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Introduction to Introduction to scientific research Uvod u Uvod u znanstveno-istraživački rad (UZIR) Kalman Žiha [email protected] Handouts available at: Nastavni materijali se nalaze na: https://www.fsb.unizg.hr/brodogradnja/UZIR.htm

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Page 1: Introduction to Introduction to scientific research Uvod u ... · Introduction to Introduction to scientific research Uvod u Uvod u znanstveno-istraživački rad (UZIR) Kalman Žiha

Introduction to Introduction to scientific research

Uvod u Uvod u znanstveno-istraživački rad (UZIR)

Kalman Žiha

[email protected]

Handouts available at:

Nastavni materijali se nalaze na:

https://www.fsb.unizg.hr/brodogradnja/UZIR.htm

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Thesaurus (MS-Word)

Creativity

(Originality, Imagination, Inspiration, Ingenuity, Inventiveness, Resourcefulness,

Creativeness, Vision, Innovation)

New Webster’s Dictionary of English Language

Create (creatus, creare-bring into being)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Creativity is a phenomenon whereby something new and somehow valuable is formed.

The created item may be intangible (such as an idea, a scientific theory, a musical composition or a joke) or a physical object (such as an invention, a literary work or a painting).

Kreativnost je fenomen pri kojem se stvara nešto novo i na neki način od neporecive važnosti i značaja.

Kreirani rezultat može biti nematerijalan kao ideja, znanstvena teorija, muzička kompozicija, vic, šala ili fizički objekt kao pronalazak, književno djeli ili slika.

Scholarly interest in creativity involves many definitions and concepts pertaining to a number of disciplines: psychology, cognitive science, education, philosophy (particularly philosophy of science), technology, theology, sociology, linguistics, business studies, songwriting, and economics,

Pojam kreativnosti uključuje mnoge definicije i koncepte iz više disciplina: psihologija, kognitivne znanosti, obrazovanje, filozofija, osobito filozofija znanosti, tehnologija, teologija, sociologija, lingvistika, poslovanje, glazba i ekonomija.

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Covering the relations between creativity and general intelligence, mental and neurological processes, personality type and creative ability, creativity and mental health;

the potential for fostering creativity through education and training, especially as augmented by technology; and the application of creative resources to improve the effectiveness of teaching and learning.

U okvirima pojma kreativnosti važni su odnosi kreativnosti i opće inteligencije, kreativnosti i mentalnih i neuroloških procesa, kreativnosti i osobnosti i kreativnih sposobnosti, kreativnosti i mentalnog stanja, mogućnost povećanja kreativnosti učenjem i vježbom, kreativnosti i tehnologije i primjena kreativnosti za stvarnje okruženja za povećanje kreativnosti.

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Encyclopedija Britannica (1964)

The question concerning the nature of psychic creation is a special aspect of the

question of how new forms come into existence in all of nature.

Pitanje o prirodi duhovnih kreacija je samo poseban vid pitanja nad pitanjima kako se

nove forme privode postojanju u cijeloj prirodi.

Repetition is to be seen everywhere in the natural world, and the perception of one

thing as being like another is the basis of ability to avoid unpleasant and to entertain

those that contribute to survival or give pleasure; novelty, from this point of view,

offers a threat to our power to anticipate events.

Nonetheless, we speak of routines deadening, and we are happy to think that our day

may hold a pleasant surprise.

Ponavljanje se susreće svuda u svijetu a percepcija stvari sličnih drugima umanjuje

osjećaj neugode; s tog stanovišta, novosti predstavljaju ugrozu jer smanjuju

mogućnosti predviđanja.

Unatoč tome, govori se o zamornoj rutini i mogućnosti ugodnih iznenađenja.

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Bergson, H. theory of creative evolution

Intellect is the “geometrizing” tendency of mind.

Intuition is the opposite: it is nonrational, it “knows” by “feeling”, its form of

understanding is emphatic and immediate rather than analytic and detached.

A creative person is usually very intelligent in ordinary sense of the term and can

meet the problems of life as rationally as anyone else can, but refuses the let intellect

rule; he relies strongly on intuition and respects the irrational in himself and others.

Prema Bergsonu intelekt je tendencija uma da uvodi red u stvari.

Suprotni intelektu i intuicija – neracioonalna, oslanja se na osjećaje i prvi dojam a ne

na analizu.

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Freud, S. Topography of mind

Whatever the terms used, it seems clear that creative person is able to find in the

developmentally more primitive aspects of his own mental functioning the possibility

of new insight that at first may be only intuitevilly and dimly apprehended.

In brief he is willing to listen to what is far from the centre of consciousness and

rationality in himself;

Ukratko prema Freudu, kreativna osoba je spremna osloniti se na sadržaje koji nisu u

središtu svjesnosti i nisu nužno racionalne same po sebi.

Along with this ability to sustain what may be called preconfigural tensions goes a

strong interest in apparent disorder, contradiction and imbalance.

Asymmetry and disorder seem to be experienced by creative people as challenge; by

resisting the tendency to reject them prematurely they enrich the world they see.

Asimetrija i nered kao da izazivaju interes kreativne osobe; prihvaćajući ih postižu

svoju sliku svijeta.

Refusal to content with the most easily established habit of perception leads creative

persons at times to give impression of psychological imbalance.

Neprihvaćanje najlakšeg i najjednostavnijeg rješenja može ostaviti krivi dojam o

duševnoj neuravnoteženosti kreativnih osoba???????????????

Jeste li vi taj?

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Encyclopedija Britannica on-line

http://www.britannica.com/topic/creativity

Creativity, the ability to make or otherwise bring into existence something new,

whether a new solution to a problem, a new method or device, or a new artistic object

or form.

Kreativnost - sposobnost učiniti ili drukčije privesti postojanju nešto novo, bilo novo

rješenje nekog problema, novi postupak ili uređaj ili novo umjetničko delo ili oblik.

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Creativity definitions

Definicije kreativnosti

Sternberg's Theory of Creativity

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Sternberg

Prof. Sternberg at Yale University, says that all of the following are essential: a lack of any one item in the list precludes creativity.

Nužni uvjeti kreativnosti.

1. Intelligence Inteligencija A. synthetic intelligence. The ability to combine existing information in a new

way. Sintetična inteligencija.

B. analytic intelligence. The ability to distinguish between new ideas that have potential, and new ideas that are not worth further work. This ability is essential to an effective allocation of resources, by evaluating the quality of new ideas. Analitička inteligencija.

C. practical intelligence. The ability to sell one's ideas to funding agencies, managers, editors, reviewers, etc. Without "practical intelligence" the creative person will not be allocated resources to develop their ideas, and the creative person may achieve recognition only posthumously. Praktična inteligencija.

2. Knowledge Znanje, gives the ability to recognize what is genuinely new. The history of science shows that many good ideas are discovered independently by more than one person. Scientists and engineers must be familiar with the technical literature, in order to avoid "reinventing the wheel". On the other hand, too much knowledge might block creativity, by immediately providing reasons why a new idea is not worth pursuing and by encouraging a person to be rigid in their thinking. Poznavanje materije. Previše znanja može biti i ograničavajuće. Knowledge is also important to provide skills necessary to design experiments, to design new products, to analyze the results of experiments, do computations, etc.

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3. Thinking Styles. Način mišljenja. Creative people question conventional wisdom, instead of passively accepting that wisdom. Creative people question common assumptions and rules, instead of mindlessly follow them. This style brings creative people into conflict with society around them, so it is also essential to have a personality that tolerates this conflict, as explained in the next item in this list.

4. Personality. Osobnost. Creative people take the risk to defy conventional wisdom and to be a nonconformist. Creative people have the courage to persist, even when the people around them provide objections, criticism, ridicule, and other obstacles. Most people are too timid to be really creative.

5. Motivation Motivacija A. intrinsic or personal. Creative people genuinely enjoy their work and set

their own goals. Unutarnja motivacija.

B. extrinsic. There are a number of extrinsic motivators: money, promotions, prizes, praise, fame, etc. Extrinsic motivators mostly focus on an end result, not the process of discovery or creativity. In highly creative people, extrinsic motivators appear to be less important than intrinsic motivators. Vanjska motivacija.

6. Environmental Context. Okolišni sadržaji. Many environments (particularly managers and bureaucracy) discourage creativity. A creative individual who could flourish in one environment can become a routine, ordinary worker in another environment. The optimum environment for creative people is where they can be paid to do their creative work, so creativity is a full-time job, not a spare-time hobby.

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What is Creativity? Što je kreativnost? Creativity and Innovation: Your Keys to a Successful Organization

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/daniel-burrus/creativity-and-innovation_b_4149993.html

Daniel Burrus Technology Futurist, Keynote Speaker, Author

Creativity is a function of knowledge, curiosity, imagination, and evaluation.

Kreativnost je funkicja znanja, znatiželje, mašte i procjenjivanja.

The greater your knowledge base and level of curiosity, the more ideas, patterns, and

combinations you can achieve, which then correlates to creating new and innovative

products and services.

But merely having the knowledge does not guarantee the formation of new patterns.

The bits and pieces must be shaken up and iterated in new ways. Then the embryonic

ideas must be evaluated and developed into usable ideas. In other words, there really

is a process.

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To help you master that process, you first must understand three important levels of

creativity, which are discovery, invention, and creation.

Tri su razine kreativnosti: otkriće, pronalazak i ostvarenje.

#1. Discovery Otkriće: The lower level of creativity is discovery. Just as the name

implies, it’s when you become aware of or stumble upon something—discover it. For

example, there is art called “discovered art.” It might be a rock with a unique shape or

a piece of wood with an interesting pattern. If you have ever purchased a piece of

natural stone or wood art, that art was discovered art. Many inventions start with a

discovery.

#2. Invention Pronalazak: A higher level of creativity is invention. For example,

Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone. But you have to ask yourself, “Would

the telephone have been invented without Bell?” The answer is yes. Eventually the

telephone would have been invented because the science was there. It might have

taken longer, but it would have happened. So while invention is higher than discovery,

it’s something that is going to happen. If you don’t invent it, someone else will.

#3. Creation Ostvarenje: Creation is the highest level of creativity. For example, the

stage play Othello is genuinely a creation. Elizabethan drama would have gone on

without Shakespeare, but no one else would have written Othello. Similarly, there are

things that only your organization can create! The key is tapping in to what those

things are.

Creativity and innovation are different

Ostvarenje i pronalazak ne moraju biti isto

#1 Creativity refers to generating new and novel ideas.

Ukratko, ostvarenje je nastajanje nove ideje.

#2 Innovation refers to the application of an idea and, in many cases, is a collaborative

enterprise. So in other words, innovation is applied creativity.

Drugim riječima pronalazak je rezultat primjenjene kreativnosti.

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# 1Creativity is the capability or act of conceiving something original or unusual.

#2 Innovation is the implementation of something new.

#3 Invention is the creation of something that has never been made before and is

recognized as the product of some unique insight.

or

“invention“ can be defined as the creation of a product or introduction of a process for the first time.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention

An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition or process.

The invention process is a process within an overall engineering and product development process.

It may be an improvement upon a machine or product, or a new process for creating an object or a result.

An invention that achieves a completely unique function or result may be a radical breakthrough. Such works are novel and not obvious to others skilled in the same field.

An inventor may be taking a big step in success or failure.

“Innovation,” on the other hand, occurs if someone improves on or makes a significant contribution to an existing product, process or service.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovation

Innovation is defined simply as a "new idea ????, device, or method".

However, innovation is often also viewed as the application of better solutions that meet new requirements, unarticulated needs, or existing market needs.

This is accomplished through more ffective products, processes, services, technologies, or business models that are readily available to markets, governments and society.

The term "innovation" can be defined as something original and more effective and, as a consequence, new, that "breaks into" the market or society.

It is related to, but not the same as invention.

This view is more appropriate for engineering purposes.

Ovo je objašnjenje prikladnije za inženjerske aktivnosti!!!???

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Individual qualities of creative persons

Svojstva kreativnih osoba

One of personality characteristics of creative persons is autonomy: creative

individuals tend to be independent and nonconformist in their thoughts and actions.

Jedno od svojstava osobnosti koje se susreće kod kreativnih osoba je samostalnost:

kreativne osobe pokazuju porive za neovisnošču i nekonformizam u mišljenju i

djelovanju.

Equally important is mastery of a particular domain—that is, a sphere of activity

or knowledge that requires a high level of ability.

Podjednako je važno i umijeće u određenom području – znanje u sferi djelovanja koje

predmijeva razvijene sposobnosti učenja.

Some creative people show an interest in apparent disorder, contradiction, and

imbalance—perhaps because they are challenged by asymmetry and chaos.

Neki kreativni ljudi pokazuju interes prema vidljivom neredu, kontradikciji i

neuravnoteženosti moguće zato što ih privlače i izazivaju asimetrija i kaos.

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Creative individuals may also exhibit a high degree of self-assurance. Some possess

an exceptionally deep, broad, and flexibleawareness of themselves. Others are shown

to be intellectual leaders with a great sensitivity to problems.

Kreativni pojedinci mogu iskazivati visoki stupanj samopouzdanja. Neki posjeduju

duboku svijest o sebi samima. Neki pak pokazuju intelektualni liderstvo s velikim

osjećajima za probleme.

No, kreativni pojedinci ne moraju raspolagati istom razinom sposobnosti u svim

okolnostima ljudskog življenja.

The unconventionality of thought that is sometimes found in creative persons may be

in part a resistance to acculturation, which may be seen as demanding surrender of

one’s unique fundamental nature.

Neuobičajeni načini mišljenja koji se koji put susreću kod kreativnih osoba mogu biti i

u vezi sa reakcijom ili otporom na akulturaciju.

Akulturacija se može smatrati popuštanjem pred promjenama u ponašanju, običajima

i vjerovanjima usmjerene na promjene nečije temeljne prirode.

In fact, independence is critical to the creative process, in that creative people must

often be able to work alone and must also be willing to express ideas or develop

products that others might perceive as radical.

U stvari, neovisnost je kritična u kreativnom processu u kojem kreativni ljudi moraju

često raditi sami i moraju imato volju za iskazivanjem ideja ili razvojem proizvoda koje

okolina može doživljavati preradikalnima.

Način života nije od posebnog značaja; mnogi kreativni ljudi vode posve običan život

a težnja za posebnošću se ostvaruje kroz nekonvencionwelnee ideje i djela.

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Another trait common among creative people is that of introversion.

While this does not imply a lack of social skills, it suggests that creative people tend

to be reflective and inner-directed; they look to their own intuition rather than

depending upon interaction with others to inform their attitudes and responses.

Drugo zajedničko svojstvo među krativnim osobama je introvertoranost.

Premda to ne predmijeva izostanak socijalnih umijeća to ipak nalaže da su kreativni

ljudi refleksivni i usmjereni prema sebi kao da se više oslanjaju na vlastitu intuiciju

nego na interakciju sa okolinom u formiranju svojih gledišta i stavova.

A third crucial characteristic combines curiosity and problem seeking.

Creative individuals seem to have a need to seek novelty and an ability to pose unique

questions.

Treća važna karakteristika kreativnih ljudi je kombinacija znatiželje i traženje rješenja

problema.

Kreativni pojedinci kao da imaju potrebu za novim i sposobnost postavljanja

jedinstvenih pitanja.

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High intelligence is common in creative persons, yet while they can meet the

problems of life as rationally as anyone else can, their intellect does not rule at the

expense of intuition or other seemingly nonrational influences.

Most studies of the relationship of creativity to intelligence have also shown that

extreme general intelligence does not necessarily kindle creativity.

Visoka je inteligencija zajednička za kreativne osobe i premda se oni suočavaju s

problemima svakodnevnog života kao i bilo tko drugi njihov se intelekt intelekt se ne

oslanja samo na intuiciju ili na prividno neracionalne pojave.

Većina studija pokazuje da visoka opća inteligencija nije nužno pokretač kreativnosti

A distinction is sometimes made between convergent thinking (the analytic reasoning

measured by intelligence tests) and divergent thinking (exemplified by a richness of

ideas and originality of thought).

Koji se put čini razlika između konvergentnog mišljenja koje predstavlja analitičko

zaključivanja mjereno testovima inteligencije i divergentnog mišljenja koje

karakterizira originalnost i bogatstvo ideja.

Psychological experiments in the fields of motivation and learning have demonstrated

the power of novelty as an inducement to action.

This stems from the tension that exists between the regularity of daily life and

interruptions that bring possibilities of new experience.

Psihologijski pokusi u područjima motivacija i učenja su pokazali da je snaga

inovativnosti zapravo pokretač aktivnosti.

To je možebitna posljedica napetosti koja postoji među pravilnostima svakodnevnog

života i izazova postojanja mogućnosti novih iskustava.

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Psychological studies of highly creative people have characterized this tension in

terms of such dualities as intellect and intuition, the conscious and the unconscious,

mental health and mental disorder, the conventional and the unconventional, and

complexity and simplicity.

Psihologijske studije provedene na visoko kreativnim osobama su prikazali unutarnje

napetosti kao dvojnosti tipa intelekt-intuicija, svjesnost-nesvjesnost, mentalno

zdravlje-mentalni poremećaj, složenost-jednostavnost.

Other qualities of creative individuals were identified by the American educational

psychologist E. Paul Torrance.

They include fluency, or the ability to think of many ideas rapidly; flexibility, the

capacity to use ideas and tools in unusual ways; and originality, the capacity to think

of novel ideas and products.

In 1966 Torrance and his colleagues developed a means of assessment, the Torrance

Test of Creative Thinking (TTCT) that accounts for all of these skills.

Neka druga svojstva kreativnih osoba je naveo edukacijski psiholog Paul Torrance

koja uključuju lakoću, sposobnost brzog razmišljanja o mnogim idejama,

prilagodljivost, kapacitet za korištenje ideja i sredstava na neuobičajeni način i

originalnost u razmišljanju o novim idejama i proizvodima.

Torrance sa suradnicima je 1966. razvio Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (TTCT)

koji uzima u obzir sve pobrojane uvjete.

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Common view of creative individuals

Popularno shvaćanje kreativnih pojedinaca

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7 Characteristics of Highly Creative People

7 svojstava kreativnih ljudi

http://www.inc.com/jessica-stillman/the-7-characteristics-of-highly-creative-

people.html

Professor Øyvind L. Martinsen of BI Norwegian Business School gathered a group of artists, musicians, and marketing creatives and compared them with a control group of managers and others in professions less associated with creativity. Which personality traits stood out among the artistically inclined? Martinsen found seven:

Associative orientation: Imaginative, playful, have a wealth of ideas, ability

to be committed, sliding transitions between fact and fiction.

Need for originality: Resists rules and conventions. Have a rebellious

attitude because of a need to do things no one else does.

Motivation: Have a need to perform, goal oriented, innovative attitude,

stamina to tackle difficult issues.

Ambition: Have a need to be influential, attract attention and recognition.

Flexibility: Have the ability to see different aspects of issues and come up

with optimal solutions.

Low emotional stability: Have a tendency to experience negative emotions,

greater fluctuations in moods and emotional state, failing self-confidence.

Low sociability: Have a tendency not to be very considerate, are obstinate

and find faults and flaws in ideas and people.

Although some of these traits sound positive (motivation) or neutral (associative orientation), others, you may notice, sound less appealing.

Martinsen acknowledges these tradeoffs, noting that "creative people are not always equally practical and performance oriented" and advising that an employer looking to bring creativity into her organization "would be wise to conduct a position analysis to weigh the requirements for the ability to cooperate against the need for creativity.

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Creative proccesses

Proučavanje kreativnih processa

In the late 20th century the Hungarian-born American psychologist Mihaly

Csikszentmihalyi studied more than 90 men and women who possessed the following

characteristics:

(1) they produced works that were publicly recognized as creative, and

(2) they influenced or affected their culture in some important way.

Američki psiholog mađarskog podrijetla Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi ispitivao je preko 90

ljudi koji su pokazali slijedeća svojstva: njihovi su radovi priznati od šire zajednice

kao kreativvni i značajno su utjedcali na kulturu svoga vremena.

Csikszentmihalyi’s work culminated in his definition of a distinctive characteristic of

creative people:

the capacity to experience “flow,” which he defined as the timeless and total

involvement of individuals in the activity with which they are engaged.

Persons experiencing a flow have a sense that their abilities are only just equal to the

challenges at hand, and they become caught up in the creative process in order to

achieve their goal.

Rad Csikszentmihalyi je rezultirao u njegovoj definiciji razlikovnih karakteristika

kreativnih ljudi: sposobnost za iskustvo „uranjanja“ („flow“) koje je odredio kao

bezvremeno i potpuno uključivanje osobe u aktivnosti kojima se bave.

Osobe sa iskustvom uranjanja imaju dojam da su njihove sposobnosti upravo

dostatne za izazove pred kojima se nalaze i da bivaju „ulovljene“ u kreativni proces do

postizanja njihovih ciljeva.

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The concept of flow can also be likened to what psychological researchers have

identified as “intrinsic motivation”—that is, a motivation arising from intense

autonomous interest in the work at hand.

This is complemented by “extrinsic motivation,” which stems from a desire to fulfill

goals that have been established by another person or organization.

Koncept uranjanja se može usporediti sa pojavom koju psiholozi označavaju kao

„unutarnju motivaciju („intrinsic motivation) koja nastaje iz snažnog autonomnog

interesa za posao koji se radi.

Csikszentmihalyi adduced the possibility that some creative people pursue flow as a

form of escapism, insofar as immersion in the creative process provides them with

feelings of comfort or control.

Csikszentmihalyi dopušta mogućnost da je “uranjanje” oblik bježanja od stvarnosti ili

prepuštanje krestivnim procesima u njima izaziva osjećaj ugode i kontrole.

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Systemic view on creativity

Sistemski pogled na kreativnost

Equally important is the manner by which an idea or product gains public recognition and adoption. Innovations and new ideas have at times been rejected because of the prevailing attitudes of an era, a culture, or a field of practice.

Similarly, many societies have adopted creative solutions to problems while failing to recognize their inventors, especially when these are women or members of minority groups.

Osim pojedinačnih uvjeta kreativnosti isto je tako važno kako zajednica priznaje i

prepoznaje inovativne ideje i proizvode. Mnoge su nove ideje odbačene u svoje

vrijeme zbog prevladavajućih shvatanja toga doba.

Mnoge su pak zajednice prihvaćale kreativna rješenje problema propuštajući priznati

njihove pronalazače, pogotovo ako su bili iz manjinskih skupina.

Csikszentmihalyi went beyond the individual experience of flow to discuss the

creative person’s relationship to the world.

In the process he formulated a view of creativity as a system comprising

(1) the creative individual,

(2) the domain (the class of knowledge or activity that makes up a culture or any area

of specialization, such as figure skating, chess, or singing), and

(3) the particular field of practice.

Csikszentmihalyi je formulirao pogled na kreativnost iz tri dijela: 1) kreativna jedinka,

2) domena dosegnutih znanja, iskustava i aktivnosti i 3) posebnost zatečenog

područja prakse za ostvarivanje uvjeta napredovanja, ocjenu i prihvaćanje novih ideja.

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Phase model of creativity

Fazni model kreativnosti

The American psychologist Mark Runco holds that the creative process consists of six essential stages, or phases.

*In the first stage, “orientation” (a time of intense interest and curiosity), the creative individual gathers information.

*The second stage, “incubation,” consists of defining the problem and seeking a solution and involves processing large amounts of information; this can occur at a conscious or an unconscious level. “Illumination,”

*The third stage, is marked by divergent thinking, openness, and excitement.

*In the fourth stage, “verification,” the individual evaluates his own work and compares it with what is known in the field.

*Next, in the “communication” stage, the individual submits his work to the field, making it available to experts who will judge its quality and usefulness.

*“Validation” occurs in the sixth stage, in which the work becomes available to society and is consequently supported or rejected.

Američki psiholog Marc Runco drži da se kreativni proces sastoji od šest bitnij faza:

1. Orijentacija – interes i znatiželja, kreativno prikupljanje podataka i iskustava

2. Inkubacija – definiranje problema i traženje rješenja uključivo obradu podataka

3. Prosvjetljenje – divergentno razmišljanje, otvorenost, uzbuđenje

4. Potvrda – osoba provjerava vlastito djelo i uspoređuje ga sa drugima

5. Ocjena – osoba izlaže svoje djelo na uvid zainteresiranim i kompetentnim

ljudima

6. Vrijednovanje – djelo je raspoloživo cijeloj zajednici i može biti prihvaćeno ili ne

Fazni model se uklapa u sistemski pristup kreativnosti.

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Your duty is to write an Essay

Essay is a short literary composition on a particular theme or

subject, usually in prose and generally analytic, speculative, or

interpretative.

THEMES INTERNET (GOOGL SEARCH)

CREATIVITY 493 000 000 TECHNOLOGY+ 318 000 000 ENGINEERING+ 249 000 000 PHILOSOPHY+ 106 000 000 PSYHOLOGY+ 118 000 000 SCIENCE+ 365 000 000 COGNITION+ 23 000 000 EDUCATION+ 438 000 000 BUSINESS+ 399 000 000 ENTREPRENEURSHIP+ 46 700 000 RELIGION+ 84 000 000 MECHANICS+ 26 000 000 ETHICS+ 54 800 000 MORAL+ 17 400 000 RESPONSIBILITY+ 114 000 000 TECHNICS+ 11 100 000 METRICS+ 19 000 000 INTELIGENCE+ 114 000 000 PERSONALITY+ 508 000 000 DESIGN+ 450 000 500 ART+ 158 000 …………………………………………………

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Creativity in life of outstanding scientist and engineers

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History of creativity

Education for creativity

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Creativity

Creativity, the ability to make or otherwise bring into existence something new,

whether a new solution to a problem, a new method or device, or a new artistic object

or form.

Individual qualities of creative persons

A number

of personality characteristics have been shown to be associated with creative

productivity. One of these is autonomy: creative individuals tend to be independent

and nonconformist in their thoughts and actions. Equally important is mastery of a

particular domain—that is, a sphere of activity or knowledge that requires a high level

of ability. For example, in applying their knowledge of computers to the design of the

Apple II, inventors Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak revolutionized the computer

industry by appealing to individuals as well as businesses. French fashion

designer Coco Chanel forever changed the way women dressed by designing simple

yet stylish clothes. On the other hand, creative people may not have equally strong

gifts across the spectrum of human ability. (A notable exception was Leonardo da

Vinci, whose achievements in the visual arts, mechanics, and engineering disclosed

the talents of a creative polymath.) Some creative people show an interest in apparent

disorder, contradiction, and imbalance—perhaps because they are challenged by

asymmetry and chaos. Creative individuals may also exhibit a high degree of self-

assurance. Some possess an exceptionally deep, broad, and flexibleawareness of

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themselves. Others are shown to be intellectual leaders with a great sensitivity to

problems.

The unconventionality of thought that is sometimes found in creative persons may be

in part a resistance to acculturation, which may be seen as demanding surrender of

one’s unique fundamental nature. In fact, independence is critical to the creative

process, in that creative people must often be able to work alone and must also be

willing to express ideas or develop products that others might perceive as radical. It

should be pointed out, however, that a nonconformist lifestyle is not essential to

creativity; indeed, many creative individuals lead quite ordinary lives, expressing their

autonomy mainly in their unconventional ideas and work. Another trait common

among creative people is that of introversion. While this does not imply a lack of

social skills, it suggests that creative people tend to be reflective and inner-directed;

they look to their own intuition rather than depending upon interaction with others to

inform their attitudes and responses.

A third crucial characteristic combines curiosity and problem seeking. Creative

individuals seem to have a need to seek novelty and an ability to pose unique

questions. In Defying the Crowd (1995), for example, the American psychologists

Robert Sternberg and Todd Lubart likened the combined traits of autonomy and

problem solving to buying low and selling high in the “marketplace of ideas.” By this

they meant that the creative individual identifies a unique need—perhaps a problem or

opportunity that no one else recognizes. This is the “buying low” phase, because it

typically involves dismissing a popular solution and embracing an unheard-of

solution or an idea that has no currency. When creative persons find a better solution,

they then work toward “selling” others on the concept. This process can be seen in

the work of inventors such as Margaret Knight, who designed a number of household

and industrial devices, Raymond Kurzweil, who designed text scanners and speech-

recognition software, and Dean Kamen, whose numerous inventions include medical

devices, water-purification systems, and the IBOT, a motorized wheelchair.

High intelligence is common in creative persons, yet while they can meet the

problems of life as rationally as anyone else can, their intellect does not rule at the

expense of intuition or other seemingly nonrational influences. Most studies of the

relationship of creativity to intelligence have also shown that extreme general

intelligence does not necessarily kindle creativity. Findings such as these contributed

to the “threshold” model of intelligence and creativity, which claims that, above a

certain level, intelligence has little correlation with creativity—i.e., a highly intelligent

person may not be as highly creative. It may be that intelligence sets the limits on the

amount of information a person can learn and retain, while creative thinking provides

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the flexibility necessary for the original production of ideas. A distinction is

sometimes made between convergent thinking (the analytic reasoning measured by

intelligence tests) and divergent thinking (exemplified by a richness of ideas and

originality of thought). Both seem necessary to creative performance, although the

degree of each varies according to the task or occupation (i.e., a mathematician may

exhibit more convergent than divergent thinking, while an artist would exhibit the

reverse).

Psychological experiments in the fields of motivation and learning have demonstrated

the power of novelty as an inducement to action. This stems from the tension that

exists between the regularity of daily life and interruptions that bring possibilities of

new experience. Psychological studies of highly creative people have characterized

this tension in terms of such dualities as intellect and intuition, the conscious and

the unconscious, mental health and mental disorder, the conventional and the

unconventional, and complexity and simplicity.

Other qualities of creative individuals were identified by the American educational

psychologist E. Paul Torrance. They include fluency, or the ability to think of many

ideas rapidly; flexibility, the capacity to use ideas and tools in unusual ways; and

originality, the capacity to think of novel ideas and products. In 1966 Torrance and his

colleagues developed a means of assessment, the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking

(TTCT), that accounts for all of these skills. The TTCT became one of the most widely

used measures of creativity. Torrance provided additional support for his approach in

follow-up studies of his subjects after 7, 12, and 22 years, and the passage of time has

shown the TTCT to be among the more valid of all creativity tests.

Research on the creative process

In the late 20th century the Hungarian-born American psychologist Mihalyi

Csikszentmihalyi studied more than 90 men and women who possessed the following

characteristics: (1) they produced works that were publicly recognized as creative,

and (2) they influenced or affected their culture in some important way. Contrary to

earlier theories that creative people emerged from conflicted families,

Csikszentmihalyi’s findings, published as Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of

Discovery and Invention(1996), showed that these individuals had, for the most part,

experienced normal childhoods and grown up in families that provided them with a

solid set of values. One difference between them and most other people, however,

was that a number of them had suffered a parental loss—particularly the loss of a

father. In such cases, most were influenced and inspired by other supportive adults.

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Csikszentmihalyi’s

research also identified creative individuals who were quite negative about their

elementary and secondary school experiences. For them, the more crucial learning

occurred elsewhere, either in college or through advanced training that linked them

with mentors and significant teachers. Such was the case for Albert Einstein, whose

early passion for mathematics and science was fostered by two uncles, despite his

poor grades in his early school years. Csikszentmihalyi’s study showed that many

creative people had followed circuitous paths to their careers. What was most

striking, however, was the way they seized upon whatever opportunities or challenges

had come to them. In general, they shaped circumstances to meet their own ends and

showed little evidence of being constrained by events they could not control. It

appeared that the excitement and satisfaction of pursuing their goals motivated these

individuals to surmount barriers and persist through difficulties.

Csikszentmihalyi’s work culminated in his definition of a distinctive characteristic of

creative people: the capacity to experience “flow,” which he defined as the timeless

and total involvement of individuals in the activity with which they are engaged.

Persons experiencing a flow have a sense that their abilities are only just equal to the

challenges at hand, and they become caught up in the creative process in order to

achieve their goal. Notably, Csikszentmihalyi adduced the possibility that some

creative people pursue flow as a form of escapism, insofar as immersion in the

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creative process provides them with feelings of comfort or control. The concept of

flow can also be likened to what psychological researchers have identified as

“intrinsic motivation”—that is, a motivation arising from intense autonomous interest

in the work at hand. This is complemented by “extrinsic motivation,” which stems

from a desire to fulfill goals that have been established by another person or

organization. The systems view of creativity

Although understanding creativity requires studying the qualities of creative

individuals, these qualities represent only one part of the process of thinking, acting,

and producing creatively. Equally important is the manner by which an idea or

product gains public recognition and adoption. Innovations and new ideas have at

times been rejected because of the prevailing attitudes of an era, a culture, or a field

of practice. Similarly, many societies have adopted creative solutions to problems

while failing to recognize their inventors, especially when these are women or

members of minority groups. A “systems” approach to creativity—one that considers

the relationship between the creative individual and the larger world—has therefore

emerged as a useful way of thinking about the phenomenon of creativity.

Creative individuals do not exist in a vacuum. Csikszentmihalyi went beyond the

individual experience of flow to discuss the creative person’s relationship to the

world. In the process he formulated a view of creativity as a system comprising (1) the

creative individual, (2) the domain (the class of knowledge or activity that makes up a

culture or any area of specialization, such as figure skating, chess, or singing), and (3)

the particular field of practice.

The primary component, the individual, is the creative person and the talents, life

experiences, and aspirations that person possesses. Rather than being seen as purely

autonomous, the creative individual is understood to interact with the sociocultural

environment. Indeed, a central assumption of the systems view is that the individual

and the environment are in constant interaction.

Mastery of most domains requires a considerable investment in education, training,

apprenticeship, and practice. The time and resources required to master a single

domain, however, preclude most people from excelling in many other areas. An

individual may therefore possess creative thinking abilities and exhibit a

creative personality but fail to produce works that are valued and influential because

he has not developed any specializations.

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The third component, the field, is represented by what scholars call the gatekeepers

and opinion leaders. These individuals determine not only who will receive training

and mentoring in the domain but also which ideas will be recognized and rewarded.

Ideas and products deemed worthy by the field are incorporated into the domain, and

only then is the originator considered creative. In some cases the field can be defined

as the world at large as it adopts the product of the creative process—be it an idea, a

product, or a solution to a problem.

Phase models of creativity

Many psychologists view creativity as a process of steps taken toward solving

problems or inventing new products creatively. The American psychologist Mark

Runco holds that the creative process consists of six essential stages, or phases. In

the first stage, “orientation” (a time of intense interest and curiosity), the creative

individual gathers information. The second stage, “incubation,” consists of defining

the problem and seeking a solution and involves processing large amounts of

information; this can occur at a conscious or an unconscious level. “Illumination,” the

third stage, is marked by divergent thinking, openness, and excitement. In the fourth

stage, “verification,” the individual evaluates his own work and compares it with what

is known in the field. Next, in the “communication” stage, the individual submits his

work to the field, making it available to experts who will judge its quality and

usefulness. “Validation” occurs in the sixth stage, in which the work becomes

available to society and is consequently supported or rejected.

This phase model supports the systems view of the creative process by emphasizing

the social validation that occurs if a work is supported. In this way, the mental

processes of the creative individual, the requirements of the domain, and recognition

by the field (or society) have combined to produce the phenomenon known as

creativity—and it demonstrates how this unpredictable component of human

behaviour contributes to human advancement.

Barbara Kerr

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(Bergson, H. theory of creative evolution)

(Freud, S. Topography of mind)