Introduction, discussion and summary: raptor and human – falconry and bird symbolism throughout the millennia on a global scale

By Oliver Grimm and Karl-Heinz Gersmann

Human evolution, tHe History of Hunting and tHe role of falconry

Africa was the cradle of humanity, and human evolution is yet another word for hunting. For most of human history, hunters and gatherers had led a nomadic life, adjusting to the landscape and seasons in a way that enabled their survival. They were exposed to dramatic climate change and an animal kingdom that could be life-threatening. Among the early testimonies for hunting are the wooden spears from Schöningen (Lower Saxony, Germany), approximately 300,000 years old, found together with the bones of large mammals, mainly wild horses, in a context that suggests actual hunting (conard et al. 2015). The first true companion of humans, still in the period of hunters and gatherers, was the dog; a result of the natural closeness between human and wolf (scHmölcke 2013). Dogs were also the first animal hunting assistants of humans, whereas birds of prey surely came later. Exactly when and where this happened is one of the classic falconry research questions (cf. below: book struc-ture and key questions).

A major turning point in human history, first in the so-called Fertile Crescent (half-moon shaped area from Egypt in the West to Iraq/Turkey in the East), was the change from the nomadism of the hunters and gatherers to permanent farming and husbandry, which also led to a general decrease in hunting. In that same area, the first early urbanized advanced civilizations emerged (ch. 3; 12). However, in other less favourable environments, the inhabitants followed different ways of life, as is the case, for example, with the nomads of the Eurasian steppe, who had seasonal movements, on horseback, throughout the year with their large flocks of animals (ch. 7). So, the question is, from which kind of society does falconry originate?

Birds of prey in tHeir natural environment (cHapter 2)

Birds of prey are a species-rich group, whose more than 300 species have a global distribution besides Antarctica. They belong to two different orders and, although they look similar, they are not even related: firstly, the Accipitriformes (including hawks and eagles) and secondly the Falconiformes (family Falconidae). Surprisingly, the latter are more closely related to parrots (Psittaciformes) than they are to Accipitriformes.

Birds of prey, in particular peregrine falcons, have suffered much from the 20th century’s use of the pesticide DTT; owing to steps taken towards bird protection, including breeding programs and the release of birds into the wild, the populations have increased considerably. Raptor populations

are adapting to the modern world: once shy and forest-bound, goshawks are nowadays found in the cemeteries of European cities; a phenomenon that is well documented for Berlin in Germany (artmann et al. 2015).

raptor and Human: a special relationsHip (cHapters 3–4)

Raptors were much admired by humans for traits like the piercing look, the mastery of the sky and the ability to take prey in spectacular manoeuvres. The admiration of raptors led, probably during the period of the hunters and gatherers, to religious beliefs such as the power to be able to turn one-self into a bird or to assume its abilities. There is no doubt that falconry represents a more recent development.

In the history of domestication, birds of prey hold a special position. Strictly regarded, they are not domesticated; they can only be trained to grow accustomed to the presence of humans, which is time-consuming and calls for patience. Interestingly, this patience played a role in philosophical thinking in the period of Emperor Frederick II in the first half of the 13th century. Simply put, only the patient ruler, as patient as the falconer manning (training) the bird, was considered a good ruler.

falconry in action and raptor propagation (cHapters 1 & 3)

Falconry has gained much attention recently, owing to its acknowledgement as an Intangible Cul-tural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO and the book “H is for Hawk” by Helen MacDonald, which has been translated into many languages. Falconry is defined, by the International Association for Falconry and Conservation of Birds of Prey (IAF), as the taking of quarry in its natural state and habitat by means of trained birds of prey (www.iaf.org). The book title chosen by Frederick II, “the art of hunting with birds”, leads to a further understanding of falconry, not only as a form of hunting, but as a lifestyle and art form.

Falconry has many facets, from Europe and North Africa to Arabia, central and eastern Asia; America included. There is not just one falconry, but several kinds that are adjusted to different land-scapes and old traditions. To name an example: the hunting of foxes with trained golden eagles, once widespread in the Eurasian steppe, enabled the acquisition of furs. In turn, Europe is a good example of how falconry changed over time since falconry in its early days kept to goshawks whereas it was only post 1000, due to considerable deforestation, that falcons became more and more popular.

Owing to their closeness to nature and birds, North American and European falconers have, since the late 1960s, had an active role in raptor propagation, in order to counteract the drastic decline of peregrine falcon populations as a result of DDT use (see above).

History of falconry: pioneers of researcH, Basic researcH and new angles (cHapters 5–6)

Among the pioneers of research is the German industrial and hunting historian Kurt Lindner (1906–1987) who has, for his entire life, been interested in the history of falconry, mainly in central Europe, as author, book editor and book collector, even though he was not a falconer himself. The most in-fluential paper on the history of falconry ever written by an individual is without doubt the one by Hans J. Epstein (1920–1986) from the early 1940s which, in a few pages, sketches the early history of this kind of hunting from western Europe to eastern Asia. Even today, this paper is highly inspiring and the present book owes much to it.

Book: structure

- Karl-Heinz Gersmann & Oliver Grimm (eds.), Raptor and human – falconry and bird symbolism through-out the millennia on a global scale

- Extended workshop publication (workshop in March 2014 at the Centre for Baltic and Scandinavian Archae-ology [ZBSA], Schleswig, Germany)

- Cooperation between falconers and scientists as contribution to the preservation of falconry as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (UNESCO)

- Four volumes, hardcover, two slip cases - Roughly 2000 pages, English language, in colour - 101 articles in twelve chapters, written by authors from c. 20 countries: from Spain and Portugal in the West

to Japan in the East and including the United Arab Emirates and North America - Short summary in, respectively, Arabic, English, German and Russian

Book: key questions

- What is so special about the raptor-human relationship in falconry, and what impact has raptor breeding had on falconry and bird preservation?

- How old is falconry, where does it come from, how is it practiced and how has it become so widespread? - What methodological problems exist for identifying skeletons of trained birds of prey, and from which

archaeological find contexts do the bird bones originate? - To what extent does falconry in historical accounts, literary descriptions and depictions really reflect actual

hunting practices? Which sources reflect a stereotypical noblesse oblige in terms of hunting, and which sources carry an allegoric meaning independent from or beyond falconry?

- Is the practice of name-giving with a reference to raptors proof of the same person acting as a falconer or bird catcher and what about place and field names related to birds of prey and, more specifically, falconry?

Fig. 1. Mosaic (redrawing), rider/falconer, early Islamic (8th century CE), Syria (cf. Yule in this book, Fig. 3).

Fig. 2. Figurine (redrawing), standing man/fal-coner with bird, including falconry bell. Grave find, c. 1500 years old, Japan (cf. KaKu in this book, Fig. 12).

Fig. 3. Mosaic (redrawing), standing person/falconer with bird and falconry equipment, c. 1500 years old, Tunisia (cf. Fradejas rueda in this book “Iberian Peninsula”, Fig. 3).

Fig. 4. Mosaic (redrawing), rider/falconer with bird, including falconry equipment, c. 1500 years old, Portugal (cf. lopes in this book, Fig. 8).

Fig. 5. Grave wall painting (redrawing), rider/falconer with bird, China, almost 2000 years old (cf. Wallace in this book, Fig. 9).

Fig. 6. Belt mount (redrawing) showing rider/falconer with bird in the background. Grave find, c. 2200 years old, northeastern China (cf. Wallace in this book, Fig. 15).

The innumerable traces of falconry history can only be dealt with by means of detailed studies in different scientific branches, but there is also a chance to elaborate upon new angles. This includes basic research (e.g. on the potential of isotope analysis for studies into falconry) or long-term studies that enable us to see lines of continuity or changes through many centuries (e.g. with regards to legal regulations or depictions).

invention of falconry: tHree Basic points of view (gersmann in tHis Book)

In both its ambitious outline, covering western Europe to eastern Asia, and in its launching of an overall explanation of falconry’s place of origin, the short paper of Hans J. Epstein has found an equivalent in the much less known ethnographic dissertation of Jürgen Warmbier, delivered in the late 1950s in eastern Germany.

Epstein has argued that falconry as an advanced way of hunting belonged to the sphere of early advanced civilizations; he pointed to Mesopotamia (parts of Syria and Iraq) for the 3rd and 2nd millen-nium BC. In contrast, Warmbier considered falconry as traditional element of the Eurasian nomads in the steppe, with the horse being the mandatory requirement for the development of falconry. The area in question yields no hiding opportunities for hunters which is why, while hunting, riders on horseback had to rely upon hunting assistants: hounds and raptors. From the steppe, falconry is sup-posed to have spread to sedentary populations (to Japan in the Far East and Europe and northern Africa in the remote west).

From a practitioner’s point of view, falconry is easily learnable by observing nature and becom-ing part of the hunt as ‘comrade’ of the bird (‘comrade’ following Konrad Lorenz; cf. Bednarek in this book). Falconry equipment could easily be invented on the spot. Thus, in contrast to Epstein’s and Warmbier’s point of view, who both pointed to one area of invention, falconry could have been forged more than once, in different periods and regions.

early History of falconry: sketcH (cHapters 7–12)

The following reconstruction of falconry history is based on only six images, representing western Europe, northern Africa, Arabia, central and east Asia (Figs. 1–6). The evidential value of the images is further supported by the fact that there are written records from the areas in question in the same period of time.

Some years ago, the ruins of a princely seat (hunting lodge) of early Islamic times (first half of the 8th c. CE) came to light in Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharqi (Syria; cf. Fig. 1). A mosaic from the site shows a rider with a bird of prey on the right fist. The position of the bird in relation to the rider seems a bit awkward, but a falconry-related interpretation seems likely. The oldest Arabian poetry that testifies to falconry has a similar age to the mosaic. Thus, Arabian falconry has an ascertained age of almost 1500 years.

Some burials from Japan, dating back c. 1500 years, have yielded figurines: men with a bird of prey on the fist (Fig. 2). A connection with falconry can be taken as given since, in one case, a bird wears a falconry bell. The oldest Japanese written sources point to a comparable age of origin of falconry in that country.

A mosaic from Tunisia – one of several such finds – shows a man with a bird of prey on his fist and includes a depiction of actual falconry equipment (Fig. 3). The image is roughly 1500 years old. Possibly slightly younger is a mosaic from Portugal: a rider with a bird of prey on the fist, again with actual falconry equipment (Fig. 4). By their very age, the mosaics from Tunisia and Portugal point

towards the so-called Migration Period of Europe, which belongs to the middle of the 1st millennium CE. This era saw the migration of tribes in Europe, some of which came from the East, in areas of contact with Eurasian nomads, and which took land in northern Africa and western Europe (see below). More or less contemporary to the mosaics are law texts of related tribes in central Europe which testify to falconry.

Thus, the consideration of the four mentioned falconry images – mosaics from Syria, Tunisia and Portugal, a falconer figure from Japan – leads to the surprising result that falconry in all the men-tioned areas dates back more or less 1500 years. This assumption is further strengthened by the fact that parallel to the images there are contemporary written testimonies for falconry.

Let us turn to China with its yet older testimonies. This relates firstly to a series of grave wall paintings from the so-called Han period; the oldest are almost 2000 years old (Fig. 5). Their testi-monial value is beyond doubt since falconry equipment and actual hunting scenes are portrayed and, furthermore, there are contemporary written testimonies about this kind of hunting.

Again from China, from its north-east, originates a belt mount from a burial with an estimated age of 2200 years (Fig. 6). The depiction shows two riders; the one in the background carries a bird of prey on his right fist. As was the case with the Syrian mosaic, the bird is in a somewhat awkward position in relation to the rider but there is reason to believe that a falconry motif is given here. The archaeological find comes from an area that saw a population of Eurasian nomads that have left no written records of their own. In the present case, however, a text passage from Ktesias’ lost writing Indica (c. 2500 years old), which is known only from later quotations, deserves our attention. Ktesias who lived at the Persian court has left a description of wrongly understood falconry that may relate to the Indus valley, an area that knew influence from Eurasian nomads in the period in question. Thus, possibly, Ktesias might have been referring to falconry by Eurasian nomads.

Owing to the mentioned testimonies, the falconry of the Eurasian nomads can be considered as being particularly old and widespread (see above) and, via the nomads, this hunting type spread in the first centuries CE to the South-east (China and, finally, Korea and Japan), the South-west (Ara-bia) and the West (Europe, North Africa). In these areas, falconry lay in the hands of an upper class that employed professional falconers to take care of the birds. However, the nick-name ‘kitchen bird’ for goshawks in Europe indicates that falconry did contribute to the menu card and, possibly, that a larger part of society hunted with these birds.

With a high degree of probability, though with only little evidence so far, Persian falconry also belongs to the mentioned period of time, being at least 1500 years old. Thus, early falconry in central and western Europe was almost contemporary (see above), whereas the one in northern and eastern Europe came into being only later.

In contrast, there is no strong evidence that falconry had its place among ancient, urbanized, advanced civilizations in Mesopotamia (Syria, Iraq) or Turkey (Hittite Empire), covering the period from the 3rd to the 1st millennium BCE. It is likewise questionable that Indian falconry has a high age (wilHelm 1987; krottentHaler 1996, 117–119), whereas we can be certain that ancient Greece and Rome (Konstantinople), at the very core of the Empires, had no knowledge of falconry. This also relates to North and Meso-America in the period before the discovery of the ‘New World’.

The presented sketch for early falconry history will have to stand further examination. Falconry could be older or have been invented more than once without any proper proof so far. To trace falconry terms back to a supposed area of its origin, on linguistic grounds, has proven mostly impos-sible. However, it has to be kept in mind that a cultural import like falconry would not necessarily be recognizable in the language. In fact, the Arabian language shows the strong impact of Persian with regards to falconry and raptor terms; something similar, to some extent, is also given for the influ-ence of the Turkic languages (including speakers from among the Eurasian nomads) on east Slavonic.

falconry treatises: frederick ii and Beyond (cHapters 3, 6, 11–12)

Apart from central Asia, treatises on falconry, initially mostly focused on bird medicine, are known from the main areas of historical falconry: Europe, Arabia, Persia, east Asia and, to some extent, India. The oldest preserved texts, from the late 1st millennium CE originate from Arabia, as it seems. Among all manuscripts, the one from Frederick II is a contribution in its own right, even though it suffered a regrettable fate, inasmuch as chapters remained unrealised or were lost and it was soon forgotten without having been given proper credit. It is telling that it had next to no influence on younger falconry treatises. Owing to the exactness of the observations and the conclusions based thereon, Frederick’s book is a milestone in early scientific thinking and at the same time is the first ornithological book ever.

symBolism of falconry in images and literature (cHapters 3, 9–12)

Falconry was never just hunting. The peculiar bond between bird and human was always a matter of charged multilayered symbolism. This is reflected in the works of respected artists, such as Shake-speare and Rembrandt. It is tempting to consider the changes that have taken place over time as regards the way in which falconry was viewed. Simply put, during the period of Frederick II only the patient ruler (mirrored as patient falconer) was considered a good ruler. In later periods, however, falconry became associated with the youth of the successors to the throne, whereas in later years, e.g. when in political power, the king (emperor) was depicted with a sword. Falconry of courtly women is attested not least by seal depictions. A prominent case is Mary of Burgundy from the second half of the 15th century, who is known to have been a passionate hunter (cf. older European burials of women furnished with birds of prey: ludowici and vretemark in this book). Courtly love was also linked to falconry: the raptor on the fist symbolizes the loved one that is longed for. For the future, it would be highly desirable to compare motif cycles in performing arts and literature with one an-other in order to realize changes in motifs over time, including negative associations of falconry as being profuse/pompous. The 16th and 17th centuries deserve particular attention as being the climax of European falconry, expressed – inter alia – by heron hunting, consisting of spectacular air battles between heron and falcons.

Bird-catcHing, Bird trade and falconry in a premodern, proto-gloBalised world (cHapters 8–12).

“The art of hunting with birds” has crossed countries and continents: falconry has been adopted, possibly transmitted by Eurasian nomads, in an area spanning from western Europe and north Africa to eastern Asia. A climax of early globalism is marked by Frederick II, who gathered falconry experts from different continents at his court, had falconry literature translated from Arabic to Latin and imported the hood from Arabia to Europe. Apart from that, bird-catching and the trade of the much-sought-after gyrfalcons from Norway, Iceland and Greenland show an even earlier global net-work of actors in different European countries (early post 1000s) but, notably, traded birds reached far beyond Europe. In fact, raptor trade may have been yet older in Europe, dating back to a network of coastal emporia established in the 7th/8th centuries. In the present book, bird catching and bird trade have been considered mostly as a European phenomenon; a wider study would be both desir-able and profitable; this also relates to other aspects in the book.

final remarks

The main weakness of the present book, despite its oversize, lies in its incompleteness since worthy topics or entire regions remain unconsidered or hardly appreciated. Surprises are waiting for us, be it, for example, older studies in diverse languages, which are in need of translation into English or be it archaeological investigations. In this respect, 40 burials from central Sweden deserve particular attention. These burials testify to the practice of falconry by an upper class in the period from the (late) 6th to 10th century CE. Among the deceased there are high ranking members of warrior retinues, but women of an upper class are also involved (vretemark in this book). The Polish Sokolniki farm names are of interest too; by their very name they seem to indicate an entire network of falconer villages, established by the Polish kingdom early in the post 1000s. Place and family names are a valuable resource that has hardly been used in the book (see udolpH and others, in this book).

The present, considerably extended publication goes back, at its core, to a workshop hold by the Centre for Baltic and Scandinavian Archaeology (ZBSA) in Schleswig, northern Germany, in March 2014. Almost exactly four years later a follow-up conference was held in March 2018 at New York University Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates. In this context, falconry and raptor depictions were analysed throughout the millennia on a global scale, framed by considerations of the history of religion, social history, raptor biology and actual falconry. Thus, another book is to follow. It is to be hoped that research into falconry history can go on in a sustainable, coordinated way by a network of both falconers and scientists. A lot of work remains to be done.

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