FINAL REVIEWIntroduction to Psychology (PSYC E-15)

Todd Farchione, Ph.D.Tommy Chou, M.A.

Broad TerminologyIdiographic vs. Nomothetic

Idiographic: Study of individualsNomothetic: Study of groups and general laws

Holistic vs. ReductionisticHolistic: Understanding concepts/systems as a

wholeReductionistic: Understanding

concepts/systems as interacting partsDescriptive vs. Experimental

Descriptive data presents characteristicsExperimental data evaluates the results of a

controlled change

Research MethodsOperationalization

Creating measurable, objective definitions of variables, esp. in experimental design

Independent and Dependent VariablesIndependent Variables (IV): what you change

(in a controlled manner)Dependent Variables (DV): what you observe to

note the results of changes IV’s

Research Design: A Continuum of StructureLess Structured More Structured

Naturalistic Observation

Covert non-participationOvert non-participationCovert participationOvert participation

Case Study

EclecticClinicalObservationalPsychometricArchival

Survey

QuestionnaireInterviewNon-reactiveArchivalPhysical Traces

Experiment

Classical experimentFactorial designQuasi-experimentalSingle-subject design

Idiographic/nomotheticQL

IdiographicQL

NomotheticQT

NomotheticQT

Greater structure in the research method generally yields greater precision in psychological measurement. Without intrusion into the daily activities of the participants, naturalistic observation can be employed in a case study, the survey, and quasi-experimental design

Report FormatsN/A Narrative style APA poster APA article

Biological PsychologyPhrenology

Previously held beliefs that the shape of the skull could indicate various personality traits

Modularity Doctrine & Current PerspectivesSpecific regions and structures found in the

brain account for specific functionsStructures bridged by parts such as the corpus

collosumBe sure to understand the major structures

and functions of the brain!

PsychoanalysisTwo meanings:

Theory of personalityMethod of therapy

Parts of the psycheId: lower-order desires and drivesEgo: moderates id, superego, and realitySuperego: “moral compass”

Behaviorism, Classical ConditioningPavlov’s dogFour major components:

Unconditioned Stimulus (US) Stimulus that naturally produces response (food)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Stimulus that does not naturally produce response,

but can after pairing with US (bell)Unconditioned Response (UR)

Natural response to US (salivation in response to food)

Conditioned Response (CR) Response to CS, which occurs even with removal of

US (salivation in response to bell)

Behaviorism, Operant ConditioningB.F. SkinnerThree major components

Discriminative stimulus (SD) Stimulus preceding response

Operant response (RO) Target behavior

Response stimulus (SR) Reinforcement or punishment, depending on the

operant response

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning, Response StimuliReinforcement vs. Punishment

Reinforcement acts to increase frequency of target behavior

Punishment decreases unwanted behaviorsPositive vs. Negative Reinforcement/Punishment

Positive: adds a stimulus (reinforcement: prize; punishment: electric shock)

Negative: removes a stimulus (reinforcement: alarm; punishment: privileges)

Shaping, prompting, modeling, flooding, and other methods used in conditioning are important as well; be sure to know these concepts!

Schedules of ReinforcementContinuous vs. IntermittentFixed Ratio: Applying reinforcement after a

specific number of responses. Variable Ratio: Applying reinforcement after

a variable number of responses.Fixed Interval: Applying reinforcer after a

specific amount of time. Variable Interval: Applying reinforcer after a

variable amount of time

Humanistic PsychologyFocus on the human experienceSelf-esteem vs. Self-conceptActualization tendency

Innate predisposition to seek the fullest expression of one’s potential

Person-centered therapyClient is responsible for guiding therapy and

improving his or her own lifeTherapist creates growth-inducing environment

Empathy Genuineness Unconditional positive regard

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Cognitive PsychologyMemory

Long-term memoryShort-term memory vs. Working memorySensory memory

Problem solvingHeuristics – rule-of-thumb strategies, typically

experientialAlgorithms – “steps” to problem solving

Parallel distributive processingMental capacity to “run” multiple processes in

parallel

Information Processing

Evolutionary PsychologyEvolved psychological mechanisms

Fundamental to individual survival and sexual reproduction

Fears, preferences, or behavioral tendencies resulting from evolutionary pressures Less predictable and more open to diversity than

instinctive behaviorExamples

Mate preference and mating patterns Group living Shared expressions and language

Social PsychologyViews behavior as a function of people and

their environmentConformity

Asch experimentCompliance

Milgram experimentGroup dynamics and Social influence

Robber’s cave studyStanford prison experimentBystander effect

Social CognitionAttributions

Internal (dispositional) vs. External (situational)

Internal Attributions External Attributions

Attributions About Oneself Positive: I did a good job because I’m smartNegative: I did a bad job because I’m inept

Positive: I did a good job because the task was easyNegative: I did a bad job because there wasn’t time

Attributions About Others Positive: She did a good job because she’s smartNegative: She did a bad job because she’s inept

Positive: She did a good job because it was easyNegative: She did a bad job because there wasn’t time