Introduction to

Anatomy & PhysiologyHeadings

Vocabulary

Important Info

•Anatomyoscience of

structure

orelationships revealed by dissection imaging techniques

•Physiology

oscience of body functions

Clinical Observational Techniques•Palpation

ofeel body surface with

hands

pulses and breathing

rates

•Auscultation

olisten to body sounds

with stethoscope

abnormal fluid in lungs

•Percussion

otap on body surface and

listen to echo

air in intestines

Levels of Organization

•Chemical

•Cellular

•Tissue

•Organs

•System Level

•Organismic Level

Levels of Structural Organization•Chemical Level - atomic and molecular level

•Cellular Level - smallest living unit of the body

•Tissue Level - group of cells and the materials

surrounding them that work together on one task

•4 basic tissue

oepithelium

omuscle

oconnective

tissue

onerve

•Organ Levelogrouping of 2 or more tissue types into a recognizable structure

with a specific function.

•Organ Systemocollection of related organs with a common function

osometimes an organ is part of more than one system

•Organismic Level - one living individual.

Interactions of Body Systems

•Example: Integumentary System & Skeletal System

oSkin produces vitamin D needed for CA absorption and bone

growth

oBone marrow produces cells which help the skin resist

infection.

Life Processes•Metabolism = sum of all

chemical processesobreakdown of large

molecules into small

obuilding new structural components (proteins)

oproviding chemical energy for cells

•Responsivenessodetect & respond to changes

in internal or external environment

osome typical responses muscle contraction, electrical

signals, hormone or glandular secretion

•Movement oany structural level

obody, organ, cell or cell component

•Growthoincrease in number or size

of cells or the material found between cells

•Differentiationospecialization of cells

for a specific function

ostem cells give rise to cells that specialize

•Reproductionoformation of new cells or

new individuals

Autopsy•Postmortem examination of body by dissection

•Purposeoconfirm or determine

cause of death

osupport findings of other tests

oprovide info on effects of drug usage

oeducate healthcare students

oreveal congenital defects

Homeostatis•Maintaining the internal

environment within physiological limits (internal balance)

•First described by French physiologist, 1813-1878

•Process named by Walter Cannon, 1871-1945

•Exampleoblood glucose level is kept

within narrow range 70-110/100ml

Homeostasis of Body Fluids

•Delineation of fluid compartments

•Intracellular Fluid (ICF) = w/i cells

•Extracellular Fluid (ECF) = o/s cells

Intercellular Fluid = tissue fluid =

interstitial fluid

Plasma = fluid portion of blood

•Composition of fluids change as

substances move between compartments

onutrients, oxygen, ions and wastes

move in both directions across

capillary walls

Control of Homeostasis•Homeostasis is continually

being disrupted by:oExternal Stimuli

intense heat, cold , and lack of oxygen

oInternal Stimuli psychological stresses

exercise

•Disruptions are usually mild & temporary

•If homeostasis is not maintained, death may result

Neural and Endocrine Controls•Maintaining a controlled

conditionosensory receptors detect change

in a monitored variable

onervous system and/or endocrine system responds

•Ex: Control of blood gas leveloexercise increases blood CO2

levels

osensory receptors detect change

onervous system increases heart and breathing rates to remove excess CO2

oadrenal gland releases epinephrine to increase heart and breathing rates

Components of Feedback Loop

•Receptor

omonitors a controlled condition

•Control Center

odetermines next action

•Effector

oreceives directions from the

control center

oproduces a response that

changes controlled condition

Negative & Positive Feedback Loops•Negative Feedback Loopooriginal stimulus reversed

omost feedback systems in the body are negative

oused for conditions that need frequent adjustment

obody temperature, blood sugar levels, blood pressure

•Positive Feedback Loopooriginal

stimulus intensified

onormal childbirth

Homeostasis of Blood Pressure

•Pressure receptors in walls of

certain arteries detect an increase in

BP

oBlood Pressure = force of blood on

walls of vessels

•Brain receives input and signals

heart and blood vessels

•Heart rate slows and arterioles

dilate (increase in diameter)

•BP returns to normal

Positive Feedback during Childbirth

•Stretch receptors in walls of

uterus send signals to brain

•Brain releases hormone

(oxytocin) into bloodstream

•Uterine smooth muscle contracts

more forcefully

•More stretch, more hormone,

more contraction etc.

•Cycle ends with birth of the baby

& decrease in stretch

Homeostatic Imbalances•Disorder = abnormality of function

•Disease = homeostatic imbalance with distinct…oSymptoms: changes in body function felt by patient such as nausea

oSigns: changes in body function that can be observed by doctor such as rash or fever

•Diagnosis: skill of distinguishing one disease from another

•Epidemiology: how disease is transmitted

•Pharmacology: how drugs used to treat disease

Basic Anatomical Terminology

•Regions of the body

•Anatomical position

•Anatomical planes, sections and directional terms

Anatomical Position

•Standardized position

describing directional

terms

ostanding upright

ofacing the observer,

head level

oeyes facing forward

ofeet flat on the floor

oarms at the sides

opalms turned forward

•Prone Position = lying face

down

•Supine Position = lying face up

Common Regional Names

•Clinical terminology based on a Greek or Latin root word.

•Fill in worksheet to help remember the terms

She is standing in the Anatomical Position

Planes & Sections

•Plane: imaginary flat

surface that passes

through the body.

•Section: one of the 2

surfaces (pieces) that

results when the body is

cut by a plane passing

through it.

Sagittal Plane•Sagittal Plane

odivides the body or an organ into left and right sides

•Midsagittal Plane

oproduces equal halves

•Parasagittal Plane

oproduces unequal halves

Other Planes and Sections

•Frontal or Coronal Plane

odivides the body or an organ into front

(anterior) and back (posterior) portions

•Transverse or Horizontal Plane

ocross-sectional

odivides the body or an organ into upper

(superior) or lower (inferior) portions

•Oblique Plane

osome combination of 2 other planes

Planes and Sections of the Brain(3-D anatomical relationships revealed)

•Horizontal Plane

•Frontal Plane

•Midsagittal Plane

Major Directional Terms

Superior & Inferior

•Dorsal or Posterior

oBack of the body

oBrain is posterior to the forehead.

•Ventral or Anterior

oFront of the body

oSternum is anterior to the heart.

•Superior

oTowards the head

oEyes are superior to mouth.

•Inferior

oAway from head

oStomach is inferior to the

heart.

•Dorsal & Ventral

Medial or Lateral

•Medialonearer to midline of body

oHeart lies medial to lungs

•Lateralofarther from midline of body

oThe thumb is on the lateral side of the hand.

•Proximalonearer to attachment of the limb

to the trunk

oThe knee is proximal to the ankle.

•Distalofarther from attachment of the

limb to the trunk

oThe wrist is distal to the elbow.

Proximal or Distal

•Brain is posterior to the

forehead.•Eyes are superior to

mouth.•Stomach is inferior to the

heart.•Sternum is anterior to the heart.•The knee is proximal to the ankle.

•Heart lies medial to lungs

•The wrist is distal to the

elbow.•The thumb is on the lateral side of the hand.

Dorsal Body Cavity•Near dorsal surface of body

•2 subdivisions

oCranial Cavity holds the brain

formed by skull

oVertebral or Spinal Canal contains the spinal cord

formed by vertebral column

•Meninges (system of membranes) line dorsal body cavity

Ventral Body Cavity

•Near ventral surface of body

•Visceral Organs (viscera): A group of internal organs housed in the

ventral cavity

•2 subdivisions

oThoracic Cavity: above

diaphragm

oAbdominopelvic Cavity:

below diaphragm

•Diaphragm = large,

dome-shaped muscle

•Organs called viscera

•Organs covered with

serous membrane

Abdominopelvic Cavity

•Inferior portion of ventral body cavity below diaphragm

•Encircled by abdominal wall, bones & muscles of pelvis

Thoracic Cavity

•Encircled by ribs, sternum, vertebral column and muscle

•Divided into 2 pleural cavities by mediastinum

•Mediastinum contains all thoracic organs except lungs

o"middle" section of the chest cavity

Mediastinum

•Area behind the breastbone

•Midline wall of tissue that contains heart and

great vessels, esophagus, trachea and thymus.

Serous Membranes

•Thin slippery membrane lines body cavities not open to the outsideoparietal layer lines

walls of cavities (outside)

ovisceral layer covers viscera (internal organs) within the cavities

•Serous fluid reduces friction

Pleural & Pericardial Cavities

•Visceral Pleura: clings to surface of lungs

•Parietal Pleura: lines chest wall

•Visceral Pericardium: covers heart

•Parietal Pericardium: lines pericardial sac

Peritoneum

•Visceral Peritoneum --- serous membrane that covers the abdominal viscera (organs)

•Parietal Peritoneum --- serous membrane that lines the abdominal wall

Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants

•Describe locations of organs or source of pain

•Tic-tac-toe grid or intersecting lines through navel

Medical Imaging

•Allows visualization of structures without

surgery

•Useful for

confirmation

of diagnosis

•Examples of

imaging

techniques

Conventional Radiography•A single burst of xrays

•Produces 2-D image on

film

•Known as radiography or

xray

•Poor resolution of soft

tissues

•Major use is Osteology:

study of bones

Computed Tomography (CT Scan)

•Moving x-ray beam

•Image produced on a video monitor of a cross-section through body

•Computer generated image reveals more soft tissue detailokidney & gallstones

•Multiple scans used to build 3D views

Digital Subtraction Angiography(DSA)

•Radiopaque material

injected into blood

vessels

•Before and after images

compared with a

computer program

•Image of blood vessel is

shown on a monitor

Ultrasound (US)•High-frequency sound waves

emitted by hand-held device

•Safe, noninvasive & painless

•Image or sonogram is displayed on video monitor

•Used for fetal ultrasound and examination of pelvic & abdominal organs, heart and blood flow through blood vessels

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

•Body exposed to high-energy magnetic field

•Protons align themselves relative to magnetic field

•Pulse of radiowaves used to generate an image on video monitor

•Can not use on patient with metal in their body

•Reveals fine detail within soft tissues

Positron Emission Tomography(PET)

•Substance that emits

positively charged

particles is injected into

body

•Collision with negatively

charged electrons in

tissues releases gamma

rays

•Camera detects gamma

rays & computer

generates image

displayed on monitor