Introduction: What is Research? - VIVA University · PDF fileIntroduction: What is Research?...

Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

1Research Methods – Dr Richard Boateng [[email protected]] Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com

1

Introduction:

What is Research?


22

Class Website

• www.vivaafrica.info


33

Recommended Text

Boateng, R. (2014)

Research Made Easy,

Accra: PearlRichards

Foundation.• Students can buy book from

the University of Ghana

Bookshop from 8th April 2014


44

Objectives

Research plays a critical role in business and

society. However, what makes a piece of

exercise of asking questions a research. This

chapter seeks to introduce readers to the

purpose of research and explain the research

process. The learning outcome is to understand

what is and what is not research, understand the

classifications or different types of research and

explain research design.



5

Understanding research

Steps in Research | Purpose of Research

Elements of a Research Proposal

Why Do Research


66

What is Research?

• Research is an investigation into a particular

topic or social/business phenomena.


77

What is Research?

• This said, one will argue that every

investigation on a topic of interest is research.

• NO! That is not true.


88

What is Research?

Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING

ANSWERS to QUESTIONS.

1. SYSTEMATIC because there is a definite set of scientific

procedures and principles which the researcher will NEED to

follow in order to get reliable and accurate results.

2. ORGANIZED because there is a structure or method for doing

research. The research process has a number of steps to guide

the researcher.

Adapted From Henrichsen, Smith, & Baker (1997)


99

What is Research?

Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING

ANSWERS to QUESTIONS.

3. FINDING ANSWERS because every research seeks to answer

a question or a number of questions. Sometimes the answer is no,

but it is still an answer.

4. QUESTIONS are central to research. If there is no question,

then how do we begin the research. Research is focused on

relevant, useful, and important questions. Without a question, research has

no focus, drive, or purpose.

Adapted From Henrichsen, Smith, & Baker (1997)


1010

So Why Do We Do Research?

Create/develop something new

Cause something particular to

happen

Make-sense-of what is happening

Explain what is happening/verify

Predict what will happen`


1111

Discover/Explore

Describe/Understand

Explain/Predict or Create

Social Phenomena

Research is partly a process of discovery

and partly a process of knowledge

creation.

So Why Do We Do Research?


1212

Absence of Research

• Authority

• Tradition

• Common Sense

• Media Distortion

• Personal Experience

common sources of knowledge, perception and conclusion



Absence of Research

Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education –

ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379


1414

Who Needs Research?

• Research feeds into

– Future research

– Practice

– Policy

Research is needed by researchers, practitioners

and policy makers. In these broad categories, there

are a number of stakeholders including

organizations, communities, government and non-

governmental institutions and society in general.

“And so what?” meaning what can we do

with your findings and what are its

implications?


1515

The Research Process


ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

Research process is

the step by step

process of creating

and carrying out a

research project


1616


1. Selecting a Topic – Research Topic

2. Determining the Problem (Preliminary Literature Review) – Research Problem

3. Determining Research Gaps – Research Gaps

4. Determining the Hypotheses (Prelim. Literature Review) – Research Hypotheses

5. Determining the Objectives – Research Objectives

6. Determining the Question – Research Question

7. Detailed Review of Literature – Literature Review

8. Determining Research Framework – Research Framework (including hypotheses)

9. Designing the Research – Research Design

10.Collecting Data – Research Data Collection

11.Analyzing and Interpreting Data – Research Analysis and Conclusion

12. Informing Others – Research Write Up and Publishing


1717

Phases of The Research Process

• Phase 1: Identify a social or business phenomenon to be

studied;

• Phase 2: Determine the right question to ask;

• Phase 3: Design a research to find answers;

• Phase 4: Inform others about the answers to the

question or new knowledge.


1818

Research Process vs Research Design

• Not the Same

• The researcher’s plan on how to implement the research in

practice is known as the research design.

• The research design describes how, when and where data

are to be collected and how the data will be analyzed.

• Research Design is the subset of the Research Process


1919

Research Activities are Often Iterative

• Flexibility of revisiting

previous activities to revise

their focus

• Rarely linear; it is more

realistically cyclical

• Researcher needs to have

a bird’s eyeview of the

research process



TYPES OF RESEARCH

Application of the Research [Whom - Recipient]

Purpose or Objectives of the Research [Why]

Inquiry Procedure of the Research [Who – Researcher]


2121

Application/Use of Research

Basic/Pure research

• The scientific community

• Focus is on the rigour of the process

Applied research

• Policy or Practice

• Focus is on the outcome/implications of results

• Evaluation research

– Assess the effectiveness

• Social Impact Assessment


ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

Types of Research


2222

Basic and Applied Social Research Compared


ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

Types of Research


2323

Purpose of the Research

– To explore (Exploratory research)

– To describe (Descriptive research)

– To explain (Explanatory research)


ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

Types of Research


2424


– To explore (Exploratory research)

Exploratory research seeks to explore an area

where little is known or little research has been

done either in the context (research site) or on

the research topic in that particular context

(topic and context)


ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

Types of Research


2525


– To describe (descriptive research)

Descriptive research seeks to systematically describe a

phenomenon or situation or problem.

Usually asks the ‘what’ and ‘how’ question.

For example, what are the attitudes of the community towards the

community library or what are the living conditions in the

farming communities in Ghana.


ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

Types of Research


2626

Purpose of the Research– To explain (explanatory research)

Explanatory research seeks to understand and explain a

phenomenon or situation or problem.Usually asks the questions ‘why’ and ‘how’ a particular phenomenon occurs or

there exist a relationship between two or more factors of a phenomenon. The researcher goes beyond merely describing the characteristics, to analyze

and explain why or how something is happening.

For example, why and how do firms achieve value amidst the reported fierce

competition in the micro-finance industry?


ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

Types of Research

Writing the Proposal - Data Collection Instrumentation http://www.bcps.org/offices/lis/researchcourse/steps.html


2727

Research Methods, Some Notes to Orient You. Source:http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic851950.files/Research%20Methods_Some%20Notes.pdf


2929

Inquiry Procedure of the Research

1. Approach of the Research

2. Time Dimension of the Research

Types of Research


3030

Approach of the Research

Quantitative:to determine the extent of a problem or the existence of a relationship

between aspects of a phenomenon by quantifying the variation. Methods

include survey.

Qualitative:to explore the meanings, attitudes, values, beliefs people associate with a

phenomenon in order to establish a better understanding, rather than to

test to support or disprove a relationship. Useful for describing social

phenomena or the nature of the variation... Methods include case study

Mixed-Methods:Combines the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative research

Types of Research


3131

Approach of the Research

Quantitative:For example, a researcher may ask, ‘to what extent have students

adopted mobile phones?

HYPOTHESIS: Students who obtain Grade A never miss a class!

Qualitative:For examples, a researcher may ask, ‘what is the working condition in the

banking industry?

What are the perceptions of traditional medicines among nurses?

Mixed-Methods:What are the type of primary schools in the city of Accra and the extent of

their popularity in the city?

Types of Research


3232

Time Dimension of Research

Time influences research in manner in which data is

collected with respect to time. As a result, the

number of different types of research, namely:

Cross-Sectional Study

Longitudinal Study

Panel

Cohort

Time-series

Types of Research


3333

Cross-sectional StudyA researcher collects information from a sample drawn from a

population. The data you obtain is derived from a cross-section of the

population at one point of time.

Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education

OUM (2010) Topic 9 Qualitative Research Methods, Course Hand out CMRM6103 Research Methodology/GMRM5103 Research Methods, AIT Open University

of Malaysia, Ghana

Types of Research

Longitudinal Study - Panel

A researcher can identify a sample from the beginning and follow the specific

respondents over a specified period of time to observe changes in specific

respondents and highlight the reasons why these respondents have changed.

Longitudinal Study - Cohort Although the population remains the same, different respondents are sampled

each time. The researcher’s aim here is to see if there are changes in perceptions or

trends that occur in the study

A study in which selected aspects (variables) of a phenomenon is studied at different

points in time, often with a view to studying social trends. Eg: Trends in the levels of crime

Longitudinal Study – Time Series


3434

Structure of Long Essay

• Abstract

• Chapt. 1 – Introduction

• Chapt. 2 – Literature Review

• Chapt. 3 – Context of the Study

• Chapt. 4 – Research Methodology

• Chapt. 5 – Results and Discussion

• Chapt. 6 – Conclusion


3535

Assignment 1

On Monday, a journalist from Radio Universe interviewed

10 people randomly chosen on the streets on the

university campus concerning the state of the

Ghanaian economy. Six of the interviews were played

on radio as part of their evening news bulletin.

From your understanding of research, do you

think Radio Universe conducted a research?


3636

Assignment 2

The journalist ‘Anas’ is usually engaged in a number of

investigative assignments which generate reports on

ills in society. By exposing these ills, Anas seeks to

make society better.

From your understanding of research, do you

think Anas is conducting research?


3737

Assignment 3

A student was asked by a lecturer to explain two

differences between the simple definition of

research and the detailed definition of research.

From your understanding of research, what do

you think should be the student’s response?


3838

References

1. Boateng, R. (2014) Research Made Easy, Accra:

PearlRichards Foundation.

• Students can buy book from the University of Ghana


Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com


3939



40

Chapter Two

Selecting A Topic &

Literature Review - Part One


4141

Objectives

• Before starting any research, the researcher needs

determine the topic or issue to study.

• However, the question is how does the researcher

select a research topic or issue? Can every topic be

researched? What is researchable and what is not

researchable?

• This session seeks discuss how to select a research

topic and start a review on the topic.


4242


1. Selecting a Topic – Research Topic

2. Determining the Problem (Preliminary Literature Review) – Research Problem

3. Determining Research Gaps – Research Gaps

4. Determining the Hypotheses (Prelim. Literature Review) – Research Hypotheses

5. Determining the Objectives – Research Objectives

6. Determining the Question – Research Question

7. Detailed Review of Literature – Literature Review

8. Determining Research Framework – Research Framework (including hypotheses)

9. Designing the Research – Research Design

10.Collecting Data – Research Data Collection

11.Analyzing and Interpreting Data – Research Analysis and Conclusion

12. Informing Others – Research Write Up and Publishing


4343

What Can Be Researched

The right topic to be researched often depends on a

number of factors. First, let’s consider topics to

avoid:

1. Common/over-used topics

2. Topics related to religion/controversy

3. General/ broad topics

4. Topics that are Too Narrow

5. Controversial Politics related topics


4444

Common/over-used topics

• A number of research areas are very common and have been

reused several times by numerous other students. Most

importantly, try to be original. You can pick an over-used topic

but you can place it in another context or sector.

• For example, if internet banking in Ghana has been well-

researched, you may consider a topic on internet banking

among rural banks in Ghana.

Selecting A Topic


4545

Topics related to religion,politics/controversy

• Controversies have the propensity to arouse

emotions in people, usually because the surrounding

issues are highly subjective.

• Select this topic – if required by programme of study.

• Most importantly – you want to make sure you can

complete the research on time and with relevant and

appropriate data!

Selecting A Topic


4646

General/Too broad topics

• Some topics are too broad and general in scope, and

thus should be avoided.

• A research on service marketing is too broad,

however, service marketing in the insurance industry

may be more appropriate.

Selecting A Topic


4747

Too narrow topics

• Picking a topic that is too narrow should be avoided, because

it will be near impossible to find enough information to

conduct the research.

• For example, consider the research topic ‘Why John broke up

with Sarah’. This topic are too narrow and focused on a single

event.

• if this topic is changed to: ‘Determinants of break-ups in

relationships among undergraduate students’ – the topic

will become more researchable.

Selecting A Topic


4848

What can influence choice of topic

Selecting A Topic


4949


Selecting A Topic

YOUthe researcher values, belief, interests,

relevance, and personal experiences can

influence the choice of a research topic


5050


Selecting A Topic

SUPERVISOR Find out the research interests of the potential

supervisors; have a discussion with them;

read their publications


5151


Selecting A Topic

Data Source researchers are sometimes restricted to particular

topics because of access to or lack of access to data in

the specific field of study or time availability


5252


Selecting A Topic

Current Trends researchers can select a topic based on how important

a particular issue is perceived to be to society at that

point in time


5353


Selecting A Topic

Sponsor researchers can also restricted by the sponsor or

funding agency. Most funding agencies have specific

topics of interests which are based on their goals and

objectives.


5454


Selecting A Topic

Research

Gaps

Discrepancies in existing research literature which need to be

addressed or areas of study where there are reasonable gaps

in the existing literature. The potential contribution to literature

lies in the research gap.


5555

Corporate governance has been identified in previous studies to influence firms'

financing or capital structure decisions which also affect performance

(see Berger et al., 1997; Friend and Lang, 1988). These empirical studies tended

to focus mainly on developed economies with inconclusive results. Very little,

however, has been done on corporate governance in Sub-Saharan Africa,

especially with respect to firms' financing decisions. In Ghana for instance,

economic development and restructuring have introduced modern forms of

business activity and diverse financing structures like the Ghana Stock Exchange

(GSE) in the past two decades (Ghana Stock Exchange, 1993).

Thus firms are being exposed to more financing options than previously. It is crucial

to determine how current issues in corporate governance affect the financing

decisions of Ghanaian firms. This paper specifically examines the relationship

between various variables of corporate governance and the capital structure

decisions of firms listed on the GSE during the six-year period (1998-2003).

Corporate governance and financing decisions of Ghanaian listed firms

Abor, J. (2007) "Corporate governance and financing decisions of Ghanaian listed firms", Corporate Governance, Vol. 7 Iss: 1, pp.83 - 92

Research Problem – illustrating a research gap

Ghana Stock Exchange. Ghana Stock Exchange Handbook 1993. Accra, Ghana: Marketing Department, Ghana Stock Exchange, 1993.


5656

The good research topic must:

1. Be original;

2. Be of interest to both the researcher and the supervisor;

3. Be timely and relevant;

4. It must make a contribution to existing knowledge or respond

to a research gap;

5. Be specific and distinct, not too broad;

6. Incorporate the main purpose of the research;

7. Be clever, captivating and unforgettable; and

8. The research questions that flow from it must be possible to

address through a research design.



RESEARCH GAPS

and Topic Selection


5858

Selecting A Topic

Research Gap - Explained

1. Discrepancies in existing research literature which need to

be addressed

2. Areas of study where there are reasonable gaps in the

existing literature.

Critical Component of the research problem – and through which

research objectives and questions emerge. Hence, the potential

contribution to literature lies in the research gap


5959

Selecting A Topic

Research Gap - Explained

• Answers the questions:

– Why should I read your work?

– Are you just duplicating previous research?

– What is the potential contribution of this research?

– Is there any value or something new to be learnt or

discovered, described or explained?

Critical Component of the research problem – and through

which research objectives and questions emerge


6060

Types of Research GapsA. Issue Gap

An issue which is less discussed, or less represented in literature. Very little is known

about this issue.

B. Theory Gap

A theory or theoretical framework which is less discussed, or less represented in

literature. Theory gap can also exist when current theories or conceptual models are

inadequate in addressing a particular research issue.

C. Method Gap

A research method which is less discussed or less represented in literature in respect to

a particular research topic/issue. Sometimes researchers make a case for new research

methods or approaches to be used for a particular research issue.

Inconclusive/conflicting empirical results can also create method gaps.

D. Context Gap

A research context – geographic region – which is less discussed or less represented in

literature, especially in respect to a particular research issue.

E. Level of Analysis Gap

A level of analysis (meta, macro, meso and micro) – which is less discussed or less

represented in literature, especially in respect to a particular research issue.


6161

Types of Research Gaps

1. Issue + Context

2. Issue + Theory

3. Issue + Method

4. Issue + Level of Analysis

5. Theory + Context

6. Theory + Method

Research gaps are sometimes complex in their presentation,

thus two or more types of research gaps are combined to

create a Complex Research Gap.


6262

Selecting A Topic

Research Gap - How

By Reviewing Existing Literature:

1. Identify the broad problem and state its

importance

2. State what is significant in what has already

been written.

3. Describe the gaps and select the gap you

propose to fill in the existing research literature.

This then creates an opportunity for you to

make a contribution to the research in the area.

4. Establish your research purpose, objectives and

questions.

Proposed by Swales (1981), quoted in Bruce (1995) as cited by Collins, E. (2000) Research Gaps, Academic Writer 2000, Retrieved from:

http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/academicwriter/Evidence/Secondary%20Sources/researchgaps.htm, on June 25, 2012

Establish the field

Summarize previous

research and complement

Create a research space

Establish Research

http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/academicwriter/Evidence/Secondary Sources/researchgaps.htm


6363

While there has been some research on the general

impact of female unemployment (Coyle,1984;

Popay,1985), little has been written about the effects of

pit closure on women's lives.

Research Gap identified: The effects of pit closure [in coal

mining] on women's lives.



complement

Gap

Research Problem – illustrating a research issue gap



6464

Research Problem – illustrating a research issue gap

The adoption of social media by the government confronts a series of barriers. Some of these

barriers relate to records management, privacy and security issues, accuracy, and

administration-specific requirements (Bertot et al., 2012; Bryer and Zavattaro,

2011;Landsbergen, 2010 and Sherman, 2011). As social media includes two-way

communications, the risk of inserting malware into governments' websites exists (Bertot et al.,

2012), so the IT people should be prepared to protect government's information technology

infrastructure. Governments that would like to implement social media need to verify if people

in charge of updating the media will have the time to update the new communication channel;

they also need to answer other questions such as what to post, how and when often they will

update (Bryer and Zavattaro, 2011 and Landsbergen, 2010). The lack of resources and

procedures could undermine the accuracy of the information posted on social media.

Although the use of social media in Mexican state government portals is recent, the

development of relationships between government and citizens is growing fast (Sandoval-

Almazán et al., 2011). However, in contrast with other countries, to our knowledge, there is

still no guideline for the use of social media in Mexico. The study of perceived risks,

benefits, and strategies will be very helpful in the development of those guidelines.

Social networking in Public Sector in Mexico

Sergio Picazo-Vela, Isis Gutiérrez-Martínez, Luis Felipe Luna-Reyes, Understanding risks, benefits, and strategic alternatives of social media applications in the public sector, Government Information Quarterly, Volume 29, Issue 4, October 2012, Pages 504-511, ISSN 0740-624X, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2012.07.002.


6565

In education in general, evaluation has played a vital role for more than one

hundred years (Madaus et al, 1983). In English Language Teaching also,

evaluation has been a major concern for over twenty years (Strevens, 1976;

Stern, 1983; Lynch, 1996). In contrast, it is only recently (Star, 1994;

Gardner & Miller, 1999) that attention has been paid to the evaluation of

learning outcomes in self-access centres. However, if we are to argue that

such centres provide an effective and efficient alternative to other existing

modes of language learning, it remains a matter of serious concern that

there is no research-based model designed for their evaluation.

This paper will suggest four key issues which need to be addressed when

considering the development of such an evaluation model…



Research Gap identified: A research-based model for the evaluation of

self-access language learning centres.

Research Problem – illustrating a theory/model gap



6666

There have been a number of valuable studies of self-

employment using cross-section data (Rees and Shah, 1986;

Blanchflower and Oswald, 1993; Taylor, 1996), all of which

present evidence on a number of employment and personal

characteristics on the sector. However, none of these studies

provides a picture of the changes over the last decade or

forecasts the trends in self-employment as the recession of

1990 took hold.

Research Gap identified: The need for a study of the changes in

self-employment over the last decade.Proposed by Swales (1981), quoted in Bruce (1995) as cited by Collins, E. (2000) Research Gaps, Academic Writer 2000, Retrieved from:


complement

Gap

Research Problem – illustrating a method gap



6767

Corporate governance has been identified in previous studies to influence firms'

financing or capital structure decisions which also affect performance

(see Berger et al., 1997; Friend and Lang, 1988). These empirical studies tended

to focus mainly on developed economies with inconclusive results. Very little,

however, has been done on corporate governance in Sub-Saharan Africa,

especially with respect to firms' financing decisions. In Ghana for instance,

economic development and restructuring have introduced modern forms of

business activity and diverse financing structures like the Ghana Stock Exchange

(GSE) in the past two decades (Ghana Stock Exchange, 1993).

Thus firms are being exposed to more financing options than previously. It is crucial

to determine how current issues in corporate governance affect the financing

decisions of Ghanaian firms. This paper specifically examines the relationship

between various variables of corporate governance and the capital structure

decisions of firms listed on the GSE during the six-year period (1998-2003).

Corporate governance and financing decisions of Ghanaian listed firms

Abor, J. (2007) "Corporate governance and financing decisions of Ghanaian listed firms", Corporate Governance, Vol. 7 Iss: 1, pp.83 - 92

Research Problem – illustrating an issue-context gap

Ghana Stock Exchange. Ghana Stock Exchange Handbook 1993. Accra, Ghana: Marketing Department, Ghana Stock Exchange, 1993.


6868



Extant literature has fairly covered studies on the mobile phone’s usage and

mobiles for development in sub-Saharan Africa. The studies include mobile

phones and fisherman and farmers in Ghana (Boadi et al., 2007); mobile phone

sharing practices in Ghana (Sey, 2009); mobile phones and development in

Nigeria (Heeks and Jagun, 2007; Jagun et al., 2008); mobile payments in

Uganda (Duncombe, 2009) and mobile phone ownership and social capital in

Tanzania and South Africa (Goodman, 2005).

Despite these studies, there is a call for more studies to test earlier findings in

different contexts and in different micro-economic activities in order to

contribute to better understanding of the impact of mobile phones in developing

economies.

complement

Gap

Research Problem – illustrating a context-issue gap



6969

Gaps may be communicated as:

1. Missing issues in literature

2. Limited discussion in literature

3. Conflicts in theoretical approach

4. Missing theoretical model

5. Conflicts/ in empirical methods (data collection and

context)

6. Mixed previous empirical results

7. Less contextual evaluation or geographic

representation

8. Complex (limited previous results, conflicts, absence,

mixed views)





7070

Research Gap - Identify

• Academic Journal Articles

– Gaps are usually presented in the introduction of the journal articles

These gaps focus on why it is important to read that journal article. It

establishes the gaps in the previous research and points out the focus of

the journal article.

– Future Research Directions or Gaps for Future Research

Usually the conclusion of an academic journal article focuses on

discussing the implications of the findings of the research and also point

out gaps for future research. This is important for researchers to find out

the gaps pointed out by previous researchers.





7171

6 Steps to Creating a Title for Research

1. Identify broad topic and academic discipline

2. Determine the scope

3. Conduct Preliminary Literature Review

4. Write Research Problem

5. Determine Research Purpose, Objectives and

Questions

6. Revisit your Topic to create a Title which fits your

purpose and questions


7272

Identify broad topic and academic discipline

Decline in employee

productivity

How can our company

improve the productivity of its

employees?

Business

Problem

Research

Problem

Employee productivity in

organizations

What factors influence

employee productivity?

What are the characteristics of

productive employees?


7373

Determine the Scope

1. Studying one part of an organization

2. Comparing several parts or functions of an

organization

3. Studying one organization

4. Comparing two or more organization

5. Studying a sector/industry


7474

Creating a Title for Research

1. Identify broad topic and academic discipline

2. Determine the scope

3. Conduct Preliminary Literature Review

4. Write Research Problem

5. Determine Research Purpose, Objectives and

Questions

6. Revisit your Topic to create a Title which fits your

purpose and questions



75

Chapter Three

Literature Review - Part Three



LITERATURE REVIEW – PART ONE

How to identify and locate literature

Learn about scholary journals


7777

What is the Literature Review?

A literature review IS:

1. A synthesis of available resources and materials

with a strong relation to the topic in question,

accompanied by a description AND a critical

evaluation and comparative analysis of each work

2. Focused on a particular question or area of research

Olivares, O. (2004) Researching and Writing Literature Reviews, A guide for graduate students in the social sciences at the

University of Arizona, Social Sciences Team Librarian, University of Arizona Libraries. Available:

http://www.library.arizona.edu/tutorials/litreviews/ [February 2012]


7878

Why do a literature review?

The literature review is not a chore to be finished quickly so that you can get on to the meat of your project, or a university department-imposed hoop to jump through before you can get on with the writing of your thesis or dissertation.

It is the very basis of your argument. It places your research in context within your discipline and demonstrates how your research improves your discipline. In other words, the literature review is the meat of your project.

1. So that your research will have a strong theoretical base on which to stand.





7979

a) To prove that there are gaps in knowledge in your field that merit a closer investigation

b) To demonstrate that your work will improve your field in some way, filling in gaps and adding to knowledge in and understanding of your field

c) To prove that your work hasn’t been previously contributed and it is indeed original

d) For purely practical considerations: a good literature review demonstrates that you’ve read extensively in your field, that you have a thorough comprehension of your field and that you are capable of intelligently ad knowledgeably critiquing others’ work

Why do a literature review?

2. To justify your research





8080

A good literature review will help you do the

following :

– Narrow your research focus;

– Pose questions that might not have previously

occurred to you; and

– Build a knowledge base for future





8181

The LR stages are :

1. Select and refine a topic

2. Identify and Locate literature

3. Ensure Relevance

4. Record and Retrieve

5. Review and Summarize

6. Write


8282

Identify Literature

• Where to Find Research Literature

– Periodicals

– Scholarly journals

– Books

– Dissertations

– Government documents

– Policy reports and presented papers

– Existing Statistics and Industry reports


8383

Scholarly Journals @ UG

• http://library.ug.edu.gh/screens/balme/onc

ampus.html

Or

• http://tinyurl.com/ugjournals


8484

• EBSCOhost

• Emerald

• JSTOR

• Palgrave Macmillan Journals

• Sage Journals Online

• ScienceDirect

• Wiley – Blackwell


http://tinyurl.com/ugjournals

Password may be needed when

accessed outside the university

network


8585

• African Journals Online (AJOL)

• Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)

• Google Scholar (Multidisciplinary)

• Topics in Development

• World Bank Databases


http://tinyurl.com/ugjournals

FREE

(almost)


8686

Scholarly Journal

1. Emerald

- www.emeraldinsight.com

username: uofghana

password: emerald

2. EBSCOhost

- http://search.epnet.com/

4

Password may be needed when

accessed outside the university

network

http://www.emeraldinsight.com/

http://search.epnet.com/


8787

Identify and Locate

1. Go to the journal database

2. Use the search box

– Basic Search

– Advanced Search

3. Type in your research topic

4. Review results

– Check Relevance

– Refine search parameters




88886

Record and Retrieve

• Save the document onto your PC

• Categorize the documents


8989

Spider Diagrams

For more on this and other aspects of academic study, see our website at

www.reading.ac.uk/studyadvice

summarize a lot of information on one page in a visual and memorable way.


9090

Spider Diagrams



Put the main topic in the middle and add key words on the “arms” of the diagram – the

key thing is to keep it brief.


91916

Read, Review and Summarize

Article Summary (one page)

1. Article Reference:

Author lastname, Other initials (year of publication) Title of the journal article,

Name of the Journal, Volume/Number, page range.

2. Research Problem/Research Question

3. Research Frameworks Used

4. Research Methods

5. Results/Findings and Discussions

6. Conclusions

7. Gaps for Future Research


9292

Practice Assignment

• Go to www.emeraldinsight.com

• Enter the username and password

• Search for this paper and download

“Mobile phones and micro-trading activities”

http://www.emeraldinsight.com/


9393

The LR stages are :

1. Select and refine a topic

2. Identify and Locate literature

3. Ensure Relevance



6. Write


9494

Ensure Relevance

• From reading the titles and abstracts, priorities the literature that we have identified and make a note of why it has a high, medium or low priority (at this stage).

• Develop the habit of screening the literature for relevance before we download it or print it out. This way we will not become overwhelmed with all of the reading that we have to do.

After researching




Santoy, J. (2007) Using Research in Academic Writing, Available:

http://www.janiesantoy.com/UsingResearch/3select.html [February 2012]


9595

Review

• When taking notes be sure be clear about when we are quoting and when

we are paraphrasing. We cannot risk unintentionally plagiarizing ideas

and information, the penalties are harsh and the damage to our

reputation could be irreparable.

• Always keep the page numbers with anything taken from the literature

so that we can easily check back to the quote or idea paraphrased

when editing.







9696

Questions

When reading relevant texts and writing the literature review you should ask yourself the following questions

1. How will I organize my discussion of the literature?

2. What headings will I use?

3. What are the grounds for including and excluding literature?







9797

Literature Review

as a process


9898

Structure of Long Essay & LR

• Abstract

• Chapt. 1 – Introduction

• Chapt. 2 – Literature Review

• Chapt. 3 – Context of the Study

• Chapt. 4 – Research Methodology

• Chapt. 5 – Results and Discussion

• Chapt. 6 – Conclusion


9999



Descriptive and Analytical Writing


100100

Analyzing and Writing

• Two main stages are involved in analyzing the literature:

evaluating the source and analyzing the source.

Evaluating A Source

– Ask: "Is this item relevant: does it tell me something I

need for my research paper/long essay?" If not, then

reject it. If so, then continue.

– Never simply accept what is written or said.


101101

Analyzing and Writing: Evaluating A Source

Questions to Ask

• Who wrote this?

• Why did they write this – do they have some particular

interest or 'angle' that would make them likely to present data

in a particular light (e.g. a company with a financial

involvement)?

• How did they get their data and come to their conclusions –

are there any possible problems with what they have done?

• When did they do the work – is it up-to-date, or likely to have

been superseded?

• What else do you know – does this support or contradict other

sources of evidence?


102102

Analyzing and Writing: Evaluating A Source

Triangulation

• viewing an issue from various different sources,

• evidence types, and

• perspectives in order to get a balanced view.

• Your overall evaluation will give you a sense of how valuable,

or not, the particular source is.


103103

Analyzing and Writing: Evaluating A SourceSocial networking is increasingly becoming a phenomenon in

the social and business lifestyles of employees. Statistics from the

2011 Forbes report on Social networking and business stated that, 85

per cent of workers in America spend a minimum of 30 minutes of

working hours to visit social networking websites (Forbes, 2011).

These statistics are not too far from that of Africans, as a recent study

in South Africa also found that 70 per cent of South African workers

interviewed browsed Facebook during working hours (Ngu, 2011).

Then again, beyond the concern on growth in the use of social

networking platforms in the workplace, there have been concerns

about the implications it has on both employers and employees

(Jackson, 2012). While some employers have been reported to be

requesting access passwords to employee accounts (California

Times, 2012); others are exploring policies and strategies to leverage

social media in marketing and sales (Carmen, 2009; BBC, 2011).

Example


104104

Analyzing and Writing: Analyzing A Source

What I am Looking For…??

• If you're looking for some specific item of data, e.g. how

many commercial banks are in Ghana?

• If you're looking for conceptual models that can inform your

research paper, e.g. which model will explain the social

determinants of internet banking adoption?

• If you’re looking for examples of the use of particular

research methods to study the topic in question in a

particular context, e.g. are there any quantitative studies on

internet banking adoption in an African country or

developing country?

Example


105105

Social networking is increasingly becoming a phenomenon

in the social and business lifestyles of employees. Statistics from

the 2011 Forbes report on Social networking and business stated that,

85 per cent of workers in America spend a minimum of 30 minutes of

working hours to visit social networking websites (Forbes, 2011).

These statistics are not too far from that of Africans, as a recent study

in South Africa also found that 70 per cent of South African workers

interviewed browsed Facebook during working hours (Ngu, 2011).






Times, 2012); others are exploring policies and strategies to leverage

social media in marketing and sales (Carmen, 2009; BBC, 2011).

Example

Analyzing and Writing: Analyzing A Source


106106

Analyzing and Writing: Synthesizing A Source

1. Select one common sub-theme/argument and divide it

into sub-topics that represent paragraph size “chunks.”

Then again, beyond the concern on growth in the use of social networking

platforms in the workplace, there have been concerns about the

implications it has on both employers and employees (Jackson, 2012).

While some employers have been reported to be requesting access

passwords to employee accounts (California Times, 2012); others are

exploring policies and strategies to leverage social media in marketing

and sales (Carmen, 2009; BBC, 2011).

Example

Employee

Social Media Privacy

Sales and Marketing and

Social Media


107107


2. For each “chunk” create a topic sentence that (1)

synthesizes the literature to be discussed, and (2)

describes the literature to be discussed.


networking platforms in the workplace, there have been

concerns about the implications it has on both employers

and employees (Jackson, 2012).

While some employers have been reported to be requesting access

passwords to employee accounts (California Times, 2012); others

are exploring policies and strategies to leverage social media in

marketing and sales (Carmen, 2009; BBC, 2011).

Example


108108


3. Support the topic sentences you created in #2 with

quotes, paraphrases and references from/on the

source material.






Times, 2012); others are exploring policies and strategies to

leverage social media in marketing and sales (Carmen, 2009;

BBC, 2011).

Example



A literature review IS NOT:

• A summary of available materials without any critical

description or component: or

• An annotated bibliography

Argument/View and

Evidence


110110

Write – LR as a process

The literature review has its own internal structure.

It starts with an

• Introduction: Opening sentence or

paragraph;

• Body: discusses the literature in a logical and

coherent way. this is where you discuss your sources;

and

• Conclusion: concludes with a paragraph that

relate the literature to the research project.







111111

Structure the Review

1. Chronology

2. Themes

Purpose, Objective

Conclusions/Gaps

3. Methodology


112112

Structuring the literature review

Chronologically: for example, if writers' views have tended to change over time.

It should show a clear trend or changes in trends.

Literature demonstrates that the key factors which contribute to unemployment in

Africa have tended to change over time. In the late 1990’s researchers argued that inflation and

low wages contributed to unemployment (Uche, 2000; Benson, 2003). For example a study by

Uche (2000) on unemployment in the banking industry in Nigeria highlighted that inflation

affected the turnover of banks which had also had an effect in salary payments. Over 2000 bank

employees lost their jobs by the end of 1999.

On the other hand, by 2004, researchers discussed that lack of capital for start-up

initiatives and high interest rates on loans stalled entrepreneurial ventures and contributed to

unemployment or the lack of job opportunities (Thakur, 2005). A comparative study (Kinson

2006) on the SME industry in Ghana and Uganda shared similar findings on the effects of start-

up capital and interest loans on entrepreneurship and unemployment. In a recent study on

unemployment in Egypt, Salia (2011) found political instability, poor governance and lack of

foreign direct investment to be the critical factors influencing unemployment. Other studies in

Cote d’Ivoire and Sierra Leone attests to these findings (Johnson, 2009; Pern, 2010).

In effect, unemployment in Africa may be viewed from a multi-facet perspective. It

cannot be reduced to one single factor.


113113

Structuring the literature reviewThematically: take particular themes in the literature, for example in the

literature review of poverty and unemployment. Thematic reviews of

literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the

progression of time.

– Structure of Unemployment

• What is unemployment

• Causes of unemployment

– Structure of poverty

• Education, employment, income and poverty

– The Link between poverty and unemployment

– Mitigating poverty in the unemployed

• Policies for unemployed

• Social/relational support

• Capacity development


114114

Structuring the literature reviewBody: this is where you discuss your sources.

thematically: take particular themes in the literature, for example in the

literature review of mobiles and micro-trading

– Impact of mobiles on micro-trading

• What is trading: Trading is about Information– Transaction Costs Theory

• Stages of trading

• Benefits of mobiles/technology in commerce/trade– Strategic

– Relational

– Operational

• Impact of mobiles– Incremental Effects

– Transformational Effects

– Production Effects


115115

Structuring the literature reviewBody: this is where you discuss your sources.

methodologically: here, the focus is on the methods of the researcher, for

example, qualitative versus quantitative approaches.

Region/Geo. Location

• Developing vs Developed

• Country

• Rural vs Urban

Method of data collection

– Quantitative vs Qualitative vs Mixed-Methods

– Survey vs Case Study

Unit of Analysis

– Micro: Individuals

– Meso: Organizational

– Macro: National

– Meta: Global/Cross-country


116116

Social networking is increasingly becoming a phenomenon in the social and

business lifestyles of employees. Statistics from the 2011 Forbes report on Social

networking and business stated that, 85 per cent of workers in America spend a

minimum of 30 minutes of working hours to visit social networking websites

(Forbes, 2011). These statistics are not too far from that of Africans, as a recent

study in South Africa also found that 70 per cent of South African workers

interviewed browsed Facebook during working hours (Ngu, 2011). Then again,

beyond the concern on growth in the use of social networking platforms in the

workplace, there have been concerns about the implications it has on both

employers and employees (Jackson, 2012). While some employers have been

reported to be requesting access passwords to employee accounts (California

Times, 2012); others are exploring policies and strategies to leverage social

media in marketing and sales (Carmen, 2009; BBC, 2011).

Somehow businesses have to respond to this growing phenomenon. However,

the questions are should employers be concerned - what are the potential risks

and benefits of social networking in the workplace and how can businesses

address the risk?

Social networking in workplaceexample


117117

Good and Bad Literature Review


118118

Bad Literature Review

Sexual harassment has many consequences. Adams, Kottke,

and Padgitt (1983) found that some women students said they

avoided taking a class or working with certain professors

because of the risk of harassment. They also found that men

and women students reacted differently. Benson and

Thomson's study in Social Problems (1982) lists many

problems created by sexual harassment. In their excellent

book, The Professor, Dziech and Weiner (1990) give a long

list of difficulties that victims have suffered.

Neuman, W. Lawrence. (2003). Social research methods:

qualitative and quantitative approaches, 5th ed, Allyn and

Bacon, Boston.

http://www.rmit.edu.au/redirect?URL=http://cat.lib.rmit.edu.au/vwebv/search?searchArg=Social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches&searchCode=TALL&limitTo=none&recCount=25&searchType=1&page.search.search.button=Search?sk=en_US


119119

Good Literature Review

The victims of sexual harassment suffer a range of

consequences, from lowered self-esteem and loss of self-

confidence to withdrawal from social interaction, changed

career goals, and depression (Adams, Kottke, and Padgitt,

1983; Benson and Thomson, 1982; Dziech and Weiner,

1990). For example, Adams, Kottke, and Padgitt (1983) noted

that 13 percent of women students said they avoided taking a

class or working with certain professors because of the risk of

harassment.

Neuman, W. Lawrence. (2003). Social research methods:

qualitative and quantitative approaches, 5th ed, Allyn and

Bacon, Boston.

http://www.rmit.edu.au/redirect?URL=http://cat.lib.rmit.edu.au/vwebv/search?searchArg=Social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches&searchCode=TALL&limitTo=none&recCount=25&searchType=1&page.search.search.button=Search?sk=en_US



A literature review IS NOT:

• A summary of available materials without any critical

description or component: or

• An annotated bibliography

Argument/View and

Evidence


121121

References

1. Boateng, R. (2014) Research Made Easy, Accra:

PearlRichards Foundation.

• Students can buy book from the University of Ghana


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