Introduction to English Linguistics - Startseite · Ellipsis and ISM Given Material is ......
Transcript of Introduction to English Linguistics - Startseite · Ellipsis and ISM Given Material is ......
3
Introduction to English Linguistics
Model of Grammar in The Minimalist Program[Chomsky 1998, 1999, 2001, 2002]
LexiconSyntax
syntactic structure
PF component
PF representation˜
SPEECH SYSTEMS
semantic component
semantic representation˜
THOUGHT SYSTEMS
4
Introduction to English Linguistics
Environment (cf. Fodor 1983)
Transducers Visual Auditory Sensory other...
Input Systemsvertical facultiesor „instincts“
Language Vision Audition Motor Processes
Central Processes: Memory, Attention, Judgement, Thought, Beliefs, Fixation of Belief, Plans of Action
horizontal faculty or „intellect“
5
Ellipsis and ISM
Given Material is deleted. Accent is realized on nongiven entity.
Givenness Marking Ellipsis
Sati: Are you from the Matrix?Neo: Yes. No. I mean, I WAS.Sati: Why did you leave?Neo: I HAD to.Sati: I had to leave my home, too.
7
Introduction to English Linguistics
Structure of the Lecture
4. movements (next time)
1. the notion of syntactic structure
2. merger operations
3. tree diagrams
Recap of VLS02: Evidence for word classes
8
Introduction to English Linguistics
Building Words: morphological processes
Morphological Processes
Inflection Word-Formation
Derivation Compounding
9
Introduction to English Linguistics
Q: How can we represent the structure of nationalization?
Labelled bracketing:
[ nation ]N[ A al ] [V ize ][N ation ]
11
Introduction to English Linguistics
COMPOUNDING:involves the combination of two words (with or without accompanying affixes)
N - N: mail-box, doghouse, steamboat ; Walkman;N - A: seaworthy, winedarkN - V: stagemanage , babysitA - A: blue-green
In English, compounds can be found in all the major lexical categories - N, A, V, but nouns are by far the most common type of compounds. Verb compounds are quite infrequent.
15
Introduction to English Linguistics
N
N
food
N
dog
N
box
N
N
N
age
N
stone
N
N
dweller
N
cave
N
Complex N Compounds
16
Introduction to English Linguistics
Ambiguities: Compounds vs. Noncompounds
Compound word Phrasal Expression(non-compound word)
gréenhouse
bláckboard
primary stress on the first component
grèen hoúse
blàck boárd
wèt súitwét sùit
secondary stress on the first component
17
Introduction to English Linguistics
Ambiguities in Compounds: California history teacher
N
N
history
N
California
N
teacher
N
N
California
N
history
N
teacher
N
N
[NCalifornia ][N [N history]] [N teacher][N ]Q:
19
Introduction to English Linguistics
Structural Representation of : ticket-counter flight technology
N
N
counter
N
Ticket
N
N
N
flight
N
technology
20
Introduction to English Linguistics
2. Syntactic evidence for assigning words to categories:
Q: What element can occur in the position of the dash?
They have no ---[NOUNS]
car / conscience / ideas
21
Introduction to English Linguistics
They have no *went [verb]*for [preposition]*older [adjective]*readily [adverb]
Def. Noun: the class of nouns is defined as the set of words which can terminate a sentence in the position marked --- in They have no --.
22
Introduction to English Linguistics
Claim: Different categories of words have different distributions.
They occupy a different range of positions within phrases or sentences.
Q: What element can occur in the position of the dash?
They can --- stay / leave / hide / die / cry[VERB]
23
Introduction to English Linguistics
Def. Verb: only a verb (in its infinitive/ base form) can occur in the position marked --- in the above sentence to form a complete (non-elliptical) sentence
Other categories are ungrammatical:
They can --- *gorgeous [adjective]*happily [adverb]*down [preposition]*door [noun]
24
Introduction to English Linguistics
Def. Adjective: the only category of word which can occur in the position marked --- in the following sentence:
They are very --- tall /pretty /kind /nice[ADJECTIVE]
*slowly [adverb]
*child [noun]
*astonish [verb]
*outside [preposition]
25
Introduction to English Linguistics
Def. Preposition: they alone can be in-tensified by right in the sense of ‘completely’, or by straight in the sense of ‘directly’:
Go rightHe went right He walked straight He fell straight
up the ladder.inside.into a wall.down.
[PREPOSITION]
26
Introduction to English Linguistics
How would you classify better ?
He is better at French than you.
He speaks French better than you.
He is more fluent/*more fluently at French…
He speaks French more fluently/*more fluent …
Substitution Test!
ADJ
ADV
27
Introduction to English Linguistics
List of abbreviations:
Summary of the last lecture:
Lexical categories: N, V, A, P, Adv
Functional categories: D, T, C, PRN, Q
28
Introduction to English Linguistics
Lexical categories (open class): have idiosyncratic descriptive content: N, V, P, A, Adv;
Lexical vs. functional categories:
Functional categories (closed class): serve primarily to carry information about the gramma-tical properties of expressions; e.g. information about number, gender, person, case.
Determiners (D), Quantifiers (Q), Pronouns (PRN);
Auxiliaries (AUX), Infinitival to (T), Complementizers (C);
29
Introduction to English Linguistics
They have an idea.
What else do we need?
They have this idea.
They have two ideas.They have no idea.
They have many ideas.
They have one.
Determiners (D)
Quantifiers (Q)
Proform
30
Introduction to English Linguistics
Def.:The substitution test is a technique to determine the category which a givenexpression belongs to. An expression belongsto a given type of category if it can besubstituted (i.e. replaced) in the phrase orsentence in which it occurs by anotherexpression which clearly belongs to thecategory in question.
The Substitution Test:
31
Introduction to English Linguistics
In determining the syntactic category of a given lexical item, morphological clues must be used in conjunction with syntactic tests, like the substitution test.
[[The fact that the president will resign] won’t change anything].
We determined five major categories of English: N, V, P, A, Adv.
Summary:
32
Introduction to English Linguistics
"Our enemies are innovative and re-sourceful, and so are we.
What else do we need?
Pronouns (PRN): establish referencerelations in discourse; Proforms: e.g. so; ellipsis;
They never stop thinking about new ways to harm our country and our people, and neither do we." G. W. Bush —Washington, D.C., Aug. 5, 2004
35
Introduction to English Linguistics
Republicans believe in an America run by theright people, their people, in a world in whichwe act unilaterally when we can [-----------], and cooperate when we have to [-----------].
(W. Clinton 26-07-04).
Attested Example:
36
Ellipsis and ISM
GME without linguistic antecedent (VPE)
Harry: That's Pettigrew.He wants to rise, but Hermione grabs him.Hermione: Harry! You can't!Harry: Hermione, that's the man who betrayed
my parents! You don't expect me to just sit here …
Hermione: Yes, and you must!
HP2-02
37
Introduction to English Linguistics
Complementizers (C):Def.: a C is a word which is used to introduce complement clauses;
I think [that you may be right] ? finite clauseI wonder [if you can help me] ? finite clause
- finite C: that (declarative), if (interrogative);
e.g. that, if, for;
I want [for you to receive the best training].
- infinite C: for (hypothetical, or irrealis)
38
Introduction to English Linguistics
List of abbreviations:
Labelled Bracketing:
Lexical categories: N, V, A, P, Adv
Functional categories: D, T, C, PRN, Q
39
Introduction to English Linguistics
[PRN ][T ] [V ] [T ] [V ] [Adv ]
[A ]
You don't seem to be too
many of the shareholders may
now vote against your revised
takeover bid .
worried about the possibility that[P ] [D ] [N ] [C ]
[Q ] [P ] [D ] [N ] [T ]
[Adv ] [V ] [P ] [PRN ] [A ]
[N ] [N ]
40
Introduction to English Linguistics
Syntactic Structure: Phrases
SPEAKER A: What are you trying to do?
SPEAKER B: Help you.
Merger (or merging operation):
An operation by which two constituents are combined together to form a single larger constituent.
41
Introduction to English Linguistics
We are trying to help
We are trying to help you
You are very difficult
*Help you are very difficult
The notion Head:The head of a phrase is the key word which determines the properties of the phrase. The head of the VP help you is help.
The result of merging help and you in help youhas verb-like rather than noun-like properties.
42
Introduction to English Linguistics
Labelled Bracketing
[VP ][V help] [PRN you ]
Labelled Tree Diagramm
help
V
you
PRN
VP
43
Introduction to English Linguistics
Technical term: ProjectionA projection is a constituent containing a head word.
This is a term used to denote a specific grammatical function. A complement is an expression which is directly merged with (and hence is the sister of) a head word, thereby projecting the head into a larger structure of essentially the same kind. The PRN youis the complement of the V help.
Technical term: Complement
44
Introduction to English Linguistics
GOAL: -a theory of Universal Grammar -uncover general structural principles governing the formation of phrases and sentences
Merger Hypothesis: All phrases are formed in essentially the same way as the phrase in the example help you namely by a binary (i.e. pairwise) merger operation which combines two constituents together to form a larger constituent.
45
Introduction to English Linguistics
Phrases SPEAKER A: What was your intention?SPEAKER B: To help you.
They ought [ to help you ]
*They ought [ help you ]
They should [ help you ]
*They should [ to help you ]
What kind of phrase is to help you?
TP
VP
VP
TP
47
Introduction to English Linguistics
SPEAKER A: What are you doing?SPEAKER B: Trying to help you.
help
V
you
PRN
VP
to
T
TP
trying
V
VP
48
Introduction to English Linguistics
Headedness Principle:
Binarity Principle:
Every syntactic structure is a projection of a head word.
Every syntactic structure is binary-branching.
49
Introduction to English Linguistics
Clauses:Major Question: How are clauses and sentencesformed?
Tree-Structure of a sentence in the 1960s:
S-Analysis
SPEAKER A: What are you doing?SPEAKER B: We are trying to help you.
50
Introduction to English Linguistics
help
V
you
PRN
VP
to
T
TP
trying
V
VP
are
T
We
PRN
S
S-Analysis violates the:
Headedness PrincipleBinarity Principle
51
Introduction to English Linguistics
TP
help
V
you
PRN
VP
to
T
TP
VP
trying
Vare
T
T’
We
PRN
Tense Phrase/TP
A: What are you doing?B1: *Are trying to help you.
B2: We are trying to help you.
52
Introduction to English Linguistics
Extended Projection Principle/EPPA finite tense constituent T must be extended into a TP projection containing a subject.
EPP-Feature Requirement: Tense auxiliaries like arecarry an EPP-feature which requires them to have an extended projection TP which has a subject.
The EPP-Feature Requirement is syntactic and not semantic in nature.
It was alleged that he lied under oath.
There has been no trouble.
53
Introduction to English Linguistics
Generalization:All heads can have more than one kind of projection.[NP American ]
She arrived at the solution [AP quite [A’ [A independently ] [PP of me ] ] ]
He has gone [PP straight [P’ [P to ] [N bed ] ] ]
caused considerable controversy[N intervention][N’ [PP in Vietnam ] ]
54
Introduction to English Linguistics
TP
to
P
bed
N
P’
straight
ADV
PP
VP
gone
Vhas
T
T’
He
PRN
He has gone straight to bed
55
Introduction to English Linguistics
Clauses containing complementisersSPEAKER A: What are you saying?SPEAKER B: That we are trying to help you.
S´/S-bar Analysis: (Bresnan 1970)
are
T
we
PRN
S
*S´
C
that
trying to help you
VP
56
Introduction to English Linguistics
TP
help
V
you
PRN
VP
to
T
TP
VP
trying
Vare
T
T’
we
PRNThat
C
CPCP-Analysis:A: What are you saying?