Introduction to Optical & Thermal Remote Sensing
Transcript of Introduction to Optical & Thermal Remote Sensing
Introduction to Optical & Thermal
Remote Sensing
Dr. Gülşen Taşkın Kaya gulsen.taskin at gmail.com
ITU Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Disaster Management
June, 2014
Outline
• Electromagnetic Wave (EMR)
• Solar Irradiance
• Atmospheric Interactions
• Interaction with Surface
• Remote Sensing Platforms and Sensors
• Thermal Remote Sensing
Remote Sensing
“The science of remote sensing consists of the analysis
and interpretation of measurements of electromagnetic
radiation (EMR) that is reflected from or emitted by a
target and observed or recorded from a vantage point by
an observer or instrument that is not in contact with the
target.”
[Mather, P.M and Koch, M., “Computer Processing of Remotely-Sensed Images: An Introduction”, Wiley-Blackwell, Fourth
Edition, 2011]
Remote Sensing Components
Chapter 1
Electromagnetic wave (EMR)
Electromagnetic Radiation • Quite complex to define => out of scope.
• The EM radiation is considered to be constituted of particles
called photons.
• photons, like EM radiation, travels through space in the form of
periodic disturbances of electric and magnetic fields that
• simultaneously oscillate in planes mutually perpendicular to each other
• to the direction of propagation through space at the speed of light (c =
2.99792458 × 108 m/s)
• The EMR transmits energy.
• The disposition of the two fields
is described by the polarization state
of the EMR (either horizontal or vertical).
The EMR Terminology Wavelength
the spatial period of the wave-the distance over
which the wave's shape repeats.
Frequency
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a
repeating event per unit time.
Amplitude
a measure of its change over a single period
(such as time or spatial period)
Phase
denotes the particular point in the cycle of a
waveform, measured as an angle in degrees.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
400400 nm 700 nm500 nm 600 nm
700500 600
wavelength in nanometers
Visible
Reflected IR Thermal IR
1 nm = 10−9
1 µm = 10−6
RS Spectral Regions
Optic Remote Sensing (RS)
• Ultraviolet (UV)
• Visible
• Infrared (IR)
• Microwave Remote Sensing
• Microwave
Visible Light
• Composed of colors (different wavelengths)
• These familiar colors range from violet (shortest wavelength) through indigo, blue,
green, yellow, orange and red (ROYGBIV).
• The visible spectrum is also viewed as being composed of three equal-wavelength
segments that represent the additive primary colors;
• Blue (400 to 500 nonometers)
• Green (500 to 600 micrometers)
• Red ( 600 to 700 micrometers)
400400 nm 700 nm500 nm 600 nm
700500 600
wavelength in nanometers
Visible
Infrared (IR) Band
• The infrared (IR) band has wavelengths between red visible light (0.7
micrometers) and microwaves at 1,000 micrometers. Infrared means below
the red.
• In remote sensing the IR band is usually divided into two components that are
based on basic property differences;
• Reflected IR band : The reflected IR band represents reflected solar radiation which behaves
like visible light. Its wavelength span is from 0.7 to about 3 micrometers.
• Emitted/Thermal IR band : The dominant type of energy in the thermal IR band is heat energy,
which is continuously emitted by the atmosphere and all objects on the earth s surface. Its
wavelength span is from about 3 micrometers to 4 micrometers.
Reflected IR Thermal IR
Microwave Band
• The microwave band falls between the IR and radio bands
and has a wavelength range extending from approximately
0.1 centimeters to 1 meter.
• At the proper wavelengths microwave radiation can pass
through;
• Clouds
• Precipitation
• tree canopies Frequency
Wavelength 1 mm1 km 1 m 1 m 1 nm
1 MHz 1 GHz
IR UV
109 Hz
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Allocated Frequency (GHz)
X-BandC-BandS-BandL-BandUHF
VHF
Visible
1012 Hz
Ku
K
Ka
W
Chapter 2
Solar Irradiance
Energy: the capacity to do work. Measured in joules (J).
Radiant energy: the energy of EM wave.
Solar Irradiance
Terminology
Radiant flux or radiant power • the flux or flow of energy in the stream of time
• The measure of total of the total power of EMR in
a time unit, measured in Watt (W).
• Total emitted light from the Sun
Radiant flux density or irradiance
Received radiant power per unit area, measured
(W2/m).
Incoming light from Sun
Radiant exitance
flux leaving per unit surface area.
dΦ
dA
Irradiance: F =d8
dA
Solar Irradiance Spectral irradiance : A quantity often used in remote sensing is the irradiance per
unit wavelength, measured with units W/m2/nm).
d
The Earth
• The total radiant flux from the
Sun is approximately 3.84 ×
1026 W.
• the mean Earth-Sun distance
(d) is 1.496 × 1011 m.
F0 =
3.84 × 1026
4π(1.496 × 1011)2= 1370 W/m2,
The total solar irradiance, over all wavelength,
incident at the Top of Atmosphere (TOP), at
normal incidence to the Earth surface :
Solar spectral irradiance
Solar spectral irradiance at the TOP. 6 1. REMOTE SENSING FROM EARTH OBSERVATION SATELLITES
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
wavelength (nm)
Solar Irradiance (W/m
2/nm)
See [Thuillier et al., 2003].
• Consider a blackbody adsorbing all of the incoming radiation
• Blackbody transforms heat energy into radiant energy.
• Planck’s Law describes the spectral exitance or spectral reflectance
(distribution of irradiance with wavelength) of a blackbody at a
temperature, T = 5777 K. as:
The Planck Law
=
B(λ, T ) =
2hc2
λ5(exp( hckBT λ
) − 1),
h : Planck’s constant, 6.626 × 10−34 J s.
kB : Boltzmann’s constant, 1.38 × 10−23 J/K.
c : speed of light, 2.99792458 × 108 m/s.
The Plank’s Distribution
100 1000 10000 10000010
−4
10−2
100
102
104
106
Sun
(5777K)
Lava
(1400K)
Forest Fire
(900K)
Ambient
(300K)Artic Ice
(220K)
wavelength (nm)
Relative Spectral Radiance
Blackbody emission of the objects at typical temperatures.
=
B(λ, T ) =
2hc2
λ5(exp( hckBT λ
) − 1),
The maximum emission intensity of the curve occurs around 500 nm.
Peak emission wavelength
The location of the peak emission is given by the Wien law:
Wien's displacement law
λmax =
b
T
T : absolute temperature of the black body
b : Wien’s displacement constant, equal to 2.8977721(26)×10−3 m K.
Peak wavelength is determined by Wien’s Displacement Law which relates
object’s temperature to emitted wavelength
Exitance vs. temperature
The dotted line joins the emitance peaks of the curves and is described by Wien’s displacement Law.
Total Emitted Power
Stefan-Boltzmann Law states that the total power emitted by a blackbody, per unit
surface area of the blackbody, varies as the fourth power of the temperature:
F = π
∫∞
0
B(λ, T )dλ = 5.671 × 10−8T 4 (W/m2) .
• The solar radiation maximum
occurs in the visible spectrum.
• About %46 of the total energy
transmitted by the Sun falls into
the visible waveband.
Valid only for a blackbody! Environment EM radiation sources
At sensor radiance
The incoming solar radiation, F0(λ) • travels throughout the complex Earth atmosphere medium before is reflected by
the surface
• and the reflected signal travels again throughout the atmosphere before it arrives
at the sensor.
The measured at sensor radiance is called TOA radiance.
What is radiance?
How to calculate spectral reflectance?
Radiance: the flux of EMR leaving a source
area A in the direction θ per solid angle α
which measured in watts per square meter
per steradian (W m-2 sr-1). e.g. Light received at satellite
Spectral reflectance: the amount of
reflected radiation divided by that amount
of incoming radiation in a particular
wavelength range. So, the reflectance • varies with wavelength
• varies with geometry
• Diagnostic of different materials
Radiance & Reflectance
dΦ
dA
dω
Radiance: L =d2
8
dωdA
Illustration of the geometric characterization of the incident irradiance, radiant intensity,
total power
leaving the
surface
total power
hitting the
surface
ρ =
Radiance2Reflectance
• the amount of reflected radiation divided by that amount of
incoming radiation in a particular wavelength range from DN )
anglezenith Solar :),cos(
/ IrradianceSolar Spectral:
/ Irradiance Spectral :
/ Surface theof Radiance Spectral :
eReflectanc Spectral :
2
2
2
sss
s
ss
mmWE
mmWG
msrmWL
E
L
G
L
Chapter 3
Atmospheric Interactions
Atmospheric Effects
Earth Atmosphere
The Earth’s surface is covered by a layer of
atmosphere consisting of a mixture of gases and
other solid and liquid particles. The principal
gaseous constituents: • nitrogen (78%)
• oxygen (21%)
• argon (1%)
• minor constituents (<0.04%).
• Water vapor and an ozone layer are also present.
• The atmosphere also contains solid and liquid
particles such as aerosols, water droplets (clouds or
raindrops), and ice crystals (snowflakes). These
particles may aggregate to form clouds and haze.
the atmosphere may affect
• speed of radiation
• intensity
• spectral distribution
• direction
Major subdivisions of the atmosphere and the types of molecules
and aerosols found in each layer
Absorption of EMR
Jensen 2005Jensen 2005Jensen 2005
window
Absorption of EMR
Atmospheric window: The region of the spectrum that are relatively
free from the the effects of the scattering and absorption.
0.3 0.5 1.0 1.5 3.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.02.0
0
100
SWIRUV VIS MIRII TIR FIRNIR I
wavelength (µm)
Transmission[%]
Figure 1.4: Relative atmospheric radiation transmission. Gray denotes absorption bands and blue areas
denote atmospheric windows (transmission peaks).
Atmospheric Effects
When the EMR from the Sun reaches Earth’s atmosphere, it may be;
Absorbed: incident radiation is taken in by the medium. A portion of the radiation is
converted into internal heat energy that is emitted or radiated back at longer thermal
infrared wavelengths.
Transmitted : incident radiation passes through matter with measurable attenuation
(absorbed or scattered).
Scattered: incident radiation is dispersed or spread out by the particles suspended in
the medium unpredictably in all directions.
Reflected : incident radiation bounces off the surface of a substance in a predictable
(specular reflection) or unpredictable (diffuse reflection) direction.
Atmospheric Scattering
The type of scattering is a function of: The wavelength of the incident radiant energy
The size of the gas molecule, dust particle, or water droplet encountered.
Based on wavelength of incident radiant energy, the size of the
gas molecule, dust particle, or water vapor droplet essentially two
types of scattering:
1. Selective scattering
• Rayleigh
• Mie
2. non-selective scattering
Atmospheric Scattering
• The type of scattering is a function of: • The wavelength of the incident radiant energy
• The size of the gas molecule, dust particle, or water droplet encountered
• Based on wavelength of incident radiant energy, the size of the
gas molecule, dust particle, or water vapor droplet essentially
two types of scattering:
• Selective Scattering affects specific wavelengths of EMR • Rayleigh
• Mie
• non-selective scattering is wavelength independent.
Rayleigh Scattering
Particles < Wavelength
• Rayleigh scattering occurs when the diameter of
the matter are many times smaller than the
wavelength of the incident electromagnetic
radiation (particle size < 1 µm).
• The amount of scattering is inversely related to
the fourth power of the radiation's wavelength
(λ-4).
• For example, blue light (0.4 µm) is scattered 16
times more than near-infrared light (0.8 µm)
• Scattering is mostly done by aerosols
rticles < Wavelength
Rayleigh Scattering
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Mie Scattering
• Occurs when the particles are just about the same size as the
wavelength of the radiation.
• Caused by particles having radii between 0.1 and 10 µm.
• Example : Smoke, dust, water vapor
• Effects shorter wavelength more than longer wavelengths
• But disparity is not as great as in the case of Rayleigh
scattering.
Non-selective scattering
• produced when there are particles in the low atmosphere
several times the diameter of the radiation being transmitted.
• non-selective, i.e. all wavelengths of light are scattered, not
just blue, green, or red.
• Thus, water droplets, which make up clouds and fog banks,
scatter all wavelengths of visible light equally well, causing
the cloud to appear white.
Chapter 4
Interaction with the surface
Interaction with the surface
• Fundamental energy interactions with the surface • Reflection
occurs when radiation "bounces" off the target
and is redirected.
• Transmission
occurs when radiation passes through a target.
• Absorption
occurs when radiation (energy) is absorbed into
the target.
EI(λ) = ER(λ) + EA(λ) + ET(λ)
Interaction will vary
• for different earth features, depending on their material type and condition.
• at different wavelengths.
Interaction with the surface
• Remote sensing measures the radiation reflected from
targets.
Types of reflection • specular reflection
• specular or mirror-like reflection where all (or almost all) of the energy is directed
away from the surface in a single direction.
• diffuse (Lambertain) reflection.
Diffuse reflection occurs when the surface is rough and the energy is reflected almost
uniformly in all directions.
Example : Fine- grained sand would appear fairly smooth to
long wavelength microwaves but would appear quite rough to
the visible wavelengths.
Spectral Response
• The amount and spectral distribution of the reflected energy is used in RS to
infer the nature of the reflecting surface.
• A specific targets (soil, water, vegetation, etc.) have an individual and
characteristic manner of interacting with incident radiation that is described by
spectral response (spectral signature) of the target.
• Spectral response of the target will vary from time to time during the year (i.e.
vegetation).
• The spectral response of the target also depends on
• Orientation of the Sun (solar azimuth)
• The height of the Sun in the sky (solar elevation angle)
• The stage of health vegetation, if that is the target.
Spectral Response
• The amount and spectral distribution of the reflected energy is used in RS to
infer the nature of the reflecting surface.
• A specific targets (soil, water, vegetation, etc.) have an individual and
characteristic manner of interacting with incident radiation that is described by
spectral response (spectral signature) of the target.
• Spectral response of the target will vary from time to time during the year (i.e.
vegetation).
• The spectral response of the target also depends on
• Orientation of the Sun (solar azimuth)
• The height of the Sun in the sky (solar elevation angle)
• The stage of health vegetation, if that is the target.
Reflectance curve
• Reflection, being due to microscopic EM interactions
between the incident wave and the illuminated material, will
generally be λ-dependent
• For any given material, reflectance will thus be depending
on the incident wavelength
• if a reasonable number of acquisitions are available, it
is possible to outline reflectance as a function of λ,
thus obtaining the so-called “reflectance curves”
• In EO, the considered interval is generally 0.4 – 2.5
µm.
Spectral response of vegetation
• Chlorophyll
• The reason of different colors of vegetation during the season.
• Strong reflection within the NIR.
• High NIR reflectance / Low red reflectance = Healthy
• Low NIR reflectance / High red reflectance = Unhealthy
Vegetation spectrum in detail
Wavelenghth (micron)
Re
flecta
nce
NDVI Index
REDNIR
NIR RED
NDVI =
REDNIR
NIR RED
HIGH NDVI
REDNIR
LOW NDVI
HEALTYUNHEALTY
RED
NIR
NIR
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
Spectral reflection of vegetation types
Spectral response of water
• Longer wavelength visible and near infrared radiation is
absorbed.
• blue or blue-green due to stronger reflectance at these shorter
wavelengths
• darker if viewed at red or near infrared wavelengths.
Spectral response of soil
organic matterand soil moisture content
water absorption band
0.85− 0.93 µm. ferric iron absoption band
Chapter 5
Remote Sensing Platforms and
Sensors
On the Ground, In the Air, In Space
Sensing from 1 meter to 36,000 km
height
Platforms are:
•Ground based•Ground based
•Airborne
•Spaceborne
Sources of EM energy
• Passive sensor • Depends on energy (daylight, heat)
• Aerial Camera
• Thermal Sensor
• Active sensor • Generates energy (illuminates)
• Radar
• Laser Scanners
Categorization of Sensors
visible
microwave domain optical domain domain
gamma ray spectrometer
• multi spectral scanner
• imaging spectrometer
• aerial camera
thermal scanner passive microwave radiometer
passive sensors
• video camera
radarradar altimeter
laser scanner imaging radar
active sensors
wavelength g
Satellite Characteristics: Orbits and Swaths
• Orbit: The path followed by a satellite. • altitude (their height above the Earth's surface)
• their orientation and rotation relative to the Earth
Geostationary Orbit
• These satellites are at very high altitudes, which
view the same portion of the Earth’s surface at
all times.
• These satellites, at altitudes of approximately
36,000 kilometers, revolve at speeds which
match the rotation of the Earth so they seem
stationary, relative to the Earth’s atmosphere.
Near-Polar Orbits
• These satellites are designed to follow an orbit
(basically north-south) which, in conjunction with the
Earth’s rotation (west-east), allows them to cover most
of the Earth’s surface over a certain period of time.
• Two types of near-polar orbits:
• Sun-Synchronous:
- Cover each area of the world at a constant local time of day
- At any given latitude, the position of the sun in the sky
as the satellite passes overhead will be the same within the
same season
• Non-Sun-Synchronous:
Opposite of Sun-Synchronous
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Ascending & Descending
Most of the remote sensing satellite platforms
=> near-polar orbits
Ascending : traveling northwards on one side
of the Earth The ascending pass is most likely on the shadowed
side of the Earth
Descending : travelling toward the southern
pole on the second half of its orbit.
the descending pass is most likely on the sunlit side.
Passive sensors => descending pass
Active sensors => both available
satellite orbit
orbitdirection
descendingnode
ascendingnode
EARTH
north
south
orbitdirection
equatorialplane
The swath
swath width
• As a satellite revolves around the Earth, the sensor “sees” a certain portion of the
Earth’s surface. The area imaged on the surface, is referred to as the swath.
• Imaging swaths for space-borne sensors generally vary between tens and hundreds
of kilometers wide.
Behind the Scenes
Credit: NASA/NOAA
Resolution
• Resolution determine the ability of remote
sensing data to distinguishing between
different objects.
• There are four types of resolutions: • Spectral
wavelength, or wavelength range
• Spatial
location/size:
• Temporal
Time
• Radiometric
intensity/amplitude:
Spectral resolution
• Capability to discriminate wavelengths => ∆λ
• Mono- , multi- , hyper-spectral
Spatial/Geometric resolution
FOV : field of view, the total
angle that is scanned.
IFOV : instantaneous field of
view, the viewing angle of the
system.
http://geoinformatik.lehrewelt.de/abbildungsgeometrie/
http://www.oneonta.edu/faculty/baumanpr/geosat2/RS-Introduction/RS-Introduction.html
D = diameter of the ground cell (metres)D = diameter of the ground cell (metres)
β = IFOV (radians)β = IFOV (radians)
H = flight height (metres)
Ground
resolution
element
HD β ( di )HD ⋅= β (at nadir)
Pixel Sizes
Spatial resolution
Radiometric resolution
Radiometric resolution refers to the number of digital quantization levels used to
express the data collected by the sensor.
The greater the number of quantization levels, the greater the detail in the
information.
Quantization
The measured physical quantity (radiance) is a real value
• Yet the instruments electronics is digital, i.e. it can handle only discrete values,
generally binary coded
• Real values have to be converted into binary codes (Digital Numbers or “DN”)
• This translation implies a loss of information.
p
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantization_(signal_processing)
Radiometric resolution
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Temporal resolution
Revisit Time (minimum time between two images of the same area, can be
smaller than repeat cycle). The time factor in imaging is important when: • persistent clouds offer limited clear views of the Earth's surface (often in the tropics)
• short-lived phenomena (floods, oil slicks, etc.) need to be imaged
• multi-temporal comparisons are required (e.g. the spread of a forest disease from one
• year to the next)
• the changing appearance of a feature over time can be used to distinguish it from near-
• similar features (wheat / maize) can be considered to define the temporal resolution of the image sequence.
This sequence of Landsat TM images of an agricultural area in central California was
acquired during a single growing season: 27 April (left), 30 June (center), and 20 October
(right). In this 4-3-2 band combination vegetation appears red and bare soil in shades of
blue-green. Some fields show an increase in crop canopy cover from April to June, and
some were harvested prior to October.
Most surface-monitoring satellites are in low-Earth orbits (between 650 and 850
Temporal resolution
Multispectral Scanning
Multispectral scanner
• Wavelength Bands
• Band-SpectrumInfrared
p
• Sensor-Application
• Many applications
Infrared
band
Red bandRed band Blue bandBlue band
Green bandGreen bandBand combination
Green bandGreen band
Hyperspectral Imaging
(Imaging Spectroscopy )
Swath width of
imagining
sensor
Along tr
ack d
imensio
n built
up by
the
motio
n of t
he space
craft
Spectral images taken
simultaneously
Thermal Remote Sensing
VIS
UV
NIR
TIR
MIR
SOLAR TERRESTRIAL
SOLAR AND TERRESTRIAL
SPECTRUM
Wavelength ( m)
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Thermal Infrared Radiation is a
form of electromagnetic radiation
with a wavelength between 3 to 14
micrometers (µm). Its flux is much
lower than visible flux.
Albedo
Albedo is a term referring to the measure of reflectivity of
the Earth's surface.
Reflected vs. Emitted
Reflected EnergyVNIR & SWIR
Emitted EnergyTIR
Reflectance : characterizes surface on how well it reflects radiation at different
wavelengths (NIR/SWIR)
Emissivity : characterizes surface on how well it emits radiation at different
wavelengths (TIR)
Emissivity
• Emissivity can be used as spectra with TRS similarly like
Reflectance is used in the VIS/NIR/SWIR parts of the
spectrum.
• Emissivity changes with different rock composition,
weathering state etc.
• Geologic mapping
• Emissivity needs to be known to get from Radiant to Kinetic
Temperatures
Two types of Applications
Main interest of study is :
• Emissivity of surface; changes with wavelength
• Temperature of surface
Volcanic Eruption Monitoring
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Geology and Mining
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Alluvial Fans from different
parental rocks
Rock composition mapping
Detecting Coal Fires
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Newly detected
HotSpots
Known CoalFire areas
Ruqigou and Wuda
Thermal RS
MASTER • MODIS ASTER aircraft instrument
• Airborne scanner, 5-50 m. spatial res., 50 bands spectral res.
ASTER
• 90 m. spatial res., 6 bands spectral res.
MODIS
• 1000 m. spatial res., 17 bands in TIR, High radiometric res. (16 bit).
SEABASS • Spatial Enhanced Broad Array Spectrograph System
• Airborne Scanner, 2-3 m. spatial res., 128 bands
References
SYNTHESIS LECTURES ON
IMAGE, VIDEO & MULTIMEDIA PROCESSING
CM& Morgan Claypool Publishers&
Remote Sensing ImageProcessing
Alan C. Bovik, Series Editor
Gustavo Camps-VallsDevis TuiaLuis Gómez-ChovaSandra JiménezJesús Malo
Fundamentals
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Natural Resources Ressources naturelles
Canada Canada
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