Introduction to Animal Organization and Physiology Chapter 36.
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Transcript of Introduction to Animal Organization and Physiology Chapter 36.
![Page 1: Introduction to Animal Organization and Physiology Chapter 36.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070407/56649e2f5503460f94b1ffa5/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Introduction to Animal Organization and Physiology
Chapter 36
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Learning Objectives
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36.1 Organization of the Animal Body
• In animals, specialized cells are organized into tissues, tissues into organs, and organs into organ systems
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Organization of the Animal Body (1)
• Cells – Are specialized and organized into tissues
• Tissue – A group of cells with the same structure and
function, working as a unit to carry out one or more activities
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Organization of the Animal Body (2)
• Organ – An assembly of tissues integrated into a
structure that carries out a specific function
• Organ system– A group of organs that carry out related steps
in a major physiological process
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36.2 Animal Tissues
• Epithelial tissue forms protective, secretory, and absorptive coverings of body structures
• Connective tissue supports other body tissues
• Muscle tissue produces the force for body movement
• Nervous tissue receives, integrates, and transmits information
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Animal Tissues
• Classified as:– Epithelial– Connective– Muscle– Nervous
• Properties of cells in tissues determine the tissues’ structures and functions
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Fig. 36.2, p. 833
Organ system: A set of organs that interacts to carry out a major body function
Organ: Body structure that integrates different tissues and carries out a specific function
Stomach
Epithelial tissue: Protection, transport, secretion, and absorption
Connective tissue: Structural support
Muscle tissue: Movement
Nervous tissue: Communication, coordination, and control
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Cell Junctions
• Junctions link cells in a tissue– Anchoring junctions “weld” cells together – Tight junctions seal cells into a leak-proof
layer – Gap junctions form direct avenues of
communication between the cytoplasm of adjacent cells in the same tissue
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Epithelial Tissue
• Consists of sheetlike layers of cells
• Covers surfaces of body and internal organs
• Lines cavities and ducts within the body
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Epithelial Tissues
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Fig. 36.3a, p. 834
a. Patterns by which cells are arranged in epithelia
Simple epithelium Stratified epithelium
Free surface
Epithelium
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Fig. 36.3b, p. 834
b. The three common shapes of epithelial cells
Squamous epithelium Cuboidal epithelium Columnar epithelium
Description: Layer of flattened cells
Description: Layer of cubelike cells; free surface may have microvilli
Description: Layer of tall, slender cells; free surface may have microvilliCommon locations:
Walls of blood vessels; air sacs of lungs
Common locations: Glands and tubular parts of nephrons in kidneys
Common locations: Lining of gut and respiratory tract
Function: Diffusion Function: Secretion, absorption
Function: Secretion, absorption
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Glands
• Secretory structures derived from epithelia
• Exocrine glands– Connected to an epithelium by a duct that empties on
the epithelial surface
• Endocrine glands– Ductless; no direct connection to an epithelium
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Fig. 36.4a, p. 836
Pore Secretory product
Epithelium
Exocrine gland cell (mucous gland)
Exocrine gland cell (poison gland)
a. Examples of exocrine glands: The mucus- and poison-secreting glands in the skin of a blue poison frog
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Fig. 36.4b, p. 836
Thyroid
Epithelium
Endocrine gland cell
Blood vessel
b. Example of an endocrine gland: The thyroid gland, which secretes hormones that regulate the rate of metabolism and other body functions
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Connective Tissue
• Consists of cell networks or layers and an extracellular matrix (ECM) – Supports other body tissues– Transmits mechanical and other forces– In some cases acts as a filter
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Six Types of Connective Tissues
• Loose connective tissue
• Bone tissue
• Cartilage
• Fibrous connective tissue
• Adipose tissue
• Blood
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Loose Connective Tissue
• Consists of sparsely distributed fibroblasts surrounded by a network of collagen and other glycoproteins – Supports epithelia and body organs– Covers blood vessels, nerves, and some
internal organs
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Fibrous Connective Tissue
• Contains sparsely distributed fibroblasts in a matrix of densely packed, parallel bundles of collagen and elastin fibers – Forms high tensile-strength structures such
as tendons and ligaments
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Fig. 36.5b, p. 837
b. Fibrous connective tissue
Collagen fibers
Fibroblast
Description: Long rows of fibroblasts surrounded by collagen and elastin fibers in parallel bundles with a dense extracellular matrix
Common locations: Tendons, ligaments
Function: Strength, elasticity
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Cartilage
• Consists of sparsely distributed chondrocytes surrounded by a network of collagen fibers embedded in a tough but highly elastic matrix of branched glycoproteins– Provides support, flexibility, low-friction
surface for joint movement
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Fig. 36.5c, p. 837
c. Cartilage
Collagen fibers embedded in an elastic matrix
Chondrocyte
Description: Chondrocytes embedded in a pliable, solid matrix of collagen and chondroitin sulfate
Common locations: Ends of long bones, nose, parts of airways, skeleton of vertebrate embryos
Function: Support, flexibility, low-friction surface for joint movement
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Cartilage
• Consists of sparsely distributed chondrocytes surrounded by a network of collagen fibers embedded in a tough but highly elastic matrix of branched glycoproteins– Provides support, flexibility, low-friction
surface for joint movement
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Fig. 36.5c, p. 837
c. Cartilage
Collagen fibers embedded in an elastic matrix
Chondrocyte
Description: Chondrocytes embedded in a pliable, solid matrix of collagen and chondroitin sulfate
Common locations: Ends of long bones, nose, parts of airways, skeleton of vertebrate embryos
Function: Support, flexibility, low-friction surface for joint movement
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Bone Tissue
• Osteocytes are embedded in a collagen matrix hardened by mineral deposits
• Osteoblasts secrete collagen and minerals for the ECM
• Osteoclasts remove the minerals and recycle them into the bloodstream
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Fig. 36.5d, p. 837
d. Bone tissue
Fine canals
Central canal containing blood vessel
Osteocytes
Description: Osteocytes in a matrix of collagen and glycoproteins hardened with hydroxyapatite
Common locations: Bones of vertebrate skeleton
Function: Movement, support, protection
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Adipose Tissue
• Consists of cells specialized for fat storage – Cushions and rounds out the body– Provides an insulating layer under the skin
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Fig. 36.5e, p. 837
e. Adipose tissue
Nucleus
Fat deposit
Description: Large, tightly packed adipocytes with little extracellular matrix
Common locations: Under skin; around heart, kidneys
Function: Energy reserves, insulation, padding
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Blood
• Consists of a fluid matrix (plasma) in which erythrocytes and leukocytes are suspended – Erythrocytes carry oxygen to body cells– Leukocytes produce antibodies, initiate
immune response against disease-causing agents
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Fig. 36.5f, p. 837
f. Blood
Leukocyte
Erythrocyte
PlasmaPlatelet
Description: Leukocytes, erythrocytes, and platelets suspended in a plasma matrix
Common locations: Circulatory system
Function: Transport of substances
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Muscle Tissue
1. Skeletal muscle– Long contractile cells (muscle fibers)– Moves body parts and maintains posture
2. Cardiac muscle– Short contractile cells with a branched structure– Forms the heart
3. Smooth muscle– Spindle-shaped contractile cells– Forms layers surrounding body cavities and ducts
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Fig. 36.6a, p. 839
a. Skeletal muscle
Width of one muscle cell (muscle fiber)
Cell nucleus
Description: Bundles of long, cylindrical, striated, contractile cells called muscle fibers
Typical location: Attached to bones of skeleton
Function: Locomotion, movement of body parts
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Fig. 36.6b, p. 839
b. Cardiac muscle
Cell nucleus
Intercalated disk
Description: Cylindrical, striated cells that have specialized end junctions
Location: Wall of heart
Function: Pumping of blood within circulatory system
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Fig. 36.6c, p. 839
c. Smooth muscle
(cells separated for clarity)
Description: Contractile cells with tapered ends
Typical location: Wall of internal organs, such as stomach
Function: Movement of internal organs
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Nervous Tissue
• Neurons communicate information between body parts (electrical and chemical signals)
• Glial cells support neurons or provide electrical insulation between them
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Fig. 36.7, p. 840
Dendrites Cell body
Axon Axon terminals
Direction of signal
Nucleus
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36.3 Coordination of Tissues in Organs and Organ Systems
• Organs and organ systems function together to enable an animal to survive
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Vital Tasks of Organs and Organ Systems
• Maintenance of internal body conditions• Nutrient acquisition, processing, distribution• Waste disposal• Molecular synthesis• Environmental sensing and response• Protection against injury and disease• Reproduction
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12 Major Organ Systems
• Nervous
• Endocrine
• Muscular
• Skeletal
• Integumentary
• Circulatory
• Lymphatic
• Immune
• Respiratory
• Digestive
• Excretory
• Reproductive
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Fig. 36.8a, p. 840
Nervous System
Endocrine System
Muscular System
Skeletal System
Integumentary System
Circulatory System
Lymphatic System
Main organs: Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sensory organs
Main organs: Pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, and other hormone- secreting glands
Main organs: Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle
Main organs: Bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage
Main organs: Skin, sweat glands, hair, nails
Main organs: Heart, blood vessels, blood
Main organs: Lymph nodes, lymph ducts, spleen, thymus
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Fig. 36.8b, p. 841
Respiratory System
Digestive System
Excretory System
Reproductive System
Main organs: Lungs, diaphragm, trachea, and other airways
Main organs: Pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, rectum, anus
Main organs: Kidneys, bladder, ureter, urethra
Main organs: Female : ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina, mammary glands Male : testes, sperm ducts, accessory glands, penis
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36.4 Homeostasis
• Homeostasis is accomplished by negative feedback mechanisms
• Animals also have positive feedback mechanisms that oppose homeostasis
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Homeostasis
• Process by which animals maintain their internal fluid environment under conditions which their cells can tolerate
• Dynamic equilibrium – Internal adjustments are made continuously to
compensate for environmental changes
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Negative Feedback Mechanisms
• Sensor– Detects a change in an external or internal condition
• Integrator – Compares the detected change with a set point
• Effector– Returns the condition to the set point if it has varied