Introduction to Genetic algorithms

Introduction to Genetic Algorithms 1

Introduction toGenetic Algorithms


Genetic Algorithms (GA) OVERVIEW

A class of probabilistic optimization algorithms

Inspired by the biological evolution process

Uses concepts of “Natural Selection” and “Genetic Inheritance” (Darwin 1859)

Originally developed by John Holland (1975)


GA overview (cont)

Particularly well suited for hard problems where little is known about the underlying search space

Widely-used in business, science and engineering


Classes of Search TechniquesSearch Techniqes

Calculus Base Techniqes

Guided random search techniqes

Enumerative Techniqes

BFSDFS Dynamic Programming

Tabu Search Hill Climbing

Simulated Anealing

Evolutionary Algorithms

Genetic Programming

Genetic Algorithms

Fibonacci Sort


A genetic algorithm maintains a population of candidate solutions for the problem at hand,and makes it evolve byiteratively applyinga set of stochastic operators


Stochastic operators

Selection replicates the most successful solutions found in a population at a rate proportional to their relative quality

Recombination decomposes two distinct solutions and then randomly mixes their parts to form novel solutions

Mutation randomly perturbs a candidate solution


The Metaphor

Genetic Algorithm Nature

Optimization problem Environment

Feasible solutions Individuals living in that environment

Solutions quality (fitness function)

Individual’s degree of adaptation to its surrounding environment


The Metaphor (cont)Genetic Algorithm Nature

A set of feasible solutions A population of organisms (species)

Stochastic operators Selection, recombination and mutation in nature’s evolutionary process

Iteratively applying a set of stochastic operators on a set of feasible solutions

Evolution of populations to suit their environment


The Metaphor (cont)

The computer model introduces simplifications (relative to the real biological mechanisms),

BUT

surprisingly complex and interesting structures have emerged out of evolutionary algorithms


Simple Genetic Algorithmproduce an initial population of individuals

evaluate the fitness of all individuals

while termination condition not met do

select fitter individuals for reproduction

recombine between individuals

mutate individuals

evaluate the fitness of the modified individuals

generate a new population

End while


The Evolutionary Cycle

selection

population evaluation

modification

discard

deleted members

parents

modifiedoffspring

evaluated offspring

initiate & evaluate


Example:the MAXONE problem

Suppose we want to maximize the number of ones in a string of l binary digits

Is it a trivial problem?

It may seem so because we know the answer in advance

However, we can think of it as maximizing the number of correct answers, each encoded by 1, to l yes/no difficult questions`


Example (cont)

An individual is encoded (naturally) as a string of l binary digits

The fitness f of a candidate solution to the MAXONE problem is the number of ones in its genetic code

We start with a population of n random strings. Suppose that l = 10 and n = 6


Example (initialization)

We toss a fair coin 60 times and get the following initial population:

s1 = 1111010101 f (s1) = 7

s2 = 0111000101 f (s2) = 5

s3 = 1110110101 f (s3) = 7

s4 = 0100010011 f (s4) = 4

s5 = 1110111101 f (s5) = 8

s6 = 0100110000 f (s6) = 3


Example (selection1)

Next we apply fitness proportionate selection with the roulette wheel method:

21n

3

Area is Proportional to fitness value

Individual i will have a

probability to be chosen

∑i

if

if

)(

)(

4

We repeat the extraction as many times as the number of individuals we need to have the same parent population size (6 in our case)


Example (selection2)

Suppose that, after performing selection, we get the following population:

s1` = 1111010101 (s1)

s2` = 1110110101 (s3)

s3` = 1110111101 (s5)

s4` = 0111000101 (s2)

s5` = 0100010011 (s4)

s6` = 1110111101 (s5)


Example (crossover1)

Next we mate strings for crossover. For each couple we decide according to crossover probability (for instance 0.6) whether to actually perform crossover or not

Suppose that we decide to actually perform crossover only for couples (s1`, s2`) and (s5`, s6`). For each couple, we randomly extract a crossover point, for instance 2 for the first and 5 for the second


Example (crossover2)

s1` = 1111010101 s2` = 1110110101

s5` = 0100010011 s6` = 1110111101

Before crossover:

After crossover:

s1`` = 1110110101 s2`` = 1111010101

s5`` = 0100011101 s6`` = 1110110011


Example (mutation1)The final step is to apply random mutation: for each bit that we are to copy to the new population we allow a small probability of error (for instance 0.1)

Before applying mutation:

s1`` = 1110110101

s2`` = 1111010101

s3`` = 1110111101

s4`` = 0111000101

s5`` = 0100011101

s6`` = 1110110011


Example (mutation2)

After applying mutation:

s1``` = 1110100101 f (s1``` ) = 6

s2``` = 1111110100 f (s2``` ) = 7

s3``` = 1110101111 f (s3``` ) = 8

s4``` = 0111000101 f (s4``` ) = 5

s5``` = 0100011101 f (s5``` ) = 5

s6``` = 1110110001 f (s6``` ) = 6


Example (end)

In one generation, the total population fitness changed from 34 to 37, thus improved by ~9%

At this point, we go through the same process all over again, until a stopping criterion is met


Components of a GA

A problem definition as input, and

Encoding principles (gene, chromosome)

Initialization procedure (creation)

Selection of parents (reproduction)

Genetic operators (mutation, recombination)

Evaluation function (environment)

Termination condition


Representation (encoding)

Possible individual’s encoding Bit strings (0101 ... 1100) Real numbers (43.2 -33.1 ... 0.0 89.2) Permutations of element (E11 E3 E7 ... E1 E15) Lists of rules (R1 R2 R3 ... R22 R23) Program elements (genetic programming) ... any data structure ...


Representation (cont)

When choosing an encoding method rely on the following key ideas

Use a data structure as close as possible to the natural representationWrite appropriate genetic operators as neededIf possible, ensure that all genotypes correspond to feasible solutionsIf possible, ensure that genetic operators preserve feasibility


Initialization

Start with a population of randomly generated individuals, or use- A previously saved population- A set of solutions provided by

a human expert- A set of solutions provided by

another heuristic algorithm


Selection

Purpose: to focus the search in promising regions of the spaceInspiration: Darwin’s “survival of the fittest”Trade-off between exploration and exploitation of the search space

Next we shall discuss possible selection methods


Fitness Proportionate Selection

Derived by Holland as the optimal trade-off between exploration and exploitation

Drawbacks

Different selection for f1(x) and f2(x) = f1(x) + c

Superindividuals cause convergence (that may be premature)


Linear Ranking Selection

Based on sorting of individuals by decreasing fitness

The probability to be extracted for the ith individual in the ranking is defined as

21,1

1)1(2

1)( ≤≤

−−−−= βββn

i

nip

where β can be interpreted as the expected sampling rate of the best individual


Local Tournament Selection

Extracts k individuals from the population with uniform probability (without re-insertion) and makes them play a “tournament”, where the probability for an individual to win is generally proportional to its fitness

Selection pressure is directly proportional to the number k of participants


Recombination (Crossover)

* Enables the evolutionary process to move toward promising

regions of the search space

* Matches good parents’ sub-solutions to construct better offspring


Mutation

Purpose: to simulate the effect of errors that happen with low probability during duplication

Results:

- Movement in the search space

- Restoration of lost information to the population


Evaluation (fitness function)

Solution is only as good as the evaluation function; choosing a good one is often the hardest part

Similar-encoded solutions should have a similar fitness


Termination condition

Examples:

A pre-determined number of generations or time has elapsed

A satisfactory solution has been achieved

No improvement in solution quality has taken place for a pre-determined number of generations

Introduction to Genetic algorithms

Education

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