower levels of biodiversity. Mimosa pigra favors a wet-dry tropical climate and grows in open, moist sites such as fl oodplains, coastal plains and river banks, agricultural areas, natural forests, planted forests, range/grasslands, scrub/shrublands, urban areas, and water courses.

ONE OF THE WORLD’S WORST INVADERS

MIMOSA PIGRA



SPECIAL REPORTS


When mature, Mimosa pigra is an erect, much branched prickly shrub reaching a height of three to six meters. Stems are greenish at fi rst but become woody, growing up to three meters long, and have randomly scattered, slightly curved prickles. Leaves are bright green, 20 to 25 centimeters long, and consist of about 15 pairs of opposite primary segments with narrow leafl ets that fold together when touched or injured, and at night. The fl owers are pink or mauve, small, regular and grouped into globu-lar heads that are one centimeter to two centimeters in diameter. The heads are borne on stalks that are two centimeters to three centimeters long. The fruit is a thick hairy, 20-25 seeded, fl attened pod borne in groups in the leaf axils. The fruit turns brown when mature, breaking into one-seeded segments.

Mimosa pigra is more likely to colo-nize and eventually cause problems in disturbed areas. This is because Mimosa pigra seeds have the ability to establish rapidly on bare soils, which lack com-petitive pressures imposed by other seedlings. The species does not appear to prefer any soil type, but is found most commonly in soils ranging from black cracking clays to sandy clays to coarse siliceous river sand.

Mimosa pigra is native to tropical America where it can be found from Mexico through Central America to northern Argentina. It is a serious intro-

duced weed in Africa, Asia, some Pacifi c islands, and Australia.

General impactsMimosa pigra has the potential to

harm a wide range of ecosystems and damage various industries. If large infes-tations occur on farmland, Mimosa pigra may reduce the area of grazing land. If livestock on certain farms are reliant on natural water sources for drinking, their access to water may be blocked, thus af-fecting meat production and livelihoods of farmers. Mimosa pigra may reduce water fl ow and increase siltation since it favors the edges of water courses. This may threaten the sustainability of res-ervoirs, canals and any associated live-lihoods. The shrub may also interfere with the cultivation of other economi-cally-important plants. For example, it can cause a decrease in the production of palm oil since Mimosa pigra may compete with young palm trees in im-mature oil palm plantations.

In Thailand, Mimosa pigra blocks irrigation systems that supply rice fields, reducing crop yield and harm-ing farming livelihoods. This also encouraged increases in the numbers of rats and crabs that damage crops. In Viet Nam, it is typically found along the edges of both natural and manmade water bodies and along roadsides. It has also invaded unique ecosystems in protected areas, threat-ening the biodiversity of seasonally flooded grasslands.

Mimosa pigra may also cause prob-lems in other industries such as power generation since it may grow along power poles on roadsides. It may en-danger drivers since the plant can block road signs and thus increase the poten-tial for traffi c accidents.

Mimosa pigra management in the Lower Mekong Basin

In the lower Mekong Basin, Mi-mosa pigra invades wetlands, freshwa-

Use(s) Laos Cambodia Thailand Vietnam

Feeds for goats X

Firewood X X

Mushroom cultivation (ear wood)

X

Dye for fi shnets (mixed with buffalo blood)

X


SPECIAL REPORTS


ter systems and public lands. It spreads primarily through water fl ows and the transportation of sand and soil for con-struction.

The spread of the shrub has severe impacts on human livelihood since it af-fects rice fi elds, thus increasing the cost of rice production and possibly lead to the loss of farm lands. Mimosa pigra also disturbs fi shing activities and affects wa-ter-based transportation.

Mimosa pigra does have some ben-efi ts, and has been used by people in the Mekong Basin as feed for goats, fi re-wood, for mushroom cultivation, and dye (when mixed with buffalo blood)

for fi shnets.The University Network for Wet-

land Research and Training in the Me-kong Region provides capacity building activities to deal with the spread of Mi-mosa pigra. The network was established in May 2003 with 14 universities from six countries in Southeast Asia, namely:

1. Royal University of Agriculture (Cambodia)

2. Royal University of Phnom Penh (Cambodia)

3. National University of Laos (Lao PDR)

4. Champasak University (Lao PDR)

5. Mahidol University (Thailand)6. Chulalongkorn University

(Thailand)7. Mahasarakham University

(Thailand)8. Konkern University (Thailand)9. An Giang University (Viet

Nam)10. Can Tho University (Viet

Nam)11. Nong Lam University (Viet

Nam)12. Vietnam National University

(Viet Nam)13. University Saint Malaysia

(Malaysia)14. Yezin Agricultural University

(Myanmar)Each university in the network focuses

on a particular area in the Lower Mekong Basin to conduct studies on the manage-ment of Mimosa pigra. Training activities have focused on fi eld survey and mapping; determining density and biomass; develo-ing a soil seed bank; studying impacts on biodiversity and human livelihood, as well as controlling methods.

References

Duong Van Ni and Tran Triet. 2008. “Mimosa pigra Management in the Lower Mekong Basin: A Regional Cooperation” presented at the “ASEAN Workshop on Invasive Alien Species Management” on 17-18 December 2008 in Hanoi, Viet Nam. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Viet Nam and ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity.

Global Invasive Species Database. Ecology of Mimosa pigra (http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=41&fr=1&sts=sss&lang=EN)

Mimosa pigra used as feeds for goats and for mushroom culture.


INDONESIA

Gunung LeuserNational Park

PROFILES

The Indonesia island of Sumatra contains some of the country’s last great forest wilderness. The core of this is contained within the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as The Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra, which spans the Barisan Range of mountains

and includes three major national parks: Bukit Barisan Selatan, Kerinci-Seblat and Gunung Leuser.



PROFILES

Established in 1980, Gunung Leuser National Park is located in the north of Sumatra. It covers 950,000 hectares (7,927 square kilometers) and is one of Indonesia’s largest national parks. The Park encompasses what used to be a number of much smaller nature reserves: Nature Reserve Gunung Leuser, Nature Reserve Kappi, Nature Reserve Kluet, Sikundur Langkat Wildlife Reserve, Ket-ambe Research Station, Singkil Barat and Dolok Sembilin.

Most parts of the National Park lie in the region of Aceh Tenggara (Southeast Aceh). Other parts are situated in the region of east Aceh, south Aceh, and Langkat (a part of North Sumatra). The Park comprises more than 100 kilometers of the Bukit Barisan Mountains. As a result, the Park consists of steep, almost inaccessible mountainous terrain, with altitudes that range from 0 meters in Kluet (South Aceh), to 3,381 meters on top of Gunung Leuser (Southeast Aceh), after which the Park is named. The Alas River cuts the Park into an eastern and western half.

The Gunung Lesuer National Park is par-ticularly signifi cant for conservation since it is the last place where orangutans, tigers, elephants, rhinoceros and leopards live together.

HabitatsThe National Park protects a wide range of

ecosystems, such as beach forest, swamp areas, lowland rainforest, alpine and mountain forest.

WildlifeAmong the 10,000 plant species recorded in

the West Indo Malayan Region, approximately

8,000 can be found in the Gunung Leuser ecosys-tem. Among these are giant trees, palms, fl owers, orchids, mangrove trees, and fruit trees such as mango, rambutan, banana, durian, wild fi gs, and citrus. Spectacular species include raffl esia, which has the largest fl ower in the world, and amor-phophallus, which has the tallest. There are also graceful bamboos that grow up to 18 meters.

Mammals There are around 200 species of mammals in

the Park, including the Sumatran tiger, rhinoc-eros, elephant, clouded leopard, marbled cat, Temminck’s golden cat, red giant fl ying squirrel, Sumatran serow, sambar deer and sun bear. It is believed to contain around 300 elephants, 110 tigers and 40 rhinoceros but the chances of seeing one of these is slim. An estimated 5,000 orang-utan can be found in the Park. Other primates like the white-breasted Thomas leaf monkey, siamang, gibbon and several species of macaques are common all over the area.

Birds Among the trees and fl owers live more than

300 species of birds, including 21 endemics such as the Sumatran ground cuckoo and Sumatran cochoa. Birds are particularly common along the Alas River, and different species include hornbills (such as the Asian pied hornbill and rhinoceros hornbill), pheasants (e.g. argus pheasant), parrots (like the blue-crowned hanging parrot), eagles (such as the white-bellied sea eagle), kingfi shers, and bee-eaters. There are more varieties but the dense vegetation makes it diffi cult to watch them.

Pitcher plant


Reptiles and amphibians Both groups are highly represented, with

estimates of up to 194 reptiles and amphibians in the Park. Among the most famous are several species of pythons, the king cobra, black cobra, krait, tree snakes, as well as many species of frogs, turtles, and lizards. These include the swamp crocodile, estuarine crocodile, fl ying frog, fl ying snake, common fl ying lizard, hawksbill turtle, leatherback turtle, and water monitor.

ThreatsSumatra has a large and growing human

population and hundreds of villages often sur-round or even lie within remaining forests and national parks. This presents a challenge to park managers as they balance the need to protect natural habitats and wildlife while respecting the rights and livelihoods of local people.

Currently, the greatest threat to the wildlife and wildlands of Gunung Leuser National Park is forest clearance, typically through small-scale

agricultural encroachments, often for coffee grow-ing. Illegal logging is extremely rampant on the island, within and outside protected areas. An estimated 4,000 hectares of forest across Sumatra is damaged or removed each day. As the forest is removed, fl ooding occurs and becomes wide-spread. Illegal unsustainable hunting is another major threat, as tiger and rhinoceros poaching activities continue. These activities have severe implications on the survival of various species. In fact, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has rated Indonesia as a coun-try whose endangered species are under threat of extinction.

Conservation programmesA number of organizations have conserva-

tion projects or activities in the Park as well as its associated ecosystems. The Leuser International Foundation, for example, strives to support the protection and conservation of the Leuser Eco-system, even beyond the confi nes of the National Park. The LIF promotes sustainable development

PROFILES


White-breasted Thomas leaf monkey

Butterfl y Lizard


PROFILES

solutions that provide benefi ts to local communi-ties and maintain the region’s natural biodiversity and original landscapes. In areas where environ-mental degradation has occurred, LIF aims to curtail destructive activities, and through land rehabilitation, restore the life-supporting ecologi-cal functions of the region.

The Foundation was established in 1994 and its senior members are respected leaders from Aceh and North Sumatra. The LIF has a 30-year mandate through Presidential Decree (Kepres 33/1998) to implement the manage-ment of the Leuser Ecosystem and ensure that environmental services are maintained for the benefi t of the populations that live around it. The major objectives of the organization include the following:

1. Secure the legal acknowledgement of the Leuser Ecosystem. Recognizing that the wealth of biodiversity goes beyond the Gunung Leuser National Park, the LIF has worked with Park staff and other agencies in gaining recognition for an area that is now three times the size of the Park. Known as the Leuser Ecosystem, the site is now fully backed by several legal instruments including two ministerial decrees, one presidential decree and a draft Government Regulation.

2. Support the process of zonation of the Leuser Ecosystem. A zoning system that includes a core conservation area and buffer zones will be drawn up through a bottom-up process with the full involve-ment of government and non-government organizations at the local level.

3. Win broad based support for the conser-vation of the Leuser Ecosystem. Winning the support of local communities is a complicated process but is essential to the successful conservation of the Leuser Ecosystem.

4. Slow down the rate of destruction and re-verse the damage to the Leuser Ecosystem. Extraordinary gains have already been made in preventing the worst abuses in-side the Leuser Ecosystem, resulting in the reduction of illegal logging, and preven-tion of many inappropriate infrastructure plans, such as irrigation schemes and road networks that would have caused habitat fragmentation.

5. Prevent the extinction of key species of fl ora and fauna. LIF projects also help sustain endangered species in the Park, particularly the Sumatran rhinoceros, elephants and orangutans, which require

large areas of lowland rainforest to survive. Regular patrols and other activities by LIS have helped keep habitats intact and saved these and many other species from extinc-tion.

One project of LIF is the Aceh Forest and Environment Project (AFEP) that was developed in 2004 to maintain the life-supporting ecologi-cal support systems of the Leuser Ecosystem for millions of Achenese. AFEP aims to ensure that environmental concerns are integrated into Aceh’s planning and reconstruction processes. AFEP activities are funded by a grant from the Multi Donor Fund (MDF) totaling US$ 9.81 million. The project will run for a period of 4.5 years, ending in December 2010. The primary objec-tives of AFEP are to:

1. mitigate the negative environmental im-pacts of reconstruction activities on Aceh’s forests;

2. improve the livelihoods of millions of Acehnese by ensuring that forest ecosys-tem services are maintained, and support Aceh’s future social and economic develop-ment;

3. build the capacities of Government forest management institutions; and

4. develop the basis for a conservation economy through sustainable fi nancing solutions.

The Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) Indonesia has a major project centered on the UNESCO Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra, which includes the Gunung Lesuer

Sumatran rhinoceros


PROFILES


National Park. WCS Indonesia has worked for many years in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, with activities ranging from small-scale research to a broad landscape-scale programme, addressing conservation needs through collab-orative management and improved development planning, and supported by research, capac-ity building, law enforcement, education and awareness. As the project develops, the lessons learned are being taken to Kerinci-Seblat and Gunung Leuser National Parks with the vision of achieving a common management strategy for the entire heritage site, backed by a network of information and resource sharing.

Within its boundaries, the Park also supports research stations and reserves such as the Orang-utan Rehabilitation at Bohorok-Bukit Lawang that rehabilitates captive orangutans and rein-

groups. Caving enthusiasts will have a great time exploring caves and other geological structures within the Park. The extensive wildlife also offers beautiful sights for photographers and bird watch-ers.

Visitors can also go to Tengkahan, which has elephants and guided jungle treks. Fewer buses go to Tengkahan than Bukit Lawang, so condi-tions are rougher and rides are longer. Travelers will have to take a two hour-ride by motorbike to Tengkahan from Bukit Lawang since there is no direct bus service between the two areas.

Visiting Gunung Leuser National ParkThe best time to visit Gunung Leuser Nation-

al Park is from June to October. Before entering the Park, visitors need to get permits at the Park management offi ces at both Bukit Lawang and Kutacane. The airport nearest the Park is found in Medan while Kutacane is the nearest town.

The Park is most easily accessible from Medan, where travelers can take a bus to either Kutacane or Bohorok-Bukit Lawang. The 233-kilome-ter ride from Medan to Kutacane goes through Brastagi and Kabanjahe and takes fi ve to six hours. There are also regular and faster mini-bus services between Medan and Kutacane. Mini-buses can be found at the Pinang Baris bus terminal in Medan. From Kutacane, mini-buses serve the Lawe Gurah Tourist Park, about 43 kilometers from Kutacane, and from there one can enter the Gunung Leuser National Park.

Visitors can also access Gunung Leuser National Park by taking a bus to the Orang-utan Rehabilitation Centre in Bohorok-Bukit Lawang. These buses leave the Pinang Baris bus terminal in Medan several times a day and will take passengers to Bukit Lawang in a few hours. Others can also choose to take a bus to Binjai (22 kilometers from Medan), and from there take a bus to Bukit Lawang. From the south, tourists can reach Bohorok-Bukit Lawang with a bus ride from Brastagi.

References

Indonesia Tourism. Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Republic of Indonesia (http://www.my-indonesia.info/index.php?lang=en)

LeuserFoundation.org (www.leuserfoundation.org)

Rainforest Lodges (http://www.gunung-leuser-trek.net/index.html)

Sumatra Travel (http://www.sumatra-indonesia.com/gunungleuser.htm)

Sumatran Tiger Reserves and National Parks (http://www.lairweb.org.nz/tiger/gunungleuser.html)

World Conservation Society (http://www.wcs.org/globalconservation/Asia/Indonesia/trhs)

World Wildlife Adventures (http://www.world-wildlife-adventures.com/indonesia/wildlife-park.asp?sanctuary=Gunung+Leuser+National+Park&state=Aceh+and+North+Sumatra+Provinces)

troduces them back into the wild. The Ketambe research station, on the other hand, is restricted to scientists working on conserving species diver-sity in the Park.

Other interestsMany mountain climbers and trekkers fl ock

to the Park due to its mountain ranges that of-fer some great trekking opportunities, namely: Gunung Leuser (3,404 meters), Gunung Kemiri (3,414 meters) Gunung Simpali (3,270 meters) and Gunung Perkinson (2,828 meters). Trekking into Gunung Leuser can be arranged at two loca-tions - Bukit Lawang and Kutacane/Ketembe.

Tourists can also go rafting, kayaking, and canoeing. Camping is encouraged for serious mountain climbers, hikers, families and student

Orangutan


PROFILES


The eastern side of the lake is a mountainous terrain that rises up to 1,175 meters. The hill to the west and north are more extensive and reaches up to 1,500 meters. Local inhabitants believe that a pow-erful spirit, known as the Dragon, protects the Lake.

HabitatsMoist upper mixed deciduous and semi-

evergreen forests on the mountainous terrain dominate the Sanctuary. The Lake habitats include open water, herbaceous marsh, fl oating mats, limited emerged beds and extensive area of submerged macrophytes.

WildlifeAs a major wetland, the water hyacinth,

known locally as baeda, is fairly common. Fauna species that have been recorded to inhabit the forests surrounding the lake include the wild elephant, leopard, bear, serow, gaur, banteng, red goral, gibbon, macaque, sambar deer, bark-ing deer, wild dog, golden jackal, wild boar, hog badger, and civet.

Aside from waterbirds, around 326 forest bird species have also been observed. Considered a bird watcher’s paradise, the Sanctuary is home to hundreds of ruddy shelduck, bar-headed goose, greyleg goose, northern shoveler, tufted duck, common crane and brown-headed gull.

Many rare species can also be found, includ-ing the red-crested pochard, grey-headed lapwing, sarus crane, lesser adjutant, black-necked stork, woolly-necked stork, white-rumped vulture, slender-billed vulture, blue-bearded bee-eater

and brahminy kite. A survey led by BirdLife International in 2004 also recorded eight globally threatened bird species, fi ve globally near-threat-ened species, as well as two new bird species for Myanmar.

A total of 64 species of fi sh have been recorded in the Lake basin. Three of these species are endemic to Myanmar, including the catfi sh (Akysis prashadi).

ThreatsAlthough Indawgyi Lake is a Wildlife Sanc-

tuary, human settlements are present and local activities may prove detrimental to the ecosystem. Agricultural areas can be found along most of the southern half of the wetland, and unregulated fi shing occurs throughout the Lake. Further dis-turbance to the wetland results from the activities of rattan collectors and hunters. Gold mining is also polluting smaller tributaries.

Conservation programmesIn 2004, a joint team comprising personnel

from the Biodiversity and Nature Conserva-tion Association (BANCA), Leicestershire and Rutland Wildlife Trust, BirdLife International in Indochina and organized by Wildbird Adven-ture Travels and Tours, undertook a survey of wetlands in the northern Kachin State as part of the Darwin Initiative-funded project entitled “Building Constituencies for Site-based Conser-vation in Myanmar”.

The project aimed at identifying Important Bird Areas (IBAs) and focused on attempting to

Wild elephant Civet


PROFILES

rediscover the pink-headed duck (Rhodonessa cary-phyllacea), which was last sighted in Myanmar in 1910. The project team, joined by staff from the Wildlife and Conservation Division of the Forest Department, surveyed Indawgi Lake, which sup-ports vast numbers of waterfowl.

During the survey, the team had a possible and unconfi rmed sighting of a pink-headed duck and recorded eight other globally threatened bird species including the green peafowl (Pavo muticus), white-winged duck (Cairina scutulata), masked fi nfoot (Heliopais personata), greater spotted eagle (Aquila clanga), white rumped vulture (Gyps bengalensis), slender-billed vulture (Gyps tenuriostris), spot-billed pelican (Pelecanus philippensis), and lesser adjutant (Leptoptilos javanicus). The expedition also recorded fi ve (5) globally near-threatened species comprising fer-ruginous pochard (Aythya nyroca), great hornbill (Buceros bicornis), lesser fi sh eagle (Ichthyophaga humilis), grey-headed fi sh eagle (Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus), black-necked stork (Ephippiorynchus asiaticus), plus two new species for Myanmar, the Himalayan griffon vulture (Gyps himalayen-sis) and chestnut-crowned bush warbler (Cettia major).

The survey is part of a bigger project within Myanmar to identify important bird areas, capacitate relevant government agencies and local conservation organizations to protect and manage wilderness areas, and create information materials to strengthen public awareness as well as mobilize support for conservation activities. The project also hopes to encourage ecotourism activities to gener-

ate funding support for conservation and provide alternative livelihoods to local communities.

Other interestsVisits to the wildlife sanctuary present

wonderful opportunities to relax and reconnect with nature. Travelers can view the wildlife and walk through the lush forest. They can also study butterfl ies and the different fl ora. Bird watching is very popular due to the extensive number of bird species around the Lake. Visitors may also participate or view traditional fi shing practices, or pass through the historically famous Shwe Myint Zu Pagoda that is situated on the western side of the Lake.

Visiting the Wildlife SanctuaryThe Wildlife Sanctuary is located in Moenyin

Township, Kachin State, in the northern part of Myanmar. Hoepin is the closest town to Indawgyi Lake and is accessible by car from Myitgyina as well as by plane from Yangon or Mandalay. From there, one can take a car to travel the 23.8-kilo-meter distance to Hoepin. The best time to visit is from the middle of October to May.

References

Eames, Jonathan C. and U. Uga. 2005. Darwin Initiative for the Survival of Species: Building constituencies for site-based conservation in Myanmar, Annual Report 2004/2005. BirdLife International and Biodiversity and Nature Conservation Association (BANCA). United Kingdom.

Myanmar Travel Information 2008 (http://myanmartravel information.com/mti-ecotourism/indawgyi-wetland.htm)

Trek Thailand (http://www.trekthailand.net/myanmar/parks/indawgyi/)

Green peafowl


MYANMAR

KhakaboraziNational Park

PROFILES

First established as a forest reserve in 1996, Khakaborazi National Park was declared a National Park in 1998. It occupies an area of 1,472 square miles and is located in Putao distrist in Kachin State, in the northernmost part of Myanmar. It features Mount Khakaborazi, which

at over 19,000 feet is the highest mountain in Myanmar. Formed with mountain ranges, waterfalls, rapid streams and ravines, it is the largest natural park in Myanmar. Khakaborazi is the natural habitat of numerous species of wildlife, including some rare birds and animals, and is a perfect haven for the nature lover and wildlife enthusiasts. It is also the home of the rare “black orchid”.



HabitatsDominant forests and vegetation types

include evergreen forests, hill pine forests, and moist upper mixed deciduous forests. The region also contains the headwaters of the country’s most important river system, the Ayeyawady, which drains vast expanses of agricultural lands and helps sustain extensive rice production.

WildlifeRare mammal species include takin, musk

deer, blue sheep, black barking deer and phet gyi (Muntiaus putaoensis).

One of the main attractions found in this region are the beautiful, colorful and rare species of butterfl ies. The beautiful yellow and black Papilionidae butterfl ies, the bright orange colored Pieridae and yellowish brown ones with black and white spots on their bodies, the Nymphalid butterfl ies, are all rare butterfl y species, but com-monly found in the Putao region.

Although rare around the world, black orchids can be found in the Park. The black orchid (Paphiopedium wardii) is systematically grown in a garden at the Khakaborazi National Park Exhibition Centre. Other rare orchid species found in Kachin State such as Cymbidium, Pleione maculata and Dendrobium nobile can be examined in the garden.

ThreatsThe greatest threats to wildlife are hunting

for trade, habitat destruction through shifting cultivation, a proposed mining concession, and

Suspension bridge

Dendrobium nobile

PROFILES

Papilionidae butterfl y


over-extraction of forest products. Many village residents hunt wildlife and trade them for basic household items or cash. However, species are also heavily hunted for trade across the border. Over-harvesting of non-timber forest products occurs as well.

Population growth and agricultural expansion have spurred extensive shifting cultivation that has resulted in degraded forest patches. A pro-posed mining concession poses a major threat to the viability of the ecosystem in the area, particu-larly since the proposed lease will last 20 years.

Conservation programmesThe Khakaborazi National Park was estab-

lished to conserve natural forests and wildlife in the northen part of Myanmar, following inter-national standards and policies in environmental conservation. Some of its specifi c objectives are to promote ecotourism in the region, and conserve watersheds in the area where the Ayeyawady River originates.

Conservation, development and research programs have been developed to protect habitats and species within the Park. These focus on actions against poaching and illegal trade of rare species; fi eld studies to study new plant and animal species; research and fi eld studies to

better promote and implement ecotourism in the park; and the conservation of traditional culture, customs and way of life of the indigenous people. The Park remains an excellent center for fi eld study for students of botany, geology, zoology and geography. The extraordinarily rich fl ora and fau-na in the Park however have barely been studied and still await proper research and identifi cation.

Other interestsThere are plenty of opportunities for educa-

tion and recreation in the National Park. The black orchid and the rare butterfl ies are among the extraordinary fl ora and fauna attractions. Many international experts have visited Khakaborazi to study the rare butterfl ies. Orchid enthusiasts and biologists can also see rare orchids planted in the botanical garden.

Climbing Mount Khakaborazi and other mountain ranges is one of the challenging activi-ties that visitors can do in the Park. They may also explore the Ayeyawady River and its headwaters. A visit to the Park will also provide insights into the traditional culture and customs of the Kachin hill tribes such as the Rawang, Lisu and Tibet – Myanmar.

The Khakaborazi National Park Exhibition Centre is another good place to visit. The Centre showcases the programmes and activities of park management and other features of the Park, including objectives, conservation tasks, achieve-ments, measures for improving and maintaining ecotourism, signifi cant natural environs of Kachin State, and other biodiversity values of the region. These are highlighted through numerous photo-graphs and relevant maps of the area.

Visiting Khakaborazi National ParkVisitors can fl y to Yangon and travel to Myit-

kyina by car (920 miles or 1,472 kilometers) or by train (723 miles or 1,157 kilometers). From My-itkyina, they still need to travel by land to Putao (218 miles or 349 kilometers), and then go on to Naungmung (35 miles or 56 kilometers).

References

Adventurous Expeditions in Myanmar (http://www.myanmar.net/myanmar-expeditions/khakaborazi-park.htm)

Madhu Rao, Arlyne Johnson, and Nora Bynum. Assessing Threats in Conservation Planning and

Management. Wildlife ConservationSociety.

Gold Backed Travel and Tours (http://www.goldbacked-lynn.com/ecotourism_khakaborazi.html)

Golden Rock Travel and Tours (http://www.visitmyanmar.com/Pages/EcoTours.html)

Myanmar Travel Information 2008 (http://myanmartravel information.com/mti-ecotourism/khakaborazi-national-park.htm)

Trek Thailand (http://www.trekthailand.net/myanmar/parks/khakaborazi/)

PROFILES


Icy creek


Biodiversity Loss: The Forgotten Crisis

When the sub-prime mortgage cri-sis hit the United States, fear of a

deep and prolonged recession quickly spread across continents. Another pan-ic attack ensued when the Melamine scare shook milk-importing countries. World attention is focused on the hu-manitarian implications of the ongo-ing confl ict in the Middle East. Bur-ied under these infamous issues and other problems such as terrorism, high crimes, and corruption is a less popu-lar crisis with far greater implications than anyone can imagine – biodiversity loss.

“We are losing plants, animals and other species at unprecedented rates due to deforestation, large-scale min-ing, massive wildlife hunting and other irresponsible human activities. Biodi-versity loss is a signifi cant threat to our food security, health, livelihood, and the world’s overall capacity to provide for our needs and those of future genera-tions,” ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity Executive Director Rodrigo U. Fuentes said.

The Millennium Ecosystem Assess-ment published in 2005 reported that humans have increased extinction lev-els dramatically over the past decades at 100 to 1,000 times the normal back-ground rate. In Southeast Asia alone, 1,312 out of 64,800 species are endan-gered.

“No one will argue that it is in the area of food security, perhaps more than any other, that the value of biodiversity value is most clear. Nature provides the plant and animal resources for food production and agricultural productiv-ity. When we destroy biodiversity, we destroy our source of food,” Director Fuentes explained.

The Food and Agriculture Organi-zation reported that out of more than 10,000 different plant species used for food by humans over the millen-nia, barely 150 species remain under cultivation. Of these, only 12 species provide 80 percent of the world’s food needs and only four – rice, wheat, maize and potatoes – provide more than half of human’s energy requirements. “What

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happened to the other 9,850 species? If they have not been lost already, they are now vulnerable,” Director Fuentes said.

The ongoing food crisis, he said, is testament to decades of misguided en-ergy policies, extensive use of unsustain-able agricultural practices, and wanton destruction of nature and damage to ecological services.

Health is another arena where the natural benefi ts of a healthy biodiver-sity are most obvious. “The natural world holds the key to many medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs. If the world continues to lose around 13 million hectares of its forest cover every year, it would be diffi cult to develop better kinds of medicine to cure both existing and emerging illnesses. We have to remember that about 80 percent of the world’s known biodiversity, many of which have medicinal value, could be found in forests,” Director Fuentes said.

Apart from providing people with food and medicine, nature also offers a wide range of ecosystem services such as

contribution to climate stability, main-tenance of ecosystems, soil formation and protection, and pollution break-down and absorption. Biodiversity is also a source of livelihood to millions as the economy of many communities is driven by the use of species in industries such as biotechnology, forestry, agricul-ture and fi sheries. Moreover, biodiver-sity provides social benefi ts including recreation and tourism, as well as cul-tural and aesthetic values.

“Forgetting the biodiversity crisis is therefore akin to cutting our lifeline to the world’s natural treasures. We at ACB wish to remind everyone that extinction is forever. And with every species lost, the natural ecosystems we call home become biologically poorer,” Director Fuentes underscored.

The consensus to save the region’s thinning biodiversity moved the As-sociation of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), with funding support from the European Union (EU), to establish the ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodi-versity Conservation (ARCBC) project.


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54 JANUARY - APRIL 2 0 0 9 w w w . a s e a n b i o d i v e r s i t y . o r g

From 1999 to 2004, the project facil-itated collaboration among ASEAN Member States for biodiversity-re-lated initiatives. In 2005, the ASEAN and the EU agreed to establish the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity to carry on the work of the completed ARCBC project.

“It is the fi rst regional initiative to save the ASEAN’s rich but highly threatened biodiversity,” Director Fuentes said. All ASEAN Member States are signatories to the Convention on Biological Diversity, the fi rst global agreement to cover the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use

of its components, and the fair and eq-uitable sharing of benefi ts arising from the use of genetic resources. By signing the Convention, they committed to re-ducing biodiversity loss by 2010 --- the International Year of Biodiversity.

The ACB performs its mandate through programme development and policy coordination, human and insti-tutional capacity development, biodi-versity information management, and public and leadership awareness of bio-diversity values.

The Centre strengthens its efforts through alliances with key stakeholders in the regional and global levels. “There is an urgent need to involve all sectors to save the region’s endangered biodi-versity. The issue may not be as hot as politics or the global fi nancial crisis, but massive biodiversity loss will have a huge impact on the lives of hundreds of mil-lions if left unsolved. Our biodiversity faces a bright future if all sectors would work together to conserve it,” Director Fuentes said.

Deforestation


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As threats to biodiversity continue to mount, areas of the world that ex-

emplify tremendous biodiversity but face massive negative impacts from various forces fi nd themselves on a poignant list – the biodiversity hotspots.

How do we decide which areas are priorities for conservation? In 1988, Brit-ish ecologist Norman Myers developed the concept of ‘biodiversity hotspots’ to address the dilemma of identifying areas most important for preserving species. Many areas of global signifi cance face tremendous pressure from logging, ag-riculture, hunting, and climate change, among others. The hotspots strategy em-phasizes risks of species extinction, since species loss is irreversible. The strategy also emphasizes species endemism. Since these species can only be found in spe-cifi c areas, the loss of such areas would be considered “irreplaceable”.

Myers developed the hotspots con-cept with Conservation International (CI), which adopted the strategy in 1989. CI designated hotspots as regions that must support at least 1,500 plant species found nowhere else in the world, and they must have lost at least 70 per-cent of its original habitat. The organiza-tion employs a dual conservation strategy that always prioritizes endemic-rich and high risk areas, while preemptively pro-tecting equally unique places that are not yet under extreme threat.

The CI has identifi ed 34 biodiversity hotspots all over the world. These regions hold especially high numbers of endemic species, yet their combined area of re-maining habitat covers only 2.3 percent of the Earth’s land surface. Each hotspot faces extreme threats and has already lost at least 70 percent of its original natu-ral vegetation. Over 50 percent of the world’s plant species and 42 percent of all terrestrial vertebrate species are endemic to these areas. Four of these hotspots are in Southeast Asia: Indo-Burma, the Phil-ippines, Sundaland and Wallacea.

SE ASIAN hotspots are getting hotter

Scientists have long lauded the wealth of biodiversity found in the Southeast

insular Malaysia. The hotspot also covers the coastal lowlands of southern China, and several offshore islands.

Some of the features of biodiversity richness in Indo-Burma include:

• Around 13,500 vascular plant species, of which about 7,000 (52 percent) are endemic;

• Over 1,260 bird species, of which more than 60 are endemic;

• 430 mammal species, of which more than 70 species and seven genera are endemic;

• 520 reptile species, of which 12 genera and over 200 species are endemic;

• Highest diversity of freshwater turtles in the world with 53 spe-cies, representing one-fi fth of the world’s species;

• More than 280 amphibian spe-cies, over 150 of which are en-demic; and

• More than 1,260 documented freshwater fi sh species, or about 10 percent of the world’s freshwa-ter fi shes. More than 560 of these species are endemic.

Philippines

The Philippines holds the distinction as the only country in the ASEAN identi-fi ed as a biodiversity hotspot. Geological movements, tropical weather and once extensive forest cover of the country have conspired to develop high species diver-sity in some groups of organisms and a very high level of endemism. There are fi ve major and at least fi ve minor centers of endemism, from Luzon (with at least 31 endemic mammal species) to tiny Camiguin Island (at least two endemic mammal species). The Philippines has among the highest rates of discovery in the world with 16 new species of mam-mals discovered in the last 10 years.

Some features of the Philippines’ rich biodiversity include:

• 9,250 vascular plant species, of which at least one-third are en-demic;

• More than 150 species of palms, of which around two-thirds are endemic;

Revisiting ASEAN Biodiversity HotspotsAsian region. Occupying a mere three percent of the world’s surface, the region is home to 20 percent of all known plant, animal and marine species. The region includes three mega-diverse countries - Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines; several bio-geographical units - Malesia, Wallacea, Sundaland, Indo-Burma, and the Central Indo-Pacifi c; and numerous centers of concentration of restricted-range bird, plant and insect species. It also has one-third or 284,000 square kilome-ters of all coral reefs. Many of the region’s species are also biologically diverse from the rest of the world due to the unique geological history of Southeast Asia.

However, various drivers of biodi-versity loss continue to undermine the region’s natural environment. Out of 64,800 species found in the region, 1,312 are endangered due to deforestation; wild-life hunting for food, pets, and medicine; climate change; pollution; population growth; and other causes. Destruction of habitats will result in long-term impacts on ecosystem services, as well as lead to the extinction of valuable species.

Biodiversity hotspots in Southeast Asia include the following:

Indo-Burma The Indo-Burma hotspot encom-

passes 2,373,000 square kilometers of tropical Asia. It contains the Lower Mekong catchment, and begins in east-ern Bangladesh and then extends across north-eastern India, to encompass nearly all of Myanmar, part of southern and western Yunnan Province in China, all of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Cambodia and Vietnam, the vast major-ity of Thailand, and a small part of Pen-


• 1,000 species of orchids, with 70 percent endemic;

• Over 530 bird species; of these, about 185 are endemic (35 per-cent) and over 60 are threatened;

• At least 165 mammal species, with over 100 endemic species (61 per cent), one of the highest levels of mammal endemism in any hotspot;

• 235 species of reptiles, of which some 160 are endemic (68 per cent);

• Nearly 90 amphibian species, of which almost 85 percent are en-demic;

• More than 280 inland fi sh, in-cluding nine endemic genera and more than 65 endemic species, many of which are confi ned to single lakes; and

• 21,000 recorded insect species, of which 70 percent are endemic.

SundalandThe Sundaland hotspot covers the

western half of the Indo-Malayan archi-pelago, and is dominated by Borneo and Sumatra. It is bordered by three hotspots: Indo-Burma, on the northwest; Walla-cea, on the east, and the Philippines, on the northeast.

Samples of Sundaland’s unique and threatened biodiversity include:

• About 25,000 species of vascular plants, of which 15,000 (60 per-cent) are endemic;

• About 3,000 species of trees in Borneo, including more than 265 species of dipterocarps, of which 155 are endemic;

• More than 2,000 species of or-chids in Borneo;

• Approximately 770 bird species, nearly 150 are endemic. Borneo supports nearly 30 endemic spe-cies.

• More than 380 mammal species, over 170 are endemic. Borneo has the most endemic mammal species of any island in the hot-spot, with over 25 species.

• Over 450 species of reptiles, of which roughly 250 are endemic, including 24 genera; 265 (40 percent) are endemic.

There are also 29 endemic gen-era.

• Sulawesi has the largest number of fauna, with 356 species, in-cluding 96 endemics.

• More than 220 mammal species, with around 125 endemics.

• Sulawesi has at least seven species of endemic macaques and at least fi ve species of endemic tarsiers.

• More than 220 species of reptiles, of which nearly 100 are endemic.

• Nearly 50 amphibian species; more than 30 of these are endemic.

• More than 300 freshwater fi sh species, of which about 75 are endemic. Sulawesi alone has nearly 70 known fi sh species, and about three-quarters of these are endemic.

These four hotspots cut across a wide area of the region, and stress the signifi -cance of the region’s rich biodiversity, as well as the rapid rate of biodiversity loss caused by wide-ranging threats.

According to Executive Director Ro-drigo U. Fuentes of the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB), these biodiversity hotspots underline the need for a region-al approach to biodiversity conservation to protect a common resource base.

“The ASEAN environment is a shared heritage, and all Member States must work together to ensure greater success in reducing biodiversity loss and thus maximizing its benefi ts for the peo-ple of the region,” said Fuentes.

References

Conservation International (www.conservation.org)

National Geographic News (www.news.nationalgeographic.com)

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• More than 240 species of am-phibians, of which nearly 200 are endemic; and

• About 1,000 known species of fi sh, of which about 200 species have only been discovered in the last decade. Borneo has about 430 species, of which more than 160 are endemic.

WallaceaWallacea encompasses the central is-

lands of Indonesia, east of Java, Bali, and Borneo, and west of the province of New Guinea, and the whole of Timor Leste. The hotspot occupies a total land area of 338,494 square kilometers including the large island of Sulawesi, the Moluccas, and the Lesser Sundas.

Some features of the rich biodiversity of Wallacea include:

• An estimated 10,000 species of vascular plants, with roughly 1,500 endemic species (15 per cent) and at least 12 endemic genera. There are about 500 endemic species on Sulawesi, 120 on the Lesser Sudas and 300 on the Moluccas.

• About 650 regularly occurring bird species, of which roughly



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The Ministry of Forestry of Myan-mar headed by its Minister, Briga-

dier General Thein Aung and other key ministry offi cials met with offi cials of the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB) on 08 January 2009 to strength-en cooperation efforts in conserving biodiversity. The ACB contingent led by Executive Director Rodrigo U. Fuentes also consulted Myanmar’s forestry offi -cials on the ongoing processes leading to the ratifi cation of ACB’s Establish-ment Agreement by at least six ASEAN Member States.

As of the January meeting, Brunei Darussalam, Lao PDR, the Philippines, Singapore and Viet Nam have signed the Establishment Agreement. Director Fuentes explained that the enforcement of the Establishment Agreement would lead to the full recognition of ACB’s legal personality, enabling it to enjoy the rights and privileges accorded to an international organization. The Agree-ment will only enter into force upon the deposit of the sixth Instrument of Ratifi cation with the Secretary-General of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).

Apart from discussing the Establish-ment Agreement, the Ministry of For-estry and the ACB conducted a “Na-tional Consultation Workshop for the Preparation of the 4th National Report” on 09 January 2009 to assist Myanmar in preparing its report. Policymakers in the environment sector, planning of-fi cers, and scientists participated in the workshop co-organized by Myanmar’s National Commission for Environmen-tal Affairs, Ministry of Forestry.

“The workshop was held to con-sult with national level stakeholders of Myanmar on the identifi cation and refi nement of workable sets of informa-tion and policy-relevant biodiversity indicators meaningful in the context of the 2010 target,” Director Fuentes said. It also sought to share information on biodiversity status, specifi cally those on mainstreaming biodiversity into the sectoral and inter-sectoral policies and indicators used in the 4th National Re-port.

Biodiversity indicators are informa-tion tools that summarize data on com-plex environmental issues to indicate the overall status and trends of biodiversity. These indicators can be used to assess national performance and to signal key issues to be addressed through policy in-terventions and other actions.

Countries all over the world, includ-ing Myanmar, are working to achieve their commitment in reducing the cur-rent rate of plant, animal and marine species loss by 2010. The countries are preparing for the ASEAN 2010 Biodi-versity Assessment Report that would show whether or not their conservation efforts are succeeding.

The ACB assists ASEAN Member States in generating information needed for the Report through national consul-tation workshops. The national work-shop served as a venue for Myanmar to consolidate its available information and to draft its country report which is expected to be submitted in 2009 to the Secretariat of the Convention on Bio-logical Diversity. The report will then be used in crafting the 3rd Global Bio-diversity Outlook Report.

The 2010 Biodiversity Target was set in 2002 by the Parties to the Con-vention on Biological Diversity. The Target, endorsed by leaders at the World

Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 and at the United Nations Sum-mit in 2005, has been included in the Millennium Development Goals.

The ACB offi cials’ visit to Myan-mar further strengthened collaboration between ACB and Myanmar. For the past three years, Myanmar has been a partner of ACB in regional collabora-tive efforts in the conservation and sus-tainable use of biodiversity in South-east Asia through ACB programmes that refl ect the needs of ASEAN Member States, the Vientiane Action Programme (VAP), and the decisions by the ASEAN Ministers on Environ-ment. Myanmar has participated in ACB workshops on management ef-fectiveness assessment, protected areas management, biodiversity indicators, preparation of national biodiversity strategic action plans, and mainstream-ing biodiversity.

The thrusts and programmes of ACB have been developed through a consultative process at various levels that involved representatives from the relevant institutions of ASEAN Mem-ber States, the ASEAN Working Group on Nature Conservation and Biodiver-sity, and the ACB Governing Board Members, wherein Myanmar is an ac-tive participant.

Myanmar and ACB Strengthen Partnership

ACB Executive Directro Rodrigo U. Fuentes pays a courtesy visit on U Than Tun, Director-General of the ASEAN Affairs Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Myanmar.


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Every second of February each year, environmentalists all over the world

celebrate World Wetlands Day (WWD), which marks the signing of the Con-vention on Wetlands in Ramsar, Iran (also known as the Ramsar Conven-tion). This year’s slogan is “Upstream – Downstream: Wetlands Connect Us All”, which is designed around a theme of wetlands and river basin management or the role wetlands play in their sur-rounding environments.

Wetlands encompass a broad range of ecosystems and is defi ned by the Ramsar Con-vention as “areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or artifi cial, perma-nent or temporary, with water that is static or fl owing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water, with depths not exceeding six me-ters at low tide”.

The WWD 2009 pro-vided an opportunity to build on the achievements of the 10th Conference of Parties or COP 10 and for people to look around their own wetland and its interconnec-tions with the environment around it – how the wetland benefi ts the surroundings and how activities throughout the river basin may affect their wetland. This year’s theme “Upstream – Downstream” essentially captures the sense of interconnectedness people have with the river basin, and how communities can be impacted by activities of those upstream and how their activities affect those downstream.

In 2008, the 158 contracting parties to the Convention on Wetlands met in Changwon, the Republic of Korea for the COP 10 with the theme “Healthy Wetlands, Healthy People”. At the end of the Conference, the Changwon Dec-laration presented an overview of prior-ity action steps that together show “how to” deliver some of the world’s most

critical environmental sustainability goals.

The Declaration emphasizes the signifi cance of wetland governance; actions people may take to ensure the effectiveness of wetlands in the fi ght against climate change; the interconnec-tion between people’s livelihoods and

health on wetlands; the effects of land use change and biodiversity loss; plan-ning and sustainable fi nancing; as well as sharing knowledge and experience in wetland conservation management.

The 10 Member States of the As-sociation of Southeast Asian Nations and the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity actively participated in the COP 10 as wetland management is a crucial issue in biodiversity conservation in South-east Asia.

One of the highlights of the Con-ference was the presentation of awards

to people who have played impor-tant roles in wetland conservation and management. The Ramsar Wetland Conservation Award in the Education category was awarded to Dr. Sansanee Choowaew of Mahidol University, Thai-land. Dr Choowaew was recognized for her 15-year experience and exceptional

contribution to wetland man-agement, education, capac-ity building, and training in Thailand and in Asia. She has published a large number of educational and public aware-ness materials and participated in extensive learning projects. In addition to her achieve-ments as an academician and a teacher, Dr Choowaew has been largely involved with communities and their repre-sentatives, valuing traditional knowledge and culture related to wetlands. She has been associated with the Ramsar Centre Japan and has served on the steering committee of several Asian Wetland Sympo-sium meetings.

The Ramsar Convention continues to provide guid-ance on managing river basins because it is such a vital issue: good site management can be quickly negated by bad deci-sions on managing water at the basin level. While wetland managers need to engage at all levels with the water managers, the basin level is probably the

most challenging. However, raising pub-lic awareness on the importance of river basins should be a primary concern. All people are users of river basins, and all human activities have an impact on the basin. Ensuring a better understanding of river basin functions, the impact of users, and the challenges of good man-agement, is the key focus for Wetlands day 2009 and should be a major concern for conservation organizations.

Other information on wetlands and the Ramsar Convention is available on www.ramsar.org.

Upstream-Downstream: Wetlands Connect Us All


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Biodiversity scientists, experts and policymakers gathered at the In-

ternational Symposium for East and Southeast Asia Biodiversity Inventory Initiative (ESABII), hosted by Japan on 21 January 2009 at the United Nations University U Thant Interna-tional Conference Hall in To-kyo, Japan.

Among the presenters was ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB) Executive Director Ro-drigo U. Fuentes who discussed ACB’s biodiversity information sharing initiative.

“One of the key challenges faced by ASEAN Member States is the lack of tools to effectively share taxonomic information. Establishing these tools is crucial to information sharing which in turn en-hances collaboration among Southeast Asian countries,” Director Fuentes said.

The ACB developed the Biodiversity Information Sharing Service (BISS) as a common platform for sharing and link-

ing national biodiversity information in the ASEAN region. BISS is anchored on the Vientiane Action Plan and program areas of the ASEAN Working Group on Nature Conservation and Biodiversity, which called for the establishment of a

functional regional database or network of national databases containing an in-ventory of the biological resources of Southeast Asia.

ACB carried on the work initiated by its predecessor, the ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation, and introduced new features to enhance

the ASEAN-BISS. The ASEAN-BISS was initially developed to reduce the burden of country reporting to global biodiversity treaties by streamlining and facilitating the collation of various types of relevant information. Among its key features are live maps that can be loaded initially via Google Earth, protected ar-eas and species lists with ASEAN and International Union for Conservation of Nature categories, interactive maps, and socio-economic data in maps. Both the ASEAN-BISS and Enhanced

ASEAN-BISS apply Geographic Information System (GIS) con-cepts and methodologies.

“The use of GIS technology enables the Enhanced ASEAN-BISS to perform more in-depth analyses ranging from the simple display of geographic data to com-plex, multistep analytical models. The application of GIS technol-ogy to biodiversity information makes information a powerful tool to support policy and deci-

sion making,” Director Fuentes said.Director Fuentes also participated

in the policy dialogue “Conserving Bio-diversity and Promoting Sustainable Development: Biodiversity Issues and Challenges in ASEAN” on 25 January at the United Nations University.

ACB Discusses Biodiversity Sharing Service at International Forum

Biodiversity Inventory Symposium in Tokyo


For in-depth information and news on biodiversity across Southeast Asia, check out the ASEAN Biodiversity Newsmagazine, the quarterly international publication of the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB)!

ASEAN Biodiversity features special reports on biodiversity-related themes in the ASEAN context, such as climate change, ecotourism, transboundary protected areas, and ASEAN Heritage Parks. Profi les on protected areas provide information on the status of habitats and wildlife, and interesting activities in the parks. A pull-out section on specifi c species can be interesting reference materials for researchers and students. The magazine also features ongoing programmes and activities of ACB that assist ASEAN Member States in addressing various biodiversity conservation issues.

ACB welcomes contributions from volunteer writers and photographers who want to help popularize biodiversity. Interested parties may contact Dr. Monia T. Uriarte, Editor of ASEAN Biodiversity at [email protected], Rolando A. Inciong, Head of ACB’s Public Affairs at [email protected], or Ms. Sahlee Bugna-Barrer at [email protected], or call ACB at (+632) 928-3210 and (+632) 929-4147.

ASEAN Biodiversity magazine online


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Cambodia and the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB) together

continue to strengthen their efforts on initiatives to promote wetlands and biodiversity conservation in Southeast Asia.

In observance of World Wetlands Day on 02 February 2009, Cambodia and the ACB joined environmentalists across the globe in celebrating the sig-nifi cance of wetlands and the need for their conservation.

To raise awareness on wetlands, Cambodia’s Department of Wetlands and Coastal Zones, in cooperation with ACB, hosted a lecture dubbed “Up-stream, Downstream” on 7 February 2009 at the Stung Treng Ramsar Site. Hundreds of primary school students from the Osvay Primary School, uni-versity students, and offi cers from Cam-

bodia’s Ministry of Environment and other government institutions attended the lecture.

“The event was organized to edu-cate students, communities, govern-ment agencies, civil societies and other institutions on the signifi cance of wetlands and biodiversity conserva-tion to the sustainable development of Cambodia’s natural resources,” said Dr. Suey Sunleang, Deputy Director of Department of Wetlands and Coastal Zones of General Department of Ad-ministration for Nature Conservation and Protection of Cambodia’s Ministry of Environment.

Cambodia is home to Stung Treng that was declared a Ramsar site in 1999. The site encompasses the entire Me-kong River, its islands and channels, to the terrestrial boundary 150 meters

to the landward side of the riverbanks. Stung Treng is important for the migra-tion of over 100 species of fi sh between Lake Tonle Sap and the upper reaches of the Mekong above Khone Falls.

World Wetlands Day is organized annually to commemorate the signing of the Ramsar Convention (Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat) on 2 February 1971 in Ramsar, Iran.

Wetlands are areas of water, marsh, fen or peatland with static or fl owing brackish or salt water. Wetlands may be natural or artifi cial, permanent or tem-porary and include areas of marine water which are below six meters at low tide. A large portion of the people of ASEAN depends on wetland resources for their livelihoods, and yet only a small fraction of the population understands what wet-lands are.

Working together to strengthen biodiversity conservation

On 16-17 February 2008, ACB of-fi cials met with key environment and foreign affairs offi cials of Cambodia to further strengthen their cooperation in

World Wetlands Day: ‘Upstream, Downstream’

Cambodia Promotes Wetlandsand Biodiversity Conservation


conserving the country’s and the South-east Asia’s biodiversity.

A priority agenda for discussion, according to ACB Executive Director Rodrigo U. Fuentes, was the ongoing process leading to the ratifi cation of the Establishment Agreement (EA) of ACB. The EA embodies the commit-ment of ASEAN Member States (AMS) in establishing ACB as a regional centre that facilitates cooperation and coordi-nation among AMS and with relevant organizations on the conservation and sustainable use of Southeast Asia’s rich but highly threatened biodiversity.

The Centre also conducted a “Na-tional Consultation Workshop for the Preparation of the 4th National Report” on 16 February to assist Cambodia in preparing its report. Policymakers in the environment sector, planning of-fi cers, and scientists participated in the workshop co-organized by Cambodia’s Ministry of Environment led by Dep-uty Technical Director-General and ASEAN Senior Offi cials on the Envi-ronment (ASOEN) Chairman Vann

Monyneath. “The workshop offered an oppor-

tunity to consult with various stake-holders on developing workable sets of indicators that will assist scientists, policy makers and other relevant par-ties in assessing efforts in relation to the 2010 biodiversity target,” Director Fuentes said. Participants also shared available and current information on biodiversity status, and discussed ways to mainstream the information into policies and indicators used in the 4th National Report.

These national consultation work-shops aim at consolidating information on programs and activities that will evaluate the success of current conser-vation efforts. ACB actively supports such workshops in ASEAN Members States, so that they may develop their respective country reports and submit-ted these in 2009 to the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diver-sity. The report will then be used in crafting the 3rd Global Biodiversity Outlook Report.

ACB and Cambodia has always had a strong relationship. Since its establish-ment in 2005, ACB has been a partner of Cambodia and other AMS in region-al collaborative efforts in the conserva-tion and sustainable use of biodiversity in the region through ACB programmes that refl ect the needs of Cambodia and other ASEAN Member States, the Vien-tiane Action Programme (VAP), and the decisions by the ASEAN Ministers on Environment.

ACB has supported Cambodia through various workshops that helped enhance its capacity to conserve biodiver-sity and meet its commitments to various multilateral environmental agreements. From 2007-2008, ACB has trained 52 of Cambodia’s scientists, environment offi -cers and staff, and protected area manag-ers and workers on various thematic areas. Other benefi ts gained are in the areas of joint research programmes on biodiver-sity, support to the preparation of the 4th National Report (4NR), support for vari-ous activities on wetlands and Payment for Ecosystems Services.

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ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB) Executive Director Rodrigo U. Fuentes (2nd from left) discusses with Dr. Mok Mareth (right), Senior Minister of the Ministry of Cambodia and Dr. Somaly Chan, Director, International Convention and Biodiversity of Cambodia’s General Department of Administration for Nature Conservation and Protection, the ratifi cation of the ACB Establishment Agreement and efforts aimed at further strengthening collaboration in conserving Cambodia’s biodiversity. The ACB mission included Programme Development and Implementation Director Clarissa C. Arida, Administration and Finance Head Wilfredo J. Obien, and Policy and Programme Specialist, Dr. Filiberto A. Pollisco.


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Water is life. All living things de-pend on water for survival.

Communities all over the world rely on access to safe drinking water since it ensures human health and well-being, availability of food sources, and viable livelihoods. Decades of misuse and poor management, however, have degraded what was formerly a common commod-ity, thus threatening the lives of many of the world’s poorest populations.

The United Nations underlined the need to protect the world’s water resources when it declared the 22nd March as World Water Day (WWD) in 1992. Since then, all countries have been invited to devote WWD each year to concrete activities such as the pro-motion of public awareness through publications, documentaries and other information materials; roundtable dis-cussions and seminars related to the conservation and development of water resources; as well as clean-up activities of lakes, rivers and their associated en-vironments.

In 2009, WWD emphasizes the sig-nifi cance of transboundary waters with the theme “Shared Waters – Shared Op-portunities”.

Nearly 40 percent of the world’s population lives in river and lake basins shared by two or more countries. The world’s 263 transboundary basins in-

clude the territory of 145 countries and cover nearly half of the world’s surface. The world’s major transboundary riv-ers include the Nile (6,800 kilometers and shared by 10 countries), Amazon (6,400 kilometers and shared by seven countries), Congo (4,700 kilometers and shared by nine countries), Mekong and Danube (2,850 kilometers and shared by 20 countries). In Asia, fi ve ASEAN Member States -- Cambodia, Laos PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, and Viet Nam -- share the 4,350-kilometer long Mekong River with the People’s Republic of China. Great reservoirs of freshwater also move below borders in underground aquifers. There are over 270 known transboundary aquifers.

Localized water use, management and economic programmes across countries will inevitably result in dif-ferences in access, quality, sustainabil-ity and services in relation to safe and clean drinking water. Natural resource management that focuses on catch-ment and watershed areas, as well as a changing global climate also has severe impacts on the sustainability of water resources. Many countries are already

facing increasing scarcity of freshwater, and it is estimated that by 2025, some 1,800 million people will be living in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity, and two-thirds of the world’s population could be under stress condi-tions. The situation is so alarming that it is predicted that confl icts between states may soon rise as countries fi ght for ac-cess to water.

This scenario should provide an op-portunity for countries to cooperate, rather than clash over scarce resources. Nearly 300 international agreements are in place to protect water resources and ensure harmony between common users. Nurturing the circumstances for coop-eration in transboundary water manage-ment can help build mutual respect, un-derstanding and trust among countries, and promote peace, security and sustain-able economic growth.

All communities and countries ul-timately share the responsibility for managing the world’s transboundary waters for current and future genera-tions. World Water Day 2009 encour-ages everyone to actively incorporate water protection measures in their daily life to protect this valuable resource. Governments, in particular, should in-tegrate water management measures that recognize the transboundary nature of water resources and watersheds, and work with other countries to ensure wa-ter sustainability.

The United Nations Educational, Scientifi c and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) led global activities of the World Water Day 2009 with the sup-port of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. More in-formation on WWD 2009 and other water resource management materi-als can be accessed through the WWD 2009 website (http://www.unwater.org/worldwaterday/fl ashindex.html).

Shared Resources Mark World Water Day 2009


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The law of supply and demand is never more evident than it is in

nature tourism. The deterioration of natural landscapes, beaches, and marine areas have led to a booming ecotourism industry which features travel to pris-tine areas that remain habitats of beau-tiful and rare plants and animals. Its so-cial component, where benefi ts of such travel should fi rst go to local communi-ties that live within or adjacent to such areas, is an added attraction to travelers who prefer ecotourism to traditional forms of travel.

“For all its good intentions, eco-tourism still creates major impacts, particularly since destinations are often fragile ecosystems, such as protected ar-eas, and other sites of natural and cul-tural importance,” Rodrigo U. Fuen-tes, Executive Director of the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB), said. Ecotourism creates livelihoods and gen-erates incomes for local communities, thus providing an incentive for locals to preserve natural areas. Increased human traffi c however, may also result in other economic and social pressures.

Models and challenges in ecotour-ism practices are thus current and major issues in biodiversity conservation, and were discussed in the “Regional Work-shop on Identifi cation of Ecotourism Best Practices among ASEAN Member States” organized by ACB in coopera-tion with Lao PDR’s Water Resources Environment Agency on 29 March in Champasak Province. The workshop coincided with the celebration of the ASEAN Environment Year 2009 on 30 to 31 March 2009 which featured eco-tourism as its theme.

The activity was a follow-on event of the ACB workshop on “Recreation, Tourism and Ecotourism” held in Gu-nung Ledang, Malaysia on 17-21 March 2008. The Malaysia workshop helped managers and staff of ASEAN Heritage Parks and other protected areas improve and enhance their abilities in ecotour-ism management.

With this workshop held in sup-port of ecotourism during the celebra-tion of the ASEAN Environment Year, ACB was able to provide a venue for stakeholders to undertake the follow-

ACB joins ASEAN Environment Year Celebration; Promotes Ecotourism Best Practices

ing and discuss the implementation of recommendations in ecotourism in the region such as sharing ideas, challenges, and resolution of ecotourism issues; de-veloping coordination and promotion of ecotourism activities; implementing ecotourism model tours; and training personnel in the ecotourism industry,” Director Fuentes said.

Other recommendations include establishing a common system of certifi cation and licensing of excel-lent ecotourism examples and guides; launching campaigns for education and promotion of ecotourism; advertising and broadcast of ASEAN ecotourism through various media such as web-sites, publications, broadcast, and other campaigns; and establishing a fund for resource conservation to make ASEAN ecotourism sustainable.

Workshop participants included technical experts on ecotourism and rep-resentatives of environmental ministries across Southeast Asia. They identifi ed ecotourism best practices in the region, as well as provided policy recommenda-tions for ecotourism development and management.

ACB also mounted an exhibit fea-turing the Centre’s ecotourism-related activities.

For more information on the work-shop and other ACB events, log on to www.aseanbiodiversity.org.


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GIS Enhances ACB Data Sharing Serviceformation. It also provides a gateway for exchange of data, knowledge, and information among countries within and outside Southeast Asia. Moreover, ASEAN-BISS provides a regional pic-ture when available data is consolidat-ed.

Geographic Information System in enhanced BISS

Each set of information or data fi elds in the protected area database, the spe-cies database, and additional socio-eco-nomic and environmental data can be rendered as individual layers in a Geo-graphic Information System (GIS). The use of GIS technology enables the en-hanced ASEAN-BISS to perform more in-depth analyses ranging from simple display of geographic data to complex, multi-step analytical models. The appli-cation of GIS technology to biodiversity information makes information a pow-erful tool to support policy and decision making.

The ARCBC BISS database, which contains only protected areas and spe-cies information, was moved to an open-source platform (PhP/MySQL). The protected area database portion of the BISS was segregated and normal-ized to facilitate map creation. The ini-tial protected area maps were likewise converted to keyhole markup language (KML) format so that the KML maps can be loaded and viewed in Google Earth. These KML maps are now avail-able and downloadable via the ACB Website (http://www.aseanbiodiver-sity.org) and the ASEAN Regional Clearing-House Mechanism Website (http://chm.aseanbiodiversity.org). Ecosystem and socio-economic data are being subsetted from global and regional sources for mapping purposes. An open source Map Server is also be-ing set up to make the protected area maps more interactive. In addition, map attributes will be made available for download in MS Excel format.

The current focus of ACB on en-hancing the BISS is the re-coding of the Species Database, which originally contains only a checklist and metada-

Information sharing and the harmo-nization of data across countries is

an integral part of biodiversity conser-vation worldwide. The compilation of data on biodiversity resources such as species, habitats and ecosystems, pro-tected area coverage, and others allows scientists, protected area managers, and policy-makers to track changes in the environment. Accurate data al-lows relevant personnel to make in-formed choices and prioritize actions that would ultimately improve natural resource management. Biodiversity in-formation sharing in Southeast Asia is particularly signifi cant, due to the rich shared natural heritage of the ASEAN Member States.

The Vientiane Action Plan and the ASEAN Working Group on Nature Conservation and Biodiversity (AW-GNCB) highlight the need for infor-mation sharing and the creation of “a functional regional database or network of national databases containing inven-tory of the biological resource of the ASEAN region”. Commitments made by ASEAN Member States to multilat-eral environmental agreements (MEAs) such as the United Nations Conven-tion on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wildlife and Flora (CITES), also require that coun-try reports include data on information generation, analysis, and sharing in sup-port of policy development and deci-sion-making.

The ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB) assists ASEAN Member States in its data sharing and harmonization needs through its Biodiversity Informa-tion Management (BIM) Component. BIM has four core areas: (1) Sustaining data and information harmonization on biodiversity resource; (2) Support-ing interactive web-based information on biodiversity resources in the ASEAN region; (3) Enhancing geo-spatial based Biodiversity Information Sharing Ser-vice; and (4) Bridging information with ASEAN Member States and regional and global partners. Through its BIM Component, the Centre aims to enhance

the capability of ASEAN and ASEAN Member States to conduct regional data analysis; formulate data sharing strate-gies and develop a uniform reporting scheme; use monitoring indicators; and facilitate reporting to national, regional and international needs and commit-ments.

The ASEAN Biodiversity Information Sharing Service

The Biodiversity Information Sharing Service (BISS) was initially a web-based data management system envisioned to serve as the common sharing platform for ASEAN Mem-ber States on biodiversity information. Developed by the ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation, ACB’s predecessor, BISS linked rel-evant biodiversity information of AMS to produce information at a depth and in a format that a wide range of audi-ences can understand. ASEAN pro-tected areas information and species’ lists for different taxa were compiled through BISS, and currently includes lists, distribution, habitat details, and International Union for the Conserva-tion of Nature (IUCN) categories of birds (2,401 species), mammals (945 species), amphibians (727 species), freshwater fi sh (2,008 species), reptiles (1,691 species), plants (37,361 spe-cies), and butterfl ies (8,992).

The Centre has since introduced new features to the ASEAN-BISS, such as live maps which can be loaded via Google Earth. ACB will eventually use live Map Server to load these maps. The enhanced BISS also provides informa-tion on protected areas and species with ASEAN Member States and IUCN clas-sifi cation categories and enables users to interact with the available maps. ACB has also subsetted socio-economic data for the ASEAN region, and is preparing maps for these. By linking biodiversity data with socio-economic data, ACB can provide analytical maps for deci-sion-making.

The enhanced ASEAN-BISS serves as a common platform for sharing and linking national biodiversity in-


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tabase that links to external information. The initial graphical user interface, the Search engine and the ASEAN-wide and Country Specifi c Checklist are now accessible online. Offl ine, the species checklists and links of seven (7) taxa will be updated and live links to a regional data center (e.g.Fishbase) will be tested. Species location and distribution information, where available, may also be used to map out the regional distribution of species.

ASEAN BISS and TaxonomyThe ASEAN-BISS will be particularly relevant as

ACB has identifi ed the Global Taxonomic Initiative as a priority theme for 2009. The ASEAN-BISS is inextri-cably linked with taxonomy – the science of describing, naming and classifying organisms, as a building block for information sharing on fl ora and fauna – as both concerns the inventory of biodiversity resources. Focus-ing on taxonomy will assist ASEAN member States in cataloguing their biological resources that will help set directions in conservation management.

To boost Southeast Asia’s taxonomic capacities, ACB has partnered with the French Embassy in the Philip-pines. The French Government will provide funding support for the “ASEAN Regional Workshop on Global Taxonomy Initiative (GTI): Needs Assessment and Net-working” to be organized by ACB in April 2009. The workshop will provide a venue for sharing experiences in the implementation of the Programme of Work (PoW) for the Global Taxonomy Initiative (GTI) and identi-fying future programmes for capacity development in the ASEAN region. Through this partnership, ACB can mobilize and share expertise in the fi eld of taxonomy and ensure that taxonomic capacities will be accessible to ASEAN Member States.

Planned activities of ACB for the ASEAN BISS and the GTI

The ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity will provide technical training to ASEAN Member States on the use of ASEAN-BISS data in a GIS environment; sup-port the inventory of biodiversity resources through the ASEAN-BISS and GTI initiatives; and continue to fa-cilitate cooperation among ASEAN Member States by highlighting the interrelationship between the ASEAN-BISS, the GTI, and the biodiversity inventory.

Consistent with its mandate to improve information sharing and access, and enhance capacity building in the ASEAN region, ACB is shoring up its efforts in the areas of GIS and GTI. These efforts are envisioned to assist ASEAN Member States in meeting their commitments to multilateral environmental agreements.

Reference

Fuentes, Rodrigo U., Ma. Consuelo D. Garcia, Leslie Ann V. Jose, and Norman Emmanuel C. Ramirez. 2009. Biodiversity Geographic Information System of the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity. Unpublished. ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity. Laguna, Philippines.

Entry Points for Enhanced BISS

Via the ACB Website

PA Database

Opening Page of ASEAN Heritage Parks

Map Attributes of a Protected Area

Opening Page to Species Database

Species Checklist


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International Women’s Day 2009

Celebrating Women and BiodiversityWorldwide, most countries dedi-

cate the month of March to celebrating women and their contri-butions to politics, business, econom-ics, science, and culture. Every 8th of March is International Women’s Day (IWD) and commemorates the struggles of women all over the world to gain equal rights and recognition at home, in their community, in the workplace and in society.

Women have been fi ghting for equal rights since the 1900s when women fi rst started marching in the streets demanding shorter work hours, better pay and voting rights. The idea of an International Women’s Day was fi rst broached in 1910, as a way for working women to press for their demands. In 1913, International Women’s Day was fi rst celebrated on 08 March and has remained the global date for IWD ever since. The United Nations offi cially recognized the event in 1975, which it designated as “International Women’s Year.”

Women’s organizations continue to celebrate IWD by holding large-scale events to honor women’s advancement while diligently reminding others that vigilance is necessary to ensure that women’s equality is gained and main-tained in all aspects of life. The world has seen female presidents, heads of

corporations, scientists, engineers, and lawyers, and they continue to advance in industries that used to be dominated by men. Despite women’s emancipa-tion, changes in attitude towards gen-der roles, and greater opportunities, in-equality still exists on many levels and in many areas such as business, politics, education, and health.

Women play critical roles in biodiversity conservation

Women’s contributions are often overlooked, particularly when actions revolve around the home and commu-nity life. As such, traditional roles of women in relation to the environment and their critical role in biodiversity conservation are largely ignored. Stud-ies on gender roles and biodiversity, however, show that rural women in de-veloping countries play critical roles in maintaining agriculture and forest bio-diversity. They may also hold the key to food and livelihood security through their roles in the selection of seeds, the management of small livestock and the conservation and sustainable use of plant and animal diversity.

For many women, biodiversity is the cornerstone of their work, belief systems and basic survival. Women from indigenous and traditional com-munities, in particular, have direct links

with the environment that date back to millions of years. As direct users of natural resources, they have developed an intimate knowledge of the life cycles of plants and animals and their habi-tats, thus knowing when crops are ripe for harvesting, which leaves, fruits and roots are good to eat, and which plants will cure a particular ailment.

In agricultural areas, women of-ten take on the role of directly col-lecting and conserving edible plants since these are often used to supple-ment dietary needs. Their roles also encompass food processing and stor-age. Other roles also require them to gather firewood and other products for medicine, and house-building. They also take charge of many ag-ricultural activities. After men have cleared the land, women sow, weed, hoe and bind the stalks. In backyards and on their own plots, they manage home gardens, and grow a wide vari-ety of vegetables, and ingredients for relishes and jams. The Food and Ag-riculture Organization (FAO) notes that research on 60 home gardens in Thailand, for example, revealed 230 different species, many of which had been rescued from a neighboring for-est before it was cleared.

Women farmers have been largely responsible for the improvement and



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adaptation of many wild plant variet-ies. After using and observing many wild plants through the years, they have come to know which are best suit-ed for cultivation and domestication. In terms of crops, their observation of plant cycles and productivity allow them to choose what seeds produce the most desirable plant characteristics. Seeds that produce crops with the best grains and are most resistant to pests and diseases are set aside by women for preservation and future use.

Women also play a role in livestock production and breeding. Depend-ing on local conditions, women may choose and breed cattle, for example, to produce desired traits such as pref-erence for local feeds and resistance to disease. Keeping a diversity of live-stock also directly benefi ts diversity in vegetation.

Women’s roles in biodiversity con-servation are also tied to the collec-tion of medicinal plants. As traditional caregivers, women have had to amass a tremendous amount of knowledge on plant use and medicinal properties to ensure the well being of family and community members.

Homogenization affects biodiversity, traditional knowledge and women’s status

Advances in science and technol-ogy, however, have led to modern ag-ricultural practices that ignored tra-ditional knowledge and undermined women’s roles in biodiversity conser-vation and agricultural diversity. Ag-ricultural innovations have centralized plant breeding, standardized livestock production and have changed gender roles in farming communities. Since modern farming technologies no lon-ger rely on traditional farming prac-tices and knowledge, this has affected women’s roles, thus undermining their fi nancial empowerment and status in the community.

However, subsistence farming communities that cannot afford exter-nal inputs necessary in modern agri-culture, such as seeds of current high yield crops, fertilizers and pesticides, veterinary products, and high quality feeds, still depend on planting material

produced, selected and saved by wom-en in the community. They rely on maintaining a wide diversity of crops and wild plants, and animal breeds and strains that are adapted to the local en-vironment. These provide protection against crop failure and animal disease, as well as a continuous and varied food supply.

Need for gender responsive policies

Over time, changes in beliefs and attitudes have resulted in international agreements and government strate-gies that emphasize the recognition of women’s contributions and the signifi -cance of their participation in national development. Key important interna-tional policies and legal agreements also acknowledge the role of women in the management and use of biological resources.

However, despite increased rec-ognition at international levels, there is little effort on the ground to stress the role of women in biodiversity, ag-riculture, and the environment. While such information is taken for granted in communities where women play tra-ditional roles in resource use and food production, this is largely unknown to the general public. As such, women’s key roles, responsibilities and manage-ment practices for the conservation and improvement of animal and plant genetic resources remain “invisible” to environmental technicians, planners and policy-makers. As a result, wom-en’s needs and concerns are not given adequate attention and their involve-ment in formalized efforts to conserve biodiversity remains low because of poor representation at policy and deci-sion-making levels.

Nature needs a woman’s touchThere is no doubt that environ-

mental management will benefi t from women’s focus and attention. After all, signifi cant environmental features have inherent feminine characteristics and nature is often described in culture as protective, caring and nurturing. They often take a female personality, hence the terms “Mother Earth” and “Mother Nature.”

Women’s intimate relationship with nature makes them a very im-portant authority on resource man-agement. Women often take the lead in environmental movements, par-ticularly at the grassroots level. Many women understand the significance of their roles and take on the mantle of protecting the environment by leading movements to reverse eco-logical stress. Many women around the world have led organizations that have helped heal the environment, with programmes that focus on refor-estation, species and habitat protec-tion, organic and sustainable farming, waste segregation and management, pollution, environment-friendly products, and sustainable transporta-tion, among others.

Certainly, nature will benefi t im-mensely if men and women share re-sponsibility in resource management. Many programmes that promote gen-der equality and strengthen women’s participation are already in place, and these may spur greater action among stakeholders and thus reap more ben-efi ts for people and the environment. Success stories are already out there. Local and international recognition of women’s contributions to the envi-ronmental cause are on the rise. Such activities and achievements will hope-fully provide the foundation for larger and more robust programmes.

As women continue to struggle for equality, their contributions and achievements in the environment and other aspects of life can only reap posi-tive rewards and secure an equitable and biologically diverse world for pres-ent and future generations.

References

FAO Focus: Women and Food Security (http://www.fao.org/FOCUS/E/Women/biodiv-e.htm)

International Women’s Day (http://www.internationalwomensday.com/about.asp)

MacDonald, Mia and Danielle Nierenberg. 2003. The Third World: Women as the key to a shift in priorities. The International Herald Tribune. February 11, 2003. (http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/02/11/t-edmia_ed3_.php)

United Nations Environment Programme. 2004. “Women and Biodiversity: the core of existence” in Women and the Environment. UNEP and Women’s Environment and Development Organization (WEDO). (http://www.unep.org/PDF/Women/ChapterThree.pdf)



What is the connection between culture and biodiversity?

Biodiversity and cultural diversity are intimately and inextricably linked, that they should be thought of as a uni-fi ed whole. In fact, signifi cant overlaps in distribution and factors affecting the geographic patterns of biodiversity and culture have been observed.

This was the gist of the presentation by Rusyan Jill Coburn, research and policy specialist of the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB), for the cultural counselors of European Union (EU)

Member States’ embassies in the Philip-pines.

Nine cultural counselors from six EU countries visited the ACB head-quarters in Los Baños, Laguna in the Philippines on 30 March 2009 to know more about the Centre and its advocacy, as well as the interface between culture and biodiversity.

Led by Thelma Gecolea, Public Af-fairs Offi cer of the Delegation of the European Commission to the Phil-ippines, the group was composed of Monika Junker-Guldin, Austria; Anne

Biodiversity and Culture Highlighted in EU Cultural Counsellors Visit to ACB

Bloemen, Belgium; Ambassador Jaro-slav Ludva, Monika Kozdova, and Mary Katherine Igban, Czech Republic and representing the EU Presidency; Emi-lie Flambeaux, France; Inkeri Tankera, Finland; and Anamaria Vlad and Vlad Stefan Cristian, Romania.

During the ACB meeting with the EU cultural counsellors, Ms. Coburn explained that the management of na-ture is the expression of our many hu-man cultures. A detailed understanding of biodiversity is necessary to compre-hend how the environment reshapes


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Above: Rusyan Jill Coburn (center), ACB Research and Policy Specialist, discusses the interface between culture and biodiversity.

Above, left: Ambassador Jaroslav Ludva of the Czech Republic views ACB’s exhibits on Southeast Asia’s rich but threatened biodiversity.

Left: European Union cultural counselors with ACB offi cers and staff.


human culture through feedback. The Convention on Biological Di-

versity also encourages all countries to manage, sustainably use and share equi-tably the benefi ts of biodiversity. These goals can be achieved through a better understanding of how human cultural activity has shaped today’s biodiversity.

The ASEAN Centre for Biodiver-sity has several initiatives that advance the culture of biodiversity conserva-tion in the 10 ASEAN Member States. It supports the ASEAN Heritage Parks (AHP) Programme of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations that seeks to conserve AHPs – protected areas of high conservation and cultural importance. The ASEAN region cradles 27 AHPs.

The promotion of the concept of com-munity conserved areas is another initiative that ACB is advocating. The management of community conserved areas involves spontaneous activities conducted by local communities, often for generations, based on local knowledge, beliefs and practices about the use of local ecosystems and bio-logical resources.

Through workshops, the Centre is also promoting ecotourism or environ-mentally responsible travel and visita-tion to natural areas, that has low visi-tor impact, promotes local culture and heritage, and provides socio-economic benefi ts for the local people.

The ACB encouraged the EU cul-tural counselors to join hands with the Centre in promoting culture to address threats to biodiversity.

ACB Director for Networking, Partnership, and Resource Mobilization Gregorius Wisnu Rosariastoko briefed the delegation about the Centre’s man-date and its other core activities. The EU cultural counselors were also treated to a screening of the video documentary “Saving ASEAN’s Natural Treasures,” which chronicles the efforts of ASEAN Member States to conserve the region’s extremely rich but highly threatened biodiversity.

The delegation visited the nearby Makiling Botanic Garden. Forester Ro-berto Cereno, Head of the Botanic Gar-dens, Parks and Ecotourism Division of the Makiling Center for Mountain Ecosystems, gave them a walking tour of the Garden.

Singapore’s National Parks Board (NParks) and Thailand’s Hornbill

Research Foundation brought together the world’s experts on hornbills during the 5th Hornbill Conference held in Singapore from 22 to 25 March 2009. The event provided a venue to share in-formation on the bird’s biology, as well as conservation and research techniques employed by various institutions, and was co-sponsored by the ASEAN Cen-tre for Biodiversity (ACB).

Found through most of sub-Saharan Africa, and South and Southeast Asia, hornbills are renowned for their unique nesting habits. Females are sealed in-side the nest in a hollow tree, while the male and the rest of the family group bring food for the mother and chicks. Hornbills are among the largest forest birds which play the key role of dispers-ing seeds of trees such as nutmegs, fi gs, and laurels over long distances. South-east Asia is home to 24 of the world’s 54 hornbill species.

This year’s conference was held in Singapore in view of the remarkable achievements of the Singapore Horn-bill Project involving the rehabilitation

of the local populations of the Oriental Pied Hornbill (Anthracoceros albirostris). Previous conferences were held in Bang-kok, Phuket, and South Africa.

Universities, zoos, research institu-tions, and non-governmental organi-zations from 20 countries were repre-sented at the conference. Dr. Woraphat Arthayukti, CEO of NParks and the Deputy Director of the Hornbill Re-search Foundation, opened the confer-ence, while renowned hornbill research-ers Dr. Alan Kemp, Dr. Pilai Poonswad, and Dr. Margaret Kinnaird delivered keynote addresses.

Forty-six papers and posters were presented on topics such as the status and distribution of hornbills, their behavior, threats they face, research techniques, and efforts to conserve the bird.

Documentaries on hornbills were also screened, and fi eld trips were made to Pulau Ubin and Jurong Bird Park to see hornbill research in action. The pub-lic seminar “The World of Hornbills” featuring experts Dr. Kemp, Dr. Vijak Chimchome, Mr. Marc Cremades, and Dr. Vilma D’Rozario was also held at the Botany Centre on 26 March.

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ACB Co-sponsors 5th Hornbill Conference

World’s Experts on HornbillsDiscuss Conservation andResearch Techniques


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Resolving global issues require in-ternational agreements, and this is

particularly important in environmental conservation. Loss of species and habi-tats, biodiversity conservation, wildlife trade, pollution, and climate change are concerns requiring concerted global ef-fort in addressing them.

A number of international conven-tions and agreements have been devel-oped to establish wide-ranging coop-eration in protecting the environment, including the Convention on Biologi-cal Diversity CBD), Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar), Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES), Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and the World Heritage Con-vention (WHC).

These multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) require national reporting from all signatory countries (Parties) to create a global picture of environmental efforts as well as provide directions for the future. Reports often require data from different national agencies covering a wide range of bio-geographical, social, economic, legal and political information. These have to be meticulously prepared by the focal

points or reporting agencies and crafted according to formats set by the secretari-ats of MEAs.

In some cases, there are similar re-porting agencies for different MEAs. Some also require similar information, such as habitat coverage, species inven-tory, composition of local communi-ties, human activities that may affect the local environment, protected area status, number of rangers, and oth-ers. Since a number of issues may need to be presented in reports to various MEAs, there is a need to harmonize the gathering of and management of data. Streamlining reporting to MEAs will reduce reporting burdens on Par-ties, encourage more data sharing, and create synergy in environmental work among concerned national and inter-national agencies.

To facilitate national reporting to MEAs, the ASEAN Centre for Biodi-versity (ACB) conducted the ASEAN Workshop on Harmonization of Re-porting to Biodiversity-Related Con-ventions on 15 – 17 April 2009 in Ha-noi, Vietnam. The workshop focused on the development of a framework to harmonize reporting on the implemen-tation of efforts to conserve inland wa-

ters biodiversity for the CBD and the Ramsar Convention.

The workshop aimed to promote national and regional efforts to harmo-nize or synergize reporting to biodiver-sity-related conventions; strengthen national capacities in harmonized re-porting by providing training on the use of relevant tools and approaches; and discuss possible ways and means to harmonize reporting at the global level.

The workshop emphasized informa-tion exchange and active learning. This allowed ASEAN Member States to ana-lyze and strengthen national processes and capacities for synergizing reporting to biodiversity-related conventions, as well as provide recommendations for harmonization at the global level.

ACB organized the workshop in partnership with the Vietnam Envi-ronment Administration (VEA) and with the support of the United Na-tions Environment Programme-World Conservation Monitoring Centre; the Secretariats of the CBD, CITES, CMS, Ramsar and the World Heritage Convention; and the Government of Australia.

For more information, log on to www.aseanbiodiversity.org.

BOOKMARKS

ASEAN Member States to Streamline Reporting to Global Environmental Agreements

SURFING THE WEB OF LIFEThe Global Invasive Species Programme (http://www.gisp.org/about/index.asp) is an international partnership dedicated to addressing the global threat of invasive alien species (IAS). The mission of GISP is to conserve biodiversity and sustain livelihoods by minimizing the spread and impact of invasive species. The Programme provides support to the implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity and has contributed extensively to the knowledge and awareness of invasive species through the development of publications, reports, brochures and training materials. The GISP site provides links to global legislation and programmes on IAS, new developments in science and technol-ogy, training courses on various aspects of IAS management (such as economic analysis, legal and institutional frameworks, management of marine and coastal IAS, strategies and tools to prevent IAS introduction; taxonomy of marine IAS; and regional capacity building workshops), guidelines, publications, reports, and brochures, among others.

* * * The Global Invasive Species Database allows users to search for infor-

mation on invasive alien species (IAS) around the world (http://www.issg.org/database/species/search.asp?st=100ss). The database pro-vides a description, general impacts, reproduction, life cycles, geo-graphic range, management, and other relevant information on IAS. It also features the 100 of the world’s worst invasive alien species. These were selected for the list according to two criteria: their serious impact on biological diversity and/or human activities, and their illustration of important issues surrounding biological invasion. Absence from the list, however, does not imply that a species poses a lesser threat.

* * * Information on invasive alien species (IAS) in Asia can be found at the National Invasive Species Center of the United States Department of Agriculture (http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/international/asia.shtml). It provides links to government, non-government and aca-demic initiatives on IAS in Asia. The site also includes relevant publi-cations on invasive fl ora and fauna, proceedings of workshops on IAS, as well as links to databases on IAS in the Asian region.


POLICY BRIEF

Unlike people, animal and plant species do not recognize borders.

They move when their habitats change, hunt where there is food, and breed in areas that may be thousands of kilome-ters from home. When such activities are natural and happen over time, spe-cies naturally integrate themselves into the environment. However, when they are drastically introduced into new ar-eas, these may have unforeseen impacts on new ecosystems and their native spe-cies.

In the past, formidable mountains and wide expanses of ocean served as natural barriers to species movements. Developments in transportation and global trade, climate change and other factors, however, have facilitated the movements of various species across countries. Depending on their adapt-ability, species may thrive in their new habitat, or simply die out. Those that survive and reproduce may or may not negatively impact their new surround-ings. New species that multiply to a de-gree and overwhelm the environment, and robs resident species of food and shelter, presents a danger that needs to be addressed by resource managers. The threat of species breeding in a new envi-ronment is so severe that invasive alien species are now considered the second biggest threat to biodiversity after habi-tat loss.

What are invasive alien species? What makes species both alien and

invasive? The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) states that alien species “refer to species, subspecies or lower tax-on, introduced outside its natural past or present distribution; includes any part, gametes, seeds, eggs, or propagules of such species that might survive and subsequently reproduce”.

Invasive alien species (IAS), on the other hand, are species whose introduc-tion and/or spread outside their natural past or present distribution threaten biological diversity. These species may

Invasive Alien Species and their Increasing Threat to Biodiversity

occur in all major taxonomic groups, including viruses, fungi, algae, mosses, ferns, higher plants, invertebrates, fi sh, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mam-mals, and can affect all types of ecosys-tems. Common characteristics of IAS include:

• Rapid reproduction and growth, • High dispersal ability, • Phenotypic plasticity or the abil-

ity to adapt physiologically to new conditions, and

• Ability to survive on various food types and in a wide range of environmental conditions

Generally, the survivability of species in new environments can predict the po-tential invasiveness of the species. New environments may or may not have the elements necessary to control IAS, such as predators or competitors. When these are absent and the new habitats are simi-lar enough to their former range, then the species may survive. Their popula-tion may then grow to a point where they take over food sources, prey on local species, and, generally begin to affect lo-cal biodiversity. Oftentimes, only a small percentage of alien species become inva-sive, but those that do may have exten-sive and long-lasting impacts.

Studies show that disturbed habi-tats make it easier for IAS to survive. Habitats that have deteriorated due to human activities or have been modifi ed, such as agricultural areas, are particular-ly vulnerable. Climate change will also be a consideration in the management of IAS as temperature changes continue to modify habitats and ecosystems.

IAS use different pathways While plants and animals do not

travel on their own, people generally provide some form of transportation. In the past, whole communities moved when local conditions made it neces-sary to search for new food and water sources as well as more verdant pas-tures. Families carted all their worldly

belongings and travelled with domes-ticated livestock and carefully chosen seeds to search for more habitable areas. Plants with medicinal benefi ts would likely have been brought dur-ing migration. While these may have provided the early foundations for the travel of IAS, their impacts would have been countered by the more immense biodiversity in early times, which would have naturally limited the pos-sibility of invasion.

These days, modern technology and transportation defi ne the relocation of species. Globalization, increased trade, and greater travel for business and rec-reation have allowed plants and other wildlife to move from one country to another on airplanes, cargo ships, cruise ships, fi shing boats, trucks and others.

Species introduction may be both intentional and unintentional. People may export or import species for trade, and to support agriculture, aquaculture, horticulture, forestry, fi sheries, food and others. Some have been used as biological control for certain pests, and ironically became pests themselves. In-ternational aid organizations have also brought plants and animals that have turned invasive as part of altruistic in-tentions to introduce new sources of food to impoverished nations. Other forms of interventions, such as military and relief operations, may have also fa-cilitated the entry of IAS. Exotic pets, such as snakes, monkeys and ornamen-tal fi sh may also have simply been re-leased by their owners.

Unintentional introduction may oc-cur when species “hitchhike” on planes, ships, and even garbage fl oating in the open sea. Seeds may adhere to clothes and suitcases. Insects may infest wood packaging materials. Exotic animals kept in captivity as pets or for breeding purposes may escape and then turn in-vasive.

These IAS may also carry pathogens that pose tremendous risks to other plants and animals, as well as people.


POLICY BRIEF

The cane toad (also commonly known as Giant Toad, Marine Toad) (Bufo marinus) was introduced as a biological control agent of insect pests in sugar cane and other crops. The toad spread rapidly because it has a wide environmental tolerance, eats almost anything, and has few natural enemies. It is now well established in Japan, Papua New Guinea and the Philippines.

The golden apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata) is a freshwater snail from South America. It was introduced to Taiwan in 1980, and has since become an invasive pest throughout Southeast Asia. Widely known as golden kuhol in the Philippines, it was introduced in the country as a high-protein food for both animals and humans. The snail escaped into waterways and has since ravaged rice fi elds all over the country. The snail feeds on young rice seedlings, with large adults being able to consume up to 25 seedlings per day.

The mosquito fi sh (Gambusia affi nis) is now well established in Southeast Asia where it was widely distributed for the biological control of mosquito larvae. This fi sh species can survive in waters with low oxygen levels, high salinities

Some invasive alien species in Southeast Asia

and temperatures, and has a high breeding rate. The fi sh competes with indigenous fi sh species for zooplankton food, and also prey on their eggs and larvae. Studies show that mosquito fi sh exacerbates rather than alleviates the mosquito problem since the fi sh does not eat mosquito larvae but actually reduces the population of species that naturally control mosquito populations.

The water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) was introduced to many parts of the world as an ornamental plant, and today occurs in over 50 countries in fi ve continents. The plant thrives in still and slow-moving water bodies that have become nutrient-enriched through eutrophication. Dense mats of water hyacinth now blanket many of tropical Asia’s natural and man-made water bodies.

The Mimosa pigra (Thai–chi yop, mai yah raap yak, maiyarapton; Malay–kembang

Source: Mathew, 2004

gajah, semalu gajah; Bahasa Indonesia–putri malu; Viet Nam–trinh nu nhon, xao ho) in the Greater Mekong Sub Region has made fertile agricultural lands along the Mekong River unproductive, converting agricultural lands into shrublands that harbor lesser biodiversity. It has reduced fi sh production especially fi sh with no scales. and affected water birds relying on grasslands. In Viet Nam, the Mimosa pigra decreased the population of Sarus Crane (Grus antigone) from 800 individuals in the 1990s to less than 100 in 2003 through outcompeting the Spiked rush (Eleocharis sp), which is the habitat of the Crane

The coconut leaf-eating beetle (Brontispa longissima) damaged Viet Nam’s coconut industry causing 3.5 million USD in losses (Pham Quang Thu, 2008)

Janitor Fish (Pterygoplichthys pardalis and P. disjunctivus) in Laguna Lake of the Philippines has damaged fi sh cages and fi shing nets such that they have affected the fi sh production and fi sh catch of fi shermen. They also damage the riverbanks of important waterways.

Extensive and long-lasting impacts

Scientists have yet to pinpoint the ex-act moment when species turn invasive, and this makes it diffi cult to track and

monitor alien species. Typically, resource managers generally become concerned when impacts are already evident. The control and eradication of IAS then re-quires long-term fi nancial investments.

EnvironmentWhen IAS enter new habitats, the

lack of predators and the ability to com-pete with native species over the food supply can allow them to dominate the


POLICY BRIEF

local ecosystem. Local species that may actually become a food source for the IAS, may also be driven to extinction.

Their domination can change the community structure and species com-position of the area, which may then have cascading effects on ecosystem functions. Habitats may be modifi ed to a point where it may no longer be hab-itable for the native community. Chain reactions may occur and reproduction or the survival of associated species may be affected. Impacts are diffi cult to pre-dict but are tremendously complex.

Ultimately, the local biodiversity is affected when non-native species elimi-nate indigenous species that perform valuable functions in the ecosystem. The demise fo these native species may then affect associated fl ora and fauna. Vital ecosystem functions, such as pol-lination, soil regeneration, nutrient cy-cling, hydrologic functions, and others, may then deteriorate.

Other environmental concerns such as climate change, pollution and habi-tat loss may also magnify the impacts of IAS. Island ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to IAS because they are nat-urally isolated from strong competitors and predators.

Human healthThe IAS can directly affect human

health as international travel facilitates the spread of infectious diseases. Bal-last water from ships introduces diseas-es, bacteria and viruses to marine and freshwater ecosystems, and degrades commercially important fi sheries. IAS such as exotic animals, migratory birds, insects and rodents may also carry pathogens that pose tremendous health risks.

When species are introduced direct-ly into agriculture or fi sheries as possible sources of protein, they may actually af-fect food supply when they eliminate other sources of food. Human health may also be affected when various pesti-cides are applied to crops to control the spread of IAS.

Economic costsThe IAS have major economic costs

since they destroy crops, reduce biodi-versity, and affect the water supply as

they degrade freshwater systems and catchment areas. These species drive up pest control costs as pesticides and her-bicides have to be used and other long-term management schemes have to be developed to control the spread of IAS. These impacts all have massive direct and indirect fi nancial costs that may run into millions of dollars.

Some estimated costs in IAS man-agement (Pallewata et al, 2003) include the following:

• Annual worldwide agricultural losses: between $55 and $248 billion

• Loss of Philippine crops gener-ated by the golden apple snail in the 1980s: $1 billion

• Cost of the eradication of the European gypsy moth (Lymant-ria dispar) introduced in North Carolina in 1993 and eradicated in 1997: $19 million

Deriving benefi ts from IASAre there any benefi ts to be gained

from the use of IAS? Despite their un-savory reputation and wide-ranging im-pacts, some species do provide benefi ts to the local economy. Other species, on the other hand, provide certain eco-nomic opportunities as they can be used as building material for various products as part of the eradication process.

Some fi sh species, particularly those introduced in aquaculture as alterna-tive sources of protein, provide major

contributions to food production. In the Philippines, the Nile tilapia (Oreo-chromis niloticus L.) or Mozambique tilapia (O. mossambicus) from Africa is the second most important fi sh cul-tured in the Philippines next to milk-fi sh. In 2002, the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources reported that tilapia contributed 122,417 metric tons or 3.6 percent of the total fi sheries pro-duction (3,368,519metric tons). Their production therefore continues to be a major contribution to aquaculture in the country.

As part of the eradication process, scientists have been determining ways to develop by-products from IAS to provide income opportunities to local communities. Studies on the janitor fi sh have yielded possible benefi ts as animal feed for livestock, organic fertilizer, bio-fuel, leather, and fi sh silage (fermented, high-moisture fodder that can be fed to cattle and sheep, or used as a biofuel feedstock) (Cariño III, 2009.)

Other species have been used to pro-duce leather products, such as the skin of the giant marine toad (Bufo marinus) while its fl esh has been utilized as food for pigs (Alcala, 2002). Many countries have also transformed the water hyacinth into bags as well as organic fertilizer.

Measures to address IASPrescribed management strategies /

methods to address IAS include: • Prevention. This ideally entails

Some International Agreements on invasive alien species

• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)• Agreement on the Application of Phytosanitary Measures• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

(CITES)• Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS or Bonn Convention)• Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar Convention)• International Convention for the Control and Management of Ship’s Ballast Water and

Sediments • International Health Regulations• International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC)• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)• United Nations Convention on the Law of Non-Navigational Uses of International

Watercourses • World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) Agreement (1924) • ASEAN Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

Source: CBD


POLICY BRIEF

preventing the entry of alien organisms into a different coun-try.

• Early detection. Effective in-ventories and monitoring pro-grammes can locate IAS before they can spread.

• Eradication: The destruction of an entire population of IAS is best accomplished with early detection.

• Control. A long-term manage-ment plan that involves physical removal of pests and the use of chemical and biological agents should be established to control IAS.

The goal of IAS management is to restore the ecosystem to its natural state and increase biodiversity, since natural populations and ecosystem functions may resist future invasions.

This global issue requires rapid de-tection and international cooperation. Preventing the entry of possible invasive species is eventually less expensive and easier to manage than control and eradi-cation. Many international agreements and codes of conduct have been estab-lished that allow for inspections of in-ternational shipments, customs checks as well as quarantine regulations.

The most comprehensive interna-tional instrument on IAS is the Con-vention on Biological Diversity (CBD), which specifi cally calls on parties to “prevent the introduction of, control or eradicate those alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or species (Article 8h)”. The CBD has developed a set of guidelines to assist countries with the implementation of Article 8h.

In Asia, the ASEAN Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (1985) aims to conserve and manage natural resources in the ASEAN region, as well as preserve genetic diver-sity and protect endangered species. Arti-cle 3(3) of the agreement requires Parties to strive to regulate and, as appropriate, prohibit alien species introductions.

ACB support to ASEAN Member States

IAS is an issue that is tied to major economic activities and is thus a prob-lem that affects both developed and de-

veloping countries. While some coun-tries have addressed specifi c IAS issues in national programmes, such as the National Biodiversity Strategies and Ac-tion Plans and specifi c IAS frameworks, the nature of the problem requires greater cooperation particularly among regional partners.

At the national level, capacities to deal with IAS should be developed by paying attention to training on the biology and control of IAS and bios-ecurity issues. The level of awareness and skills must be high, particularly along entry points such as customs and border checkpoints. The evolving problem of IAS in relation to other environmental issues, such as climate change, land use changes, and pollu-tion, requires constant research and development of new control technolo-gies. Protected area managers must also be trained to identify non-native species since IAS that have been trans-ported through tourism becoming increasing threats to protected areas. An integrated national programme covering public awareness, skills train-ing, research and information sharing must be developed to manage IAS concerns.

At the regional and international lev-el, organizations such as the Global In-vasive Species Programme (GISP) have been working with regional networks to share tools, mechanisms, and best man-agement practices. The GISP database (http://www.issg.org/database/) also provides extensive information on IAS all over the world, an effort that can be replicated at the national and regional level to provide wider information on managing specifi c IAS.

The ASEAN Centre for Biodiver-sity (ACB) provides support in region-al efforts to manage IAS by support-ing training on IAS and developing information materials on the issue. On 17-18 December 2008, Viet Nam’s Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE), in coop-eration with the ACB, conducted the “ASEAN Workshop on Invasive Alien Species Management” in Hanoi, Viet Nam. The workshop sought to address capacity needs to address IAS, such as identifi cation and control of IAS;

enhancement of national legislation and policies; data sharing; creation of business opportunities using IAS; communication, education and public awareness; and inclusion of invasive alien species concerns in regional trade agreements.

The ACB also provides extensive information on IAS through various in-formation materials and media, includ-ing the ASEAN Biodiversity newsmaga-zine and the ACB website. The Centre is also developing a book on invasive alien species in marine and terrestrial ecosystems to generate greater aware-ness on invasive alien species manage-ment in ASEAN.

References

Alcala, Angel C. 2006. Invasive Alien Vertebrate Species in the Philippines. Paper presented at Invasive Alien Species in the Philippines: Status, Challenges and Directions. Conference-Workshop on Invasive Alien Species in the Philippines and their Impacts on Biodiversity. Philippines. 26 – 28 July 2006.

Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (www.bfar.da.gov.ph)

Cariño III, Jose K. 2009. Benefi ting from the Dreaded Janitor Fish. Paper presented during the Agriculture and Development Seminar Series (ADSS) at the Southeast Asian Regional Centre for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), 13 January 2009.

Convention on Biological Diversity (http://www.cbd.int/invasive/)

De Pooter, Mai, Syama Pagad and Mohammed Irfan Ullah. 2007. Invasive Alien Species and Protected Areas, A Scoping Report Part I. Scoping the Scale and Nature of Invasive Alien Species Threats to Protected Areas, Impediments to IAS Management and Means to Address these Impediments. World Bank and Global Invasive Species Programme.

Lowe, S., M. Browne, S. Boudjelas, and M. De Poorter, 2000. 100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species: A selection from the Global Invasive Species Database. The Invasive Species Specialist Group, Species Survival Commission, IUCN - World Conservation Union (www.issg.org/booklet.pdf)

Matthew, Sue. 2004. Tropical Asia Invaded: The Growing Danger of Invasive Alien Species. The Global Invasive Species Programme.

Pallewatta, N., J.K. Reaser and A. Gutierrez (eds.). 2003. Prevention and Management of Invasive Alien Species: Proceedings of a Workshop on Forging Cooperation throughout South and Southeast Asia. Global Invasive Species Programme, Cape Town, South Africa.

Pham Quang Thu, et.al. 2008. Management of Alien Species in Viet Nam. Paper presented at the Regional Workshop on Invasive Alien Species, Hanoi, Viet Nam.

ScienceDaily (23 February 2009). Invasive Species: Part of the Price of Doing Business. (http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/02/090213172042.htm)


ASEAN SEAN CCENTREENTREBBIODIVERSITYIODIVERSITYFO

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Conserve Biodiversity,Conserve Biodiversity, Save Humanity!Save Humanity!

ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity3F ERDB Bldg., Forestry CampusCollege, Laguna 4031 Philippines

Tel: +6349 536-2865, +6349 536-1044 Email: [email protected]

www.aseanbiodiversity.org

ACB is an intergovernmental institution of the ASEAN with initial funding from the EU.

Description: The leatherback is the world’s largest turtle, with the largest recorded individual weighing a massive 916 kilograms. The turtle lacks the typical bony plates on its carapace and instead has a fl exible shell covered in a thin layer of leathery skin. This turtle has a dark color with white and pink spots. Leatherbacks are easily recognizable by the seven narrow ridges running the length of the carapace, and by their particularly large front fl ippers. The leatherback has a large head, and each side of the upper jaw bears a tooth-like projection, fl anked on either side by a deep cusp. The limbs have no claws. The front fl ippers are longer than other sea turtles and may span 2.7 meters from tip to tip. The average weight may range from 300–600 kilograms.

Distribution: The leatherback is the most widely distributed of all sea turtles. Adult leatherbacks are adapted to colder water than other sea turtles, a capability that is due to their protective thick and oily dermis, counter-current heat exchangers in the limbs, and other physiological adaptations. They can occur far from tropical and subtropical nesting grounds, where water temperatures are between 10° and 20°C, such as the Indo-Pacifi c, Atlantic and Mediterranean seas.

Food: Soft-bodied invertebrates such as jellyfish, tunicates, crustaceans and juvenile fi shes.

Reproduction: To nest, females emerge at night on nesting beaches to lay their eggs. Using their rear flippers, they ex-cavate deep ‘boot shaped’ nests where they lay roughly 100 eggs. Around 20 percent of the eggs in each nest are small

and yolkless. Individuals return to nest every few years, but within one season a female can lay four to 10 clutches of eggs. The sex of the hatchlings is influenced by incubation temperatures: hotter nests produce all females; cooler nests produce all males. Incubation period varies from 50 to 78 days depending on temperature and humidity. Survival rate is lower if incubation period is shorter.

Threats: Populations of leatherback turtles have plummeted in recent years, principally due to accidental capture in fi sheries and the over-harvest of eggs. Other threats include habitat loss, boat strikes, and ingestion of discarded plastics, which leatherbacks mistake for jellyfi sh.

Conservation: International trade in leatherback turtles and prod-ucts is banned under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), and the turtle is protected throughout most of its range. Many conservation projects have been set up on various nesting locations.

Red List Status: Classifi ed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List 2007; listed on Appendix I of CITES and Appendix I of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS or the Bonn Convention).

ReferencesARKive (http://www.arkive.org/leatherback-turtle/dermochelys-coriacea/info.html)Field Guide for Marine Turtle Identifi cation and Management. Pawikan Conservation Project. Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau – Department of Environment and Natural Resources. PhilippinesSeaLifeBase (http://www.sealifebase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=67021)

Leatherback TurtleDemorchelys coriacea (Vandelli, 1761)

Common names: Asian brown mussel (FAO English); tahong (Filipino); green mussel (English, India); green lipped mussel (Eng-lish, Malaysia).

Description: This species is a fairly large mussel, commonly 8 centimeters long and occasionally reaching a size of about 16.5 centimeters. Its shell is elongate, roughly triangular in outline with one end swollen and pointed (anterior) and the other, rounded and compressed (posterior). The outer surface is nearly smooth with concentric growth marks and faint radial lines. The outermost layer of the shell called periostracum, is attached, thick and smooth. The ligamental ridge is fi nely pitted and the hinge has interlocking teeth, a small one on the right valve and two on the left. The internal margins are smooth with the outside of the shell whitish under a bright periostracum that is dark brownish green (anterior) and olive-green to bright green (posterior). The interior is an iridescent pale bluish green, with a vivid green margin on perios-tracum.2 The wavy posterior end of the shell margin and the large kidney-shaped adductor muscle are diagnostic features of this species.3

Distribution: Known to be native to the Indo-Pacifi c, the species was introduced to Japan, Austra-lia, Fiji, North and South America, French Polynesia, Venezuela and the Caribbean.2,4

Habitat and Ecology: This mussel can be found in estuarine and marine tidal and subtidal habitats, forming dense aggregations of up to 35,000 individuals per square meter on various structures, like vessels, buoys and other hard substrates.3 It can tolerate a wide range of salinities (0°80 ppt) and temperatures (7-37.5°C).5

Predators and Prey: Filter feeds on small plankton and other suspended fi ne organic materials.6 The mussel is a popular table seafood, preyed upon by Scylla serrata and other predators, such as other crustaceans, fi shes, sea stars and octopus.3

Reproduction: External sexual fertilization. Spawning peaks coincide with the monsoon seasons except in the Philippines and Thailand where spawning is year-round. Both sexes release gametes in the water column, where developed larvae remain for two weeks before settling in benthic habitat as juveniles. Sexual maturity occurs at 15-30 millimeters shell length about 2-3 months age.7

Life Span: Growth rates are infl uenced by environmental factors such as temperature, food availability and water movement. Life span is typically 2-3 years.

Mode of Introduction and Dispersion: The introduction of this species from the Indo-Pacifi c to Atlantic waters is attributed to fouling on boat hulls and ballast-water traffi c. Local dispersion is brought about mainly by aquaculture activities and is intensifi ed

by natural periodic aggregation.6

General Impacts: This species is highly invasive and can have economic, ecological and human health impacts. It can cause problems with water systems of industrial complexes by clogging pipes, increasing corrosion and therefore reducing effi ciency. Fouling on marine vessels and mariculture equipment also results in raised costs and maintenance.8 The over abundance of this species leads to changes in community structure and trophic relationships as it outcompetes other local fouling organisms. It is also known to harbor high levels of toxins and heavy metals and has been linked to shellfi sh poisoning in humans.9

Importance: This species is highly commercial and harvested in the Indo-Pacific as a human food resource due to its dense and fast growth.3 It also serves as an indicator of biopollution of heavy metals, organochlorines and petroleum hydrocarbons.10

Prepared by Conejar-Espedido, J.2, Dar, C.M., Pacres, L.D., Pa-glinawan, L.E., Pan, M.S., Sorongon, P.M.E., Palomares, M.L.D. and WorldFish-Philippines1 Prepared from species summary page of www.sealifebase.org. (SeaLifeBase Project)2 Poutiers, J.M. 1998. Bivalves (Acephala, Lamellibranchia: Pelecypoda), In: The Living

Marine Resources of the western Central Pacifi c. Vol. 1 Seaweeds, corals, bivalves and gastropods. Carpenter, K.E., Niem, V.H. eds) FAO, Rome Italy.

3 Vakily, J.M. 1989.The biology and culture of mussels of the genus Perna, ICLARM Studies and Reviews 17, International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Manage-ment, Manila, Philippines pp. 63.

4 Ray, G.L. 2005. Invasive Animal Species in Marine and Estuarine Environments: Biol-ogy and Ecology. Aquatic Nuisance Species Research Program.

5 Segnini de Bravo, M.I., K.S. Chung and J.E. Perez. 1998. Salinity and temperature tolerances of the green and brown mussels, Perna viridis and Perna perna (Bivalvia, Mytilidae), Revista de Biologia Tropical, Supplement, 46(5):121-126.

6 NIMPIS. 2002. http://www.marine.csiro.au/crimp/Reports/Perna_viridis_sheet.pdf7 Rajagopal, S., V.P. Venugopalan, K.V.K. Nair, G. van der Velde, H.A. Jenner and C.

den Hartog. 1998. Reproduction, growth rate and culture potential of the green mus-sel, Perna viridis.

8 Ingrao, D.A., P.M. Mikkelsen and D.W. Hicks. 2001. Another introduced marine mussel in the Gulf of Mexico: the Indo Pacifi c green mussel, Perna viridis (Linnaeus, 1758) in Tampa Bay, Florida. Journal of Shellfi sh Research 20: 13-19.

9 Hicks, D.W., O.F. McMahon and D.A. Ingrao. 2001. Two invasive mussels in the genus Perna in the Gulf of Mexico, In: Virtual Proceedings for the State of the Bay Symposium V. January 31 –February 2, 2001. Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission, Austin, Texas, USA pp 159-170.

10 Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commision (http://www.gsmfc.org).

Green MusselPerna Viridis (Linnaeus, 1758)1

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Common Names: USA: Spinner dolphin; Philippines: Lumba lumba. Description: Spinner dolphins have various forms depending on their geographical locations. Commonly, these are small and slender animals with a relatively long slender beak. They have a tripartite coloration: a dark grey band bordered above by a thin light line runs from the eye to the fl ipper; the sides are light colored and clearly discernable by a smooth curve running from the abdominal margin to just over the eye; the area around the abdomen and the stomach is white, very light with a speckled margin and the genital and axillary areas come together along the lower abdomen. The flippers are dark or speckled, outlined with a band that contrasts with the gular region by variable spots. In adult males, the dorsal fi n is sickle-shaped or triangular and has a bulging small to medium ventral keel.3,4

Importance: Spinner dolphins are the second most important dolphin species in tuna fi sheries. They are used as shark bait and also for human consumption5 and are highly valued in ecotourism operations. Distribution: Atlantic Ocean and Indo-Pacifi c: Stenella longirostris longirostris: around oceanic islands in the tropical Atlantic, Indian, Western and Central Pacifi c, east to about 145°W; Stenella longiro-stris orientalis: from off Baja California to Peru; Stenella longirostris centroamericana: from the Gulf of Tehuantepec in southern Mexico to Costa Rica.6 This species is present in all ASEAN countries except in landlocked Laos.7 Ecology: An oceanic and pelagic species found in tropical and subtropical areas.8 Spinners swim with other species, e.g., spotted dolphins (Stenella attenuata) and yellowfi n tuna (Thunnus albacares).9 They rest all day and feed at night.10 They sometimes seek shallow sandy bottoms of protected coves in order to protect themselves from predators.6 Food and Predators: 4,5 They feed mainly on lantern fi shes, bar-racudinas, big scales and other small fi shes, e.g., grenadiers, snake mackerel,11,12 and enope and fl ying squids.13 They are preyed on by sharks, killer whales and possibly false killer whales, pygmy killer whales and pilot whales.7 Reproduction: Sexual maturity: 4-7 years (females, 165-170 cm); 7-10 years (males, 160-180 cm). Breeding system: promiscuous, with observable courtship display. Gestation period: averages 10 months. Litter size: one calf; born at 3-year intervals, nursed for at least a year and weaned between 1-3 years.2,14 L/W Relationship: The nearest available length-weight relationship is for the eastern tropical Pacifi c population with W(kilograms)= 2.78 - L(centimeters)4.5216 Red List Status: Data Defi cient. Only a few studies have been done on the abundance from regions other than the eastern tropical Pacifi c. These populations are exposed to direct and indirect fi sheries. In the Indian Ocean, kills have been reported by the hundreds and thousands, representing a large proportion of their global population. The IUCN cites an estimate of global population decline at 30 per cent. Though the eastern spinner population has recently become stable, there are no clear signs of recovery.7 Conservation and Management Measures: This species is included in the following: Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES); the eastern tropical Pacifi c and Southeast Asian populations of the spinner dolphin

are listed on Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS); and its value as a tourist attraction encourages different countries to form fi sheries Administrative Orders to mandate the proper conduct of tourism industries during cetacean watching activities.18 Prepared by Sorongon, P.M.E.2, Conejar-Espedido, J., Dar, C.M., Pacres, L.D., Paglinawan, L.E., Pan, M.S., Palomares, M.L.D. and WorldFish-Philippines.1 Prepared from species summary page of www.sealifebase.org2 SeaLifeBase Project, WorldFish Center Philippine Offi ce, Khush Hall, IRRI, Los Baños,

Laguna, Philippines; Email: [email protected] Perrin, W.F. 1972. Color patterns of spinner porpoises (Stenella cf. S. longirostris) of the

Eastern Pacifi c and Hawaii, with comments on delphinid pigmentation. Fishery Bulletin 70(3):983�1003.

4 Perrin, W.F. 1998. Stenella longirostris. Mammalian Species 599:1-7. 5 Dolar, M.L.L., S.J. Leatherwood, C.J. Wood, M.N.R. Alava, C.L. Hill and L.V. Aragones.

1994. Directed fi sheries for cetaceans in the Philippines. Rep. Int. Whal. Commn. 44:439�449.

6 Rice, D.W. 1998. Marine Mammals of the World Systematics and Distribution. Special Publication number 4: The Society for Marine Mammalogy. 231p.

7 IUCN 2008. 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 11 March 2009.

8 Norris, K.S., B. Wursig, R.S. Wells and M. Wursig. 1994. The Hawaiian spinner dolphin. Los Angeles, California: University of California Press.

9 American Cetacean Society. 2004. Spinner dolphin, Stenella longirostris. American Cetacean Society Fact Sheet. http://www.acsonline.org/factpack/spinnerDolphin/spin-ner�dolphin.pdf

10 Jefferson, T.A., S. Leatherwood and M.A. Webber. 1993. FAO Species Identifi cation Guide: Marine Mammals of the World. Rome, FAO. 320 p. + 587 fi gures.

11 Wang, S. (ed.) 1998. China red data book of endangered animals. Pisces. National Environmental Protection Agency. Endangered Species Scientifi c Commision. Science Press, Beijing, China. 247p.

12 Dolar, M.L.L., W.A. Walker, G.L. Kooyman and W.F. Perrin. 2003. Comparartive feeding ecology of spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris) and fraser’s dolphins (Lagenodelphis hosei) in the Sulu Sea. Marine Mammal Science 19(1):1-19.

13 Silva, J.M. Jr., F.J.D. Silva, C Sazima and I. Sazima. 2007. Trophic relationships of the spinner dolphin at Fernando de Noronha Archipelago, SW Atlantic. Scientia Marina 71(3):505�511.

14 Norris, K.S. 1991. Dolphin days: the life and times of the Spinner dolphin. W.W. Norton & Company, New York, London.

15 Von Bertalanffy parameters computed using FiSAT and length�frequency data In Perrin, W.F. and J.R. Henderson. 1979. Growth and reproductive rates in two populations of spinner dolphins, Stenella longirostris, with different histories of exploitation. Rep. Int. Whal. Comm. Special Issue 6:417-430.

16 Perrin, W.F., M.L.L. Dolar, C.M. Chan and S.J. Chivers. 2005. Length-weight relation-ships in the spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris). Marine Mammal Science 21(4):765-778.

17 Cheung, W.W.L., T.J. Pitcher and D. Pauly. 2005. A fuzzy logic expert system to estimate intrinsic extinction vulnerabilities of marine fi shes to fi shing. Biol. Conserv. 124:97-111.

18 Reeves, R.R. 2002. Conservation efforts. In: Perrin, W.F., Würsig, B. and Thewissen, J.G.M. Eds. Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. Academic Press, London.

Spinner DolphinStenella longirostris (Gray, 1821)1

Description: The whale shark is the largest fi sh and reaches sizes of 9-12 meters and may weigh up to 12,500 kilograms. It generally resembles whales, hence the name whale shark. The head is fl attened and the wide mouth, positioned at the tip of the snout, stretches almost as wide as the body. The dorsal fi n is particularly large and the tail has a half-moon shape. The body has a very distinct pattern, with dark greyish-blue color on the back and sides, as well as an array of pale yellow blotches. The whale shark’s undersurface is pale. Stout ridges travel the length of the body, ending at the tail shaft. There are fi ve massive gill slits, within which are sieve-like structures of cartilage, on the side of the head. The mouth contains around 300 tiny teeth although the function of these is unknown. Whale sharks are fairly docile creatures and harmless.Distribution: Whale sharks are found throughout the world’s oceans in temperate and tropical waters, most commonly in a global band around the equator between 30° to 40° latitude. They inhabit shallow coastal areas as well as the open ocean.Biology: Whale sharks can be found singly, or in groups of over 100 individuals. They are often associated with groups of pelagic fi shes, especially scombrids (which comprises mackerels and tunas). The species is highly migratory and moves between ocean basins and national jurisdictions, but generally returns to the same sites annually. Food: They feed on planktonic and nektonic prey, such as small fi shes (sardines, anchovies, mackerel, juvenile tunas and albacore), small crustaceans and squid. When feeding, whale sharks are often seen in a vertical position with the head at or near the surface. The sharks turn their heads from side to side when actively feed-ing on zooplankton, with part of the head lifted out of the water. The sharks feed by opening and closing their mouths 7-28 times per minute, and these suction gulps are synchronized with the opening and closing of the gill slits.

Reproduction: Very little is known about the reproduction of the world’s largest fi sh, other than that they are ovoviviparous, and litter size is over 300 pups (Ovoviviparous refers to animals that produce eggs but retain them inside the female body until hatching occurs, so that “live” offsprings are born). Threats: Whale sharks have been fished throughout their range, and their flesh is highly valued in some Asian mar-kets. A slow reproduction rate adds to their vulnerability. In some areas, they have become important tourist attrac-tions, but the impact of shark-watching tours is still poorly understood.Conservation: In Southeast Asia, whale sharks are prime at-tractions in ecotourism destinations such as in Thailand and the Philippines. The Philippines has also banned the catching of whale sharks in its waters. International conservation and management of whale sharks is also encouraged by its listing on the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). Red List Status: Classified as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List 2007; listed in Appendix II of the Bonn Convention for the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals in 1999; classified as a highly migratory species, in Annex I of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which called for ‘coordinated management and assessment to better understand cumulative impacts of fishing effort on the status of the shared populations’ of these sharks; included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) since May 2003.

ReferencesARKive (http://www.arkive.org/whale-shark/rhincodon-typus/info.html)FishBase (http://fi shbase.sinica.edu.tw/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=2081)

Whale SharkRhincodon typus (Smith, 1828)

Invasive Alien Species

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