Introduction Liberalism seeks to promote individual liberty by trying to guarantee equality of...

IntroductionLiberalism seeks to promote individual liberty by

trying to guarantee equality of opportunity within a tolerant society Hallmark of liberalism is promotion of individual liberty Liberals disagree over what exactly liberty is and how

to best promote it

Human nature: Human beings are fundamentally rational Self-interest is primary motivation Humans are naturally competitive

Liberals consider the individual to be the best judge of her or his own interests

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Liberalism, Human Nature, and Freedom

Some conception of human nature provides the underpinnings for every political ideology. For liberalism, human beings are typically rational,

self-interested, and competitive, making them capable of living freely

Liberals want to promote the freedom not of a particular group or class of people but of each person as an individual

The individual must be free to decide for himself and herself what goals to pursue in life

Each person ought to be free to live as he or she sees fit — as long as the person does not choose to interfere with others’ freedom to live as they see fit Everyone should have an equal opportunity to succeed

2Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Liberal View of Freedom

Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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Agent:the

individual

Obstacle:Laws,

customs, or conditions that block individual

choice

Goal:to live as

one chooses

The Origins of LiberalismReaction against medieval concepts of

“ascribed status” and “religious conformity” Ascribed status: notion that one’s social status is

fixed and determined by birthUnder feudalism, society was divided along class

lines into nobles and commoners Religious conformity: the Church encouraged

Kings and other secular authorities to enforce religious obedienceLuther emphasized freedom of conscience in the

Protestant Reformation (1521) This challenged the supremacy of the church and

led to a profusion of protestant sects

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Thomas HobbesHobbes’s Leviathan (1651) was the first work of

political philosophy to be considered liberal

Hobbes imagines a state of nature in which all individuals are free with no authority over them These individuals have a natural right to do as

they wish “Restless desire for power” is a product of human

nature that turns the state of nature into a state of war

Rational individuals form a social contract to establish a political authority to provide security


John LockeLike Hobbes, Locke sought to establish a basis for

political authority by starting with the state of nature: Individuals are naturally equal and free with natural

rights to life, liberty, and property Individuals form a social contract to establish a

political society to protect their natural rights

Limited government and the right of revolution Governmental authority is only legitimate when it

secures natural rights If the government violates these rights, the people

have a right to overthrow the governmentNo such right exists in Hobbes’s political society

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The American Revolution American Revolutionaries used Locke’s theory of

natural rights to justify the overthrow of British rule Thomas Paine argued that government is a necessary

evil that exists mainly to protect our natural rights

The Declaration of Independence has two distinctively liberal positions:1. “all men are created equal” – mirrors the state of

natural equality presented by Hobbes and Locke

2. Defense of rights and liberties of individuals against government

echoes the arguments of Locke and Paine that governments exist to protect individual rights


The French Revolution Enlightenment thinkers in France began to

challenge the three leading features of the ancien régime (old order):

1. Religious conformity – Catholicism2. Aristocratic privilege – hereditary aristocracy3. Political absolutism – king is above the law

French Revolutionaries originally set out to establish a limited government to protect the rights of citizens The revolution became increasingly radical Demands for greater democracy superseded

property rights 17,000 suspected enemies of the Republic were

guillotined during the “reign of terror” (June 1793-July 1794)

French republic abolished by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799

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Liberalism and Capitalism, I

17th and 18th century liberals began to focus on economic liberties, particularly important to the middle class, or, bourgeoisie.

Prevailing economic theory was mercantilism – economic policy is meant to promote national interests at the expense of individual liberty Zero-sum game: one country can improve its economic

strength only at the expense of another country Resulted in colonization, high tariffs, and government supported

monopolies in certain sectors of the economy Economic opportunities of the middle class were limited

Acquisition of wealth was primary means of social advancement Mercantilism favored elites who were able to secure government

privileges Middle class began to push for more equal opportunity in

competition 9Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Liberalism and Capitalism, II Capitalism – economic exchanges are private matters

between individuals pursuing profits Christian and republican traditions did not place great

value on either privacy or profits

Early capitalist theorists: Bernard Mandeville (1670-1733) – The Fable of the

Bees: Private Vices, Publick Benefits (1714) The best way to promote the good of society as a whole is

to let people pursue their private interests Physiocrats – French thinkers who argued that wealth is

best cultivated by unrestricted free enterprise Laissez faire, laissez passer – “let it be, leave it alone”

Adam Smith (1723-90) – An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations


Adam Smith’s Invisible Hand

• Government should have little to do with economic exchanges

• Restraints on economic competition led to higher prices and scarcer goods

• Governments should also eliminate trade barriers on foreign imports because free trade benefits consumers

• An “invisible hand” directs the private interests of individuals toward the common interest of society

• Three functions of government: • National defense, protection of property rights, and provision of “public works”

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Liberalism in the 19th Century

From France to South America, liberalism in the early 1800s remained a revolutionary force Wars of Liberation in the Spanish Colonies Creation of the Napoleonic Code Abolition of Serfdom in Prussia

In Britain, the Industrial Revolution made England the world’s first great industrial power “The workshop of the world” Increased social division along class lines; the

working class labored under extremely harsh and insecure conditions


Utilitarianism Jeremy Bentham attempted to make society and its

legal institutions more rational Principle of “utility” – humans naturally seek pleasure

and avoid pain Government should use this insight to promote “the

greatest happiness for the greatest number”

John Stuart Mill built upon Bentham’s utilitarianism to defend and extend individual liberty Stressed the “educative theory of democracy”

rather than the “protectionist theory” of democracy Like Tocqueville, Mill thought democracy was

susceptible to “the tyranny of the majority”

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Mill on the Limits of Government

The harm principle – all sane adults should be free to do as they choose as long as their actions do not harm or threaten harm to others Establishes the only legitimate purpose for the use of

government power over its citizens Mill defended this principle by appealing to utility

Freedom promotes “the permanent interests of man as a progressive being”

Mill does NOT appeal to natural rights as early liberals had

Mill stressed the importance of freedom of thought Progress depends on the right of “nonconformists” to

express their views without censorship by the majority

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Liberalism DividedNeoclassical liberals

believe that government should be limited to protection against force and fraud

Social Darwinists argued that the struggle for survival was a natural phenomenon

Government should be a “nightwatchman”

Welfare liberals believe government can be a positive force to ensure equal opportunity

T.H. Green (1836-82) drew a distinction between positive and negative freedom Negative freedom:

absence of restraint Positive freedom:

freedom to do something


Liberalism in the 20th century

John Rawls (1921-2002) defends the modern welfare state by reverting back to social contract theory Justice requires an equal distribution of wealth as a

starting point

Robert Nozick (1938-2002) draws on the idea of the state of nature to support the protection of individual rights Libertarianism - only the “minimal state” is legitimate

because it does not violate property rights

Murray Rothbard (1926-95) and libertarian anarchists advocate abolition of the state Individuals are free and private enterprise replaces

government services

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The Libertarian VisionFor libertarians, government is necessary to

secure and order society But it should be a government that does little or

nothing more than protect people against threats to their property and safety.

Deregulation – phasing out of government regulations

Libertarians envision a market-driven society in which formerly public services would be bought and sold in presumably competitive markets Advocates say that goods and services would be

delivered more cheaply, abundantly, and efficiently under competitive market conditions

Critics respond that competitive markets are open to the machinations of manipulators 17


Liberalism TodayThree points distinguish today’s liberalism from

its past variants:1. Liberalism is no longer the revolutionary force it

once was—at least in the West2. Liberals remain divided among themselves3. Liberals are now wrestling with difficult problems

that stem from their commitments to individual liberty and equality of opportunity

• How far should individuals be able to go in exercising their freedom?

• How far should equal opportunity be promoted?

According to communitarian critics of liberalism, rights must be balanced by responsibilities Individuals may have rights against others, but

individuals must also recognize that they owe something to the community that enables them to exercise these rights


Liberalism as an Ideology

1. Explanation: Social conditions are the result of individual choices

2. Evaluation: Best conditions are those in which individuals have

equal opportunity to freely choose for themselves how to best succeed

3. Orientation: People are rational, self-interested individuals who want

the freedom to choose how to live

4. Program: Oppose religious conformity, ascribed status, economic

privileges, political absolutism, and tyranny of the majority

Neoclassical and welfare liberals disagree on how best to secure equal opportunity

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Conclusion: Liberalismand Democracy

Liberals favor democracy for its ability to protect individual rights and liberties Based on the premise of equality among humans Voting as a way to protect individual liberties Enables citizens to hold government accountable State should be neutral to the pursuit of private

goods

Liberal democracy is meant to protect individuals from outside interference in private matters Political participation is valuable, but secondary

to the primary concern of protecting the private affairs of individuals 20


Readings:Part III: Liberalism Thomas Hobbes—The State of

Nature and the Basis of Obligation

John Locke—Toleration and Government

Thomas Paine—Government, Rights, and the Freedom of Generations

Declaration of Independence of the United States

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of Citizens

Adam Smith—Private Profit, Public Good

Immanuel Kant—Freedom and Enlightenment

John Stuart Mill—Liberty and Individuality

William Graham Sumner—According to the Fitness of Things

T. H. Green—Liberalism and Positive Freedom

Franklin Delano Roosevelt – New Deal Liberalism: A Defense

Barack Obama — Speech at Osawatomie, Kansas

Donald Allen—Paternalism vs. Democracy: A Libertarian View

Murray Rothbard—Libertarian Anarchism

Terence Ball—A Libertarian Utopia21

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