TATTOOSINTRODUCTIONA tattoo is a mark made by inserting pigment into the skin for decorative or other reasons. Tattoos on humans are a type of decorative body modification, while tattoos on animals are most commonly used for identification or branding. Tattooing has been practiced worldwide. The Ainu, the indigenous people of Japan, wore facial tattoos, as do some Maori of New Zealand to this day. Tattooing was widespread among Polynesian peoples and among certain tribal groups in the Philippines, Borneo, Mentawai Islands, Africa, North America, South America, Mesoamerica, Europe, Japan, Cambodia, New Zealand and China. Despite some taboos surrounding tattooing, the art continues to be popular in many parts of the world.

ETYMOLOGY

A Maori Chief with tattoos ( moko ) seen by Cook and his crew. The word "tattoo" is a borrowing of the Samoan word tatau, meaning to mark or strike twice (the latter referring to traditional methods of applying the designs.

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The first syllable "ta", meaning "hand", is repeated twice as an onomatopoeic reference to the repetitive nature of the action, and the final syllable "U" translates to "color".The instrument used to pierce the skin in Polynesian tattooing is called a hahau, the syllable "ha" meaning to "strike or pierce". The OED gives the etymology of tattoo as "In 18th c. tattaow, tattow. From Polynesian (Tahitian, Samoan, Tongan, etc.) tatau. In Marquesan, tatu." The first closest known usage of the word in English was recorded in the diary of Captain James Cook in 1769 during his voyage to the Marquesas Islands. The text reads, ...they print signs on peoples body and call this tattaw, are referring to the Polynesian customs. Sailors on the voyage later introduced both the word and reintroduced the concept of tattooing to Europe. In Japanese the most common word used for traditional designs or those that are applied using traditional methods is irezumi ("insertion of ink"), while "tattoo" is used for non-Japanese designs. Tattoo enthusiasts may refer to tattoos as "tats," "ink," "art," or "work," and to tattooists as "artists." The latter usage is gaining greater support, with mainstream art galleries holding exhibitions of both traditional and custom tattoo designs. Copyrighted tattoo designs that are mass-produced and sold to tattoo artists are known as flash, a notable instance of industrial design. Flash sheets are prominently displayed in many tattoo parlors for the purpose of providing both inspiration and ready-made tattoo images to customers.

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HISTORY

The famous Iceman". A 5,200-year-old frozen mummy. The history of tattoos goes back to the times when the Egyptians were constructing the great pyramids. When they expanded their empire, this art spread too to the civilizations of Crete, Greece, Persia, and Arabia, and finally in 2000 BC it spread to China as well. However, it is argued that this art has been in existence since 12,000 BC. Tattooing has been a Eurasian practice at least since Neolithic times. tzi the Iceman, dating from the fourth to fifth millennium BCE, was found in the tz valley in the Alps and had approximately 57 carbon tattoos consisting of simple dots and lines on his lower spine, behind his left knee, and on his right ankle.

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Other mummies bearing tattoos and dating from the end of the second millennium BCE have been discovered at Pazyryk on the Ukok Plateau. Tattooing in Japan is thought to go back to the Paleolithic era, some ten thousand years ago. Various other cultures have had their own tattoo traditions, ranging from rubbing cuts and other wounds with ashes, to hand-pricking the skin to insert dyes. Tattoos have been in existence for centuries, though each culture has used it differently for different purposes and in varied styles. Some used them as ornaments, others for religious icons and yet others for personal reasons. The history of tattoos can be traced back to BC times when tattoos meant a sign of power and were reserved for religious figures in their community. Until 787 AD, Christians used tattoos as symbols of acknowledgment, after which the church banned them. Historical records prove that tattoos have held an important place in different societies in ritual and tradition. In Borneo, women marked their forearms with a tattoo to show they were skilled in a particular area, such as weaving so that her status in the marriage market was heightened. The Kayan women of Borneo were tattooists who created designs relevant to ones position in society. They had delicate arm tattoos resembling lacy gloves. If worn around the wrist and fingers, tattoos played the role of warding off illness. They have also signified membership to a society or clan. The Greeks used it to communicate among spies. By showing their tattoo they could identify their rank. But the Romans used them to mark criminals and slaves. To the Ainus of western Asia, tattoos showed social status. When a girl reached puberty, she was immediately marked to show her status in society. The Ainus introduced this art to the Japanese where it took a religious position in society.

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Since about 400 BC, the Japanese have been tattooing for ornamental purposes. They also used it to mark criminals with for easy identification. Much later, in the 1800s, European society took to it and turned it around as an icon of fashion. In few groups or religions, tattoo is an integral part of their religion and each person following the religion is required to have that tattoo mark on their body symbolizing the person authority as a group member. Even modern day gangs are seen to have a particular mark on their shoulders signifying their group name. Toady, tattooing is popular and is accepted as a fad, giving tattooists the status of a fine artist. Tattooists now combine their personal style with unique designs and spread the beauty of tattoos across cultures and international borders. New inks and technology have made it all the more pleasurable to create tattoos for spirited people.

IN I NDIAAlthough India is one of the ten most industrialized counties in the world, generating world wide desired scientists in nuclear energy, space flight and information technologies, the south Asian country belongs to the few cultures in the world who kept their traditional rituals until today. The reason for this is sort if a paradox. India is one of the in most the populated countries

world. Experts estimate it over a billion which is about 16 percent of the world population, but economically one of the weakest. Three

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quarters of the population lives in the countryside. The people there hold more on to the traditional culture than civilizing advancements which are only carried on in the few congested areas. Therefore the traditional culture is the only luxury they possess. The Indian culture is penetrated by clerical symbolism. Colors, numbers and designed or from nature adapted shapes are used for cultural coherence same as for banal symbols. Scientists have observed the higher caste the social position of the women the smaller and canny are the designs. As worshipers of Vishnu and Shiva, the two big Hindu divinities, or follower of a teaching which places the principle of the female energy above everything, Indians wear a tattooed or sometimes burned in point on their forehead, the only place on the body not bedraggled by any excrement, which coloration shows the wearers affiliation to the different religious communities. The point called Bindi stands for the "Third Eye", the connection between the earthly live and the divine beyond. The wearer of this mark is hoping for the blessing of the god worshiped by him. A big part in India is also played by the painting of the face. The eyes of babies are bordered with grime by their mothers to protect them from the "Evil Gaze". In many places women dye their apex red to show they are married. And let's not forget about the complex and mythical Henna decorations on Indian brides. Their faces contain a make up made from black and red color and also the palms of the hands and the sole of the feet is painted. Also applied with Henna are complex patterns, the so called Mehndi, on the back of the hands and feet. This temporary skin decoration has found many admirers with the body art boom in the western civilization whereas in India little attention is given to the symbolic powers of the colors orange, yellow or ocher. The Indian assigns colors to certain numbers, sounds, melodies and moods. Red is the color of blood and fire and represents warmth, energy, mental and bodily activity and vitality. Blue is connected with the mythical hero Rama, spirituality and erotic. To most Indian the body is not strong, healthy and beautiful until it is painted because the unpainted body is defenseless against diseases. 6

Even Indian divinities carried tattoos. According to the legend Vishnu drew a tattoo on the hand of his wife Laskhmi for protection. Tattoos were mostly more of a female matter anyway and sometimes it was even a disgrace for a girl not to be tattooed. In central India the mothers of the groups of the Muria and Maria applied extensive tattoos on their daughters during puberty using sharp iron needles and black charcoal dust. And very often traditional patterns also decorated the faces of young girls. On the North West coast women also beautified their faces, neck, chest, arms, hands and legs with tattooed patterns. Before the ornaments, which also showed a sign of wealth, were punctuated into the skin they were drawn onto the skin with touche. This touche was extracted from petroleum grime that was mixed with a decoction from the kino tree which contained a tanning agent and milk or urine. The tattooing process was very painful but was bravely sustained by girls and women. In country sides of northern India and Nepal suchlike body decorations are kept up together with the traditional coherency although it is not naturally for every family to have their children tattooed. In the Indian cities on the other hand this traditional patterns, counted points, lines, moon like shapes, blossoms, leave and twine patterns in the face, are considered old fashioned. At the same time in modern and western influenced commercial studios tattoos like wristwatches, airplanes or radios have become very popular with men. Religious and mythical images are no priority for young Indians and faith also doesn't matter anymore.

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PURPOSE

Tattooing is a tradition amongst indigenous peoples around the world and its purpose is as follows:

DECORATIVE AND SPIRITUAL USESTattoos have served as rites of passage, marks of status and rank, symbols of religious and spiritual devotion, decorations for bravery, sexual lures and marks of fertility, pledges of love, punishment, amulets and talismans, protection, and as the marks of outcasts, slaves and convicts. The symbolism and impact of tattoos varies in different places and cultures, sometimes with unintended consequences. Also, tattoos show how a person feels about another person, or how they feel about a relative, preferably mother/father or daughter/son. Some Mori still choose to wear intricate moko on their faces. In Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand, the yantra tattoo is used for protection against evil and increase luck. A memorial tattoo of a deceased loved one's initials.

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IDENTIFICATIONPeople have also been forcibly tattooed for various reasons. The best known example is the ka-tzetnik identification system for Jews in part of the concentration camps during the Holocaust. However tattoos can be linked with identification in more positive ways. For example, in the period of early contact between Mori and Europeans, Mori chiefs sometimes drew their moko (facial tattoo) on documents in place of a signature. Even today, tattoos are sometimes used by forensic pathologists to help them identify burned, putrefied, or mutilated bodies. Tattoo pigment is buried deep enough in the skin that even severe burns will often not destroy a tattoo. Because of this, many members of today's military will have their identification tags tattooed onto their ribs; these are known as "meat tags". Tattoos are also placed on animals, though very rarely for decorative reasons. Pets, show animals, thoroughbred horses and livestock are sometimes tattooed with identification and other marks. Pet dogs and cats are often tattooed with a serial number (usually in the ear, or on the inner thigh) via which their owners can be identified. Also, animals are occasionally tattooed to prevent sunburn (on the nose, for example). Such tattoos are often performed by a veterinarian and in most cases the animals are anesthetized during the process. Branding is used for similar reasons and is often performed without anesthesia, but is different from tattooing as no ink or dye is inserted during the process.

COSMETICWhen used as a form of cosmetics, tattooing includes permanent makeup, and hiding or neutralizing skin discolorations. Permanent makeup are tattoos that enhance eyebrows, lips (liner and/or lipstick), eyes (liner), and even moles, usually with natural colors as the designs are intended to resemble makeup.

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PREVALENCETattoos have experienced a resurgence in popularity in many parts of the world, particularly in North America, Japan, and Europe. The growth in tattoo culture has seen an influx of new artists into the industry, many of whom have technical and fine art training. Coupled with advancements in tattoo pigments and the on going refinement of the equipment used for tattooing, this has led to an improvement in the quality of tattoos being produced.

Lower back tattoos are more common among young women. In many traditional cultures tattooing has also enjoyed a resurgence, partially in deference to cultural heritage. Historically, a decline in traditional tribal tattooing in Europe occurred with the spread of Christianity. A decline often occurred in other cultures following European efforts to convert aboriginal and indigenous people to Western religious and cultural practices that held tattooing to be a "pagan" or "heathen" activity. Within some traditional indigenous cultures, tattooing takes place within the context of a rite of passage between adolescence and adulthood. A poll conducted online in July 2003 estimated that 16% of all adults in the United States have at least one tattoo. The highest incidence of tattoos was found among the gay, lesbian and bisexual population (31%) and among Americans ages 25 to 29 years (36%) and 30 to 39 years (28%). Regionally, people living in the West (20%) were more likely to have tattoos. Democrats were more likely to

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have

tattoos

(18%)

than

Republicans

(14%)

and

Independents

(12%);

approximately equal percentages of males (16%) and females (15%) have tattoos.

NEGATIVE ASSOCIATIONSConspicuous tattoos and other body modification can make gainful employment difficult in many fields In Japan, tatoos are strongly associated with the Yakuza, particularly full body tatoos done the traditional Japanese way ("irezumi"). Certain public Japanese bathhouses (sent) and gymnasiums often openly ban those bearing large or graphic tattoos in an attempt to prevent Yakuza from entering. Small tatoos are gradually becoming more common amongst young people. In the United States many prisoners and criminal gangs use distinctive tattoos to indicate facts about their criminal behavior, prison sentences, and organizational affiliation."Tear tattoos," for example, can be symbolic of murder, with each tear representing a death of a friend. Insofar as this cultural or subculture use of tattoos predates the widespread popularity of tattoos in the general population, tattoos are still associated with criminality. At the same time, members of the U.S. military have an equally well established and longstanding history of tattooing to indicate military units, battles, etc., an association which remains widespread among older Americans. Tattooing is also common in the British Armed Forces. The relatively new prevalence of women in the tattoo industry itself, along with larger numbers of women wearing tattoos, has somewhat changed these perceptions.

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MECHANISM

Tattooing involves the placement of pigment into the skin's dermis, the layer of connective tissue underlying the epidermis. After initial injection, pigment is dispersed throughout a homogenized damaged layer down through the epidermis and upper dermis, in both of which the presence of foreign material activates the immune system's phagocytes to engulf the pigment particles. As healing proceeds, the damaged epidermis flakes away (eliminating surface pigment) while deeper in the skin granulation tissue forms, which is later converted to connective tissue by collagen growth. This mends the upper dermis, where pigment remains trapped within fibroblasts, ultimately concentrating in a layer just below the dermis/epidermis boundary. Its presence there is very stable, but in the long term (decades) the pigment tends to migrate deeper into the dermis, accounting for the degraded detail of old tattoos.

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TATTOO MACHINEA tattoo machine is a hand-held device generally used to create a tattoo, a

permanent marking of the skin with ink. Modern tattoo machines use alternating electromagnetic coils to move a needle bar up and down, driving pigment into the skin. Tattoo artists generally use the word "machine", or even "iron", to refer to their equipment, while amateurs and collectors often use the term "gun". Tattoo machines are those machines which are used for creating or designing a tattoo. Tattoo machine is a gun shaped machine that marks skin with ink. With the help of electromagnetic coils the needle bar of the tattoo machine moves up and down in alternation, which drives the pigment or the ink into the skin. In Europe, the tattoo machines are called as tattoo guns but Americans usually call it tattoo machine. The use of the term "tattoo gun" does not go favorably with the tattoo artists in America. Anyone using the term tattoo gun is looked down upon.

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U.S. Patent 196,747 , Stencil-Pens The tattoo machine was invented by Thomas Edison and patented in the United States in the year 1876. It is interesting to note that the machine was patented as an autographic printer and it was only in 1891 that Samuel O'Reilly realized that Edison's invention could be tailored to introduce ink into skin, and patented the tube and needle system. This is the same old system which we use today. The tattoo machines are designed to control the needle depth to almost any degree. It is because of this control, tattooing has become a very accurate art form

THE FIRST TATTOO MACHINE14

The basic machine was invented by Thomas Edison and patented in the United States in 1876 U.S. Patent 196,747 , Stencil-Pens. It was originally intended to be used as an engraving device, but in 1891, Samuel O'Reilly discovered that Edison's machine could be modified and used to introduce ink into the skin, and later patented a tube and needle system to provide an ink reservoir.

The technology used to make modern tattoo machines has come a long way, however. While O'Reilly's machine was based on the rotary technology of Edison's engraving device, modern tattoo machines use electromagnets. The first machine based on this technology was a single coil machine patented by Thomas Riley of London, just twenty days after O'Reilly filed the patent for his rotary machine. For his machine, Riley placed a modified door bell assembly in a brass box. The modern two coil configuration was patented by Alfred Charles South, also of London. Because it was so heavy, a spring was often attached to the top of the machine and the ceiling to take most of the weight off the operator's 15

hand.Most modern tattoo machines can control needle depth, speed, and force of application, which has allowed tattooing to become a very precise art form. Such advancements in precision have also produced a style of facial tattooing that has attained mainstream popularity in America called dermapigmentation or "permanent cosmetics".

MODERN TATTOO MACHINE

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The tattoo machine is really a basic doorbell circuit. It's a DC coil and spring point(s) machine. Both doorbell and tattoo machine were invented before household current was available. It is essentially in 3 sections: The base, the mechanism, and the sanitary tube. The base really is the bulk of the metal; a rabbit ear with a screw in it, bent at 90 degrees to hold coils. In the front there's a round hole to hold the sanitary tube.

Some people think the base looks like the handle of a gun. The base houses the mechanism, which consists of two coils of wire wrapped around an iron core. At the top of the mechanism is a set of silver contact "points", one usually on a spring mechanism, the other either the end, or on the end of a screw.

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The spring connects to the base and a bar, which is connected to the needle arm (90 degrees offset). The needle arm is connected to the needles (which are soldered onto the bar), and moves up and down inside the sanitary tube. The coils connect to a DC power supply (between 6 12 VDC), via a spring coiled U-cable. The U-cable is called a "clip cord," designed to move easily between machines but also stay in place and not fall out and spark all over the place. The springs hold the cable in/onto the machine. One side of the coils is connected to the power supply, the other end to the point on the screw on the bunny ear, which is insulated from the base. Through the points, the current flows via the coils and the base of the machine. This causes the coils to become electromagnetic. The electro-magnet pulls down the bar, which does two things: pulls down the needles, and opens the points. The points being open turn off the magnet. The spring assembly brings back the bar, which causes the needles to move up and make contact with the points. This causes the whole cycle to happen again making the needles go up and down. Most machines have a large capacitor across the coils/points, which keep the points from arcing and pitting, and wearing out so quickly. A capacitor is a device that holds energy like a battery, but charges and discharges much faster (parts of a second rather than 3 or 4 hours). The capacitor charges while the points are open, so when they close, the difference in voltage across them is nil. The points are really an automatic switch controlled by the spring to turn the thing off and on quickly. In old cars where there were points there was a condenser for the same reason. The sanitary tube sucks up the ink in capillary fashion, and the needles load up as long as there's ink in the small portion of the tube. Its called "sanitary" because of the cutout at the bottom of the tube, which can be rinsed out.

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There are three layers of skin: Scaly layer, epidermis, and dermis. Tattoo machines are adjusted to penetrate into the dermis layer but not through it. When the needles go into the sanitary tube they have a layer of ink on and between them. The needles make little holes in the skin, and the ink is deposited into the holes. This is why the skin has to be stretched so blobs of ink don't stay. Otherwise, the skin will latch onto the needles, grab the ink from them and generally make a mess. Ink just put into the scaly layer would be replaced quickly and fade away. While ink into the epidermis will stay, the dermis makes for more ink and perhaps a more vivid image. Machines are really of two types: Liners, and shaders. They are exactly the same, but are set up differently. The gap for a liner is around the thickness of a dime, and a shader is the thickness of a nickel. Liner needles are usually arranged on the bar in a circular pattern. Shader needles are usually straight (like a comb), although Spaulding & Rogers sells a 15-needle round shader. The needles are small sewing machine needles, usually made of stainless steel. Liners are in 1, 3, 4, 5, & 7-needle combinations, set in a round configuration. Shader needles are in a straight row and usually are in groups of 4, 6, 7, 9 needles. The sanitary tubes are designed especially for the combination of needles, so there's a special tube for each different number of needles in a needle bar assembly. O is a needle. It is a cut down needle (shorter & no point) Liners:

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Single needle o o

3-needle oo o oo oo

5-needle

Shaders: 6-needle oooooo

4-needle oooo

8-needle shaders are grouped so that 7 needles form a circle with 1 in the middle. There are also 14-needle shaders. 8-needle Magnums: o oo ooo oo o Shaders are mounted on flat needle bars while liners are mounted on round bars. 5-needle oo ooo 7-needle ooo oooo

TATTOO INKS

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Modern tattooing inks are carbon based pigments that have uses outside of commercial tattoo applications. Although the United States Food and Drug Administration technically require premarket approval of pigments it has not actually approved the use of any ink or pigments for tattooing. As of 2004 the FDA does perform studies to determine if the contents are possibly dangerous, and follow up with legal action if they find them to have disallowed contents, including traces of heavy metals (such as iron oxide) or other carcinogenic materials. The first known study to characterize the composition of these pigments was started in 2005 at Northern Arizona University by Finley-Jones and Wagn. The FDA expects local authorities to legislate and test tattoo pigments and inks made for the use of permanent cosmetics. In California, the state prohibits certain ingredients and pursues companies who fail to notify the consumer of the contents of tattoo pigments. Recently, the state of California sued nine pigment and ink manufacturers, requiring them to more adequately label their products.

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS plastic) ground down to an average diameter of slightly less than 1 micrometer is used as the colorant in the brighter

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tattoo pigments. The tattoo pigments that use ABS result in very vivid tattoos. Many popular brands of tattoo pigment contain ABS as a colorant. ABS colorants produce extremely vivid tattoos that are less likely to fade or blur than the traditional pigments, but ABS tattoo pigment is also harder to remove because it is so much less reactive to lasers. There has been concern expressed about the interaction between magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) procedures and tattoo pigments, some of which contain trace metals. Allegedly, the magnetic fields produced by MRI machines could interact with these metal particles, potentially causing burns or distortions in the image. For the most part the same pigment base which is used in cosmetics is the same base for modern tattooing pigments. People attempting to tattoo themselves or others with "Homemade equipment will often use an office supply drawing ink such as Higgins, Pelikan or India ink brands. These are not tattoo pigments and these inks often contain impurities and toxins which may lead to illness or infection.

THE LIQUID PART OF TATTOO INK22

Tattoo ink consists of pigment and a carrier. The carrier may be a single substance or a mixture. The purpose of the carrier is to keep the pigment evenly distributed in a fluid matrix, to inhibit the growth of pathogens, to prevent clumping of pigment, and to aid in application to the skin. Among the safest and most common ingredients used to make the liquid are: Ethyl Alcohol (ethanol) Purified Water Witch Hazel Listerine Propylene Glycol Glycerin (glycerol)

However, many other substances have been and may be used, including: Denatured alcohols (are toxic and can burn the skin) Other alcohols (methyl alcohol or methanol and isopropyl alcohol or rubbing alcohol are commonly used, although they are toxic) Ethylene glycol (antifreeze, which is toxic) Aldehydes, such as formaldehyde and gluteraldehyde (highly toxic) Various surfactants or detergents

There are many other substances that could be found in an ink. A tattooist has the choice of mixing his or her own ink or purchasing what are called predisposed pigments. Many predisposed pigments are as safe as or safer than inks mixed by the tattooist. However, the ingredient list need not be disclosed, so any chemical could be present in the ink. The best advice is to make sure the ink supplier and the particular ink has a long history of safety.

PIGMENT CHEMISTRY

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The oldest pigments came from using ground up minerals and carbon black. Today's pigments include the original mineral pigments, modern industrial organic pigments, a few vegetable-based pigments, and some plastic-based pigments. Allergic reactions, scarring, phototoxic reactions (i.e., reaction from exposure to light, especially sunlight), and other adverse effects are possible with many pigments. The plastic-based pigments are very intensely colored, but many people have reported reactions to them. There are also pigments that glow in the dark or in response to black (ultraviolet) light. These pigments are notoriously risky -some may be safe, but others are radioactive or otherwise toxic.

COMPOSITION OF TATTOO PIGMENTSColour Materials Observation

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BLACK Iron Oxide (Fe 3 O 4 ) Iron Oxide (FeO) Carbon Logwood Natural black pigment is made from magnetite crystals, powdered jet, wustite, bone black, and amorphous carbon from combustion (soot). Black pigment is commonly made into India ink. Logwood is a heartwood extract from Haematoxylon Campechisnum, found in Central America and the West Indies. BROWN Ochre Ochre is composed of iron (ferric) oxides mixed with clay. Raw ochre is yellowish. When dehydrated through heating, ochre changes to a reddish color. RED Cinnabar (HgS) Cadmium Red (CdSe) Iron Oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ) Napthol-AS pigment Iron oxide is also known as common rust. Cinnabar and cadmium pigments are highly toxic. Naphthol reds are synthesized from Naphtha. Fewer reactions have 25

been reported with naphthol red than the other pigments, but all reds carry risks of allergic or other reactions.

ORANGEDisazodiarylide and/or disazopyrazolone Cadmium seleno-sulfide The organics are formed from the condensation of 2 Monoazo pigment molecules. They are large molecules with good thermal stability and colorfastness.

YELLOW Chrome Yellow (PbCrO 4 , often mixed with PBS) Disazodiarylide Curcuma is derived from plants of the ginger family; aka turmeric or curcurmin. Reactions are commonly associated with yellow pigments, in part because more pigment is needed to achieve a bright color. GREEN Chromium Oxide (Cr 2 O 3 ), called Casalis Green or Anadomis Green Malachite [Cu 2 (CO 3 ) (OH) 2 ] Ferro cyanides and Ferricyanides Lead chromate Monoazo pigment 26

Cu/Al phthalocyanine Cu phthalocyanine The greens often include admixtures, such as potassium Ferro cyanide (yellow or red) and ferric Ferro cyanide (Prussian blue)

BLUE Azure Blue Cobalt Blue Cu-phthalocyanine Blue pigments from minerals include copper (II) carbonate (azurite), sodium aluminum silicate (lapis lazuli), calcium copper silicate (Egyptian Blue), other cobalt aluminum oxides and chromium oxides. The safest blues and greens are copper salts, such as copper pthalocyanine. Copper pthalocyanine pigments have FDA approval for use in infant furniture and toys and contact lenses. The copperbased pigments are considerably safer or more stable than cobalt or ultramarine pigments. VIOLET Manganese Violet (manganese ammonium pyrophosphate) Various aluminum salts Quinacridone Dioxazine / carbazole

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Some of the purples, especially the bright magentas, are photo reactive and lose their color after prolonged exposure to light. Dioxazine and carbazole result in the most stable purple pigments.

WHITE Lead White (Lead Carbonate) Titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) Barium Sulfate (BaSO 4 ) Zinc Oxide Some white pigments are derived from anatase or rutile. White pigment may be used alone or to dilute the intensity of other pigments. Titanium oxides are one of the least reactive white pigments.

HEALTH RISK OF TATTOO INK

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Even if you have quality pigments and use the recommended carriers to mix the ink, there are other, less obvious potential health hazards associated with tattoo inks: Alcohol makes skin more permeable. This means that when alcohol is used in the ink or to disinfect the skin's surface, it allows more chemicals to cross into the bloodstream than ordinarily would. Another interesting factoid concerning alcohol is that it is known as a 'promoter'. In biomedical parlance, this means alcohol works synergistically with mutagens, teratogens, and carcinogens to make them more likely to cause harm than they would by themselves. If any hazardous substances are present in the ink, alcohol helps them into the body and then increases the chance that they may cause mutation or disease, not just at the site of the tattoo, but throughout the body. Medical-grade chemicals are intended for medical uses, so any impurities within them should be relatively safe. However, the trace amounts of contaminants in high purity chemicals from a chemical supply house may be extremely toxic substances. The person who mixes the ink needs to understand proper sterilization techniques. This includes knowing how to perform heat-sterilization and cold-sterilization and understanding the sterilization needs of different materials. Dry or mixed pigments should never be heat sterilized, since the heat can cause chemical changes in the pigment molecules, sometimes producing toxic substances.

OTHER TATTOO INKS

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GLOW IN THE DARK INK Both blacklight and glow in the dark inks have been used for tattooing. Glow in the dark ink absorbs and retains light, and then glows in darkened conditions; blacklight ink does not glow in the dark, but reacts with UV light producing a glow.

The safety of such inks for use on humans is widely debated in the tattoo community, and the results are variable.The ingredients in Crazy Chameleon Blacklight ink (one brand of blacklight ink) are listed as: (PMMA) Polymethylmethacrylate 97.5% and microspheres of fluorescent dye 2.5% suspended in UV sterilized, distilled water.

PROCEDURE30

Modern tattoo machine in use: H ere outfitted with a 5-needle setup. Some tribal cultures traditionally created tattoos by cutting designs into the skin and rubbing the resulting wound with ink, ashes or other agents; some cultures continue this practice, which may be an adjunct to scarification. Some cultures create tattooed marks by hand-tapping the ink into the skin using sharpened sticks or animal bones or, in modern times, needles. Traditional Japanese tattoos (irezumi) are still "hand-poked," that is, the ink is inserted beneath the skin using non-electrical, hand-made and hand held tools with needles of sharpened bamboo or steel.The most common method of tattooing in modern times is the electric tattoo machine, which inserts ink into the skin via a group of needles that are soldered onto a bar, which is attached to an oscillating unit. The unit rapidly and repeatedly drives the needles in and out of the skin, usually 80 to 150 times a second. This modern procedure is ordinarily sanitary. The needles are single-use needles that come packaged individually. The tattoo artist must wash not only his or her hands, but they must also wash the area that will be tattooed. Gloves must be worn at all times and the wound must be wiped frequently with a wet disposable towel of some kind. Prices for this service vary widely globally and locally, depending on the complexity of the tattoo, the skill and expertise of the artist, the attitude of the customer, the costs of running a business, the economics of supply and demand, etc. The time it takes to get a tattoo is in proportion with its size and complexity. A small one of simple design might take fifteen minutes, whereas an elaborate sleeve tattoo or back piece requires multiple sessions of several hours each.

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The modern electric tattoo machine is far removed from the machine invented by Samuel O'Reilly in 1891. O'Reilly's machine was based on the rotary technology of the electric engraving device invented by Thomas Edison. Modern tattoo machines use electromagnetic coils. The first coil machine was patented by Thomas Riley in London, 1891 using a single coil. The first twin coil machine, the predecessor of the modern configuration, was invented by another Englishman, Alfred Charles South of London, in 1899.

TYPES OF PROCEDURESSTICK AND POKE

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A technique often used for home-made tattoos is "stick and poke": The tip of a sewing needle is wrapped in inksoaked thread, leaving only the point protruding, and keeping this simple instrument saturated with ink as the skin is pricked over and over, creating a design. The purpose of the thread is to keep the point of the needle coated in ink, increasing the quantity of ink that penetrates the skin. Inks can be improvised from a number of sources such as coal, ashes or shoe polish, but Higgins "Black Magic" waterproof ink is the brand most commonly cited by collectors of so called "India ink" or "stick and poke" tattoos in the US today. Sometimes called "prison tattoos" these tattoos are also popular with gutterpunks, and others associated with the modern hobo subculture, who frequently tattoos visible parts of their bodies, including their hands and faces.

HOMEMADE TATTOOSHomemade tattoos are usually done with single needles that leave very small dots and hundreds of punctures, each with a steady hand for a clear line. If a part of your skin where the tattoo is being done gets infected during the healing time, it leaves behind blotchy white areas where the ink heals. You will have to have that area touched up later. Once the ink is completely punched into the skin, the tattoo is complete. This means that the ink is now permanently in the dermis layer of the skin, and will stay with you for life. If you want to remove it at some stage, bear in mind that it is about three to four times more expensive than getting a new one done, and very often, this leaves behind some amount of scarring.

NATURAL TATTOOS33

Coal miners could develop characteristic tattoos owing to coal dust getting into wounds. This can also occur with substances like gunpowder. Similarly, a traumatic tattoo occurs when a substance such as asphalt is rubbed into a wound as the result of some kind of accident or trauma. These are particularly difficult to remove as they tend to be spread across several different layers of skin, and scarring or permanent discoloration is almost unavoidable depending on the location. In addition, tattooing of the gingiva from implantation of amalgam particles during dental filling placement and removal is possible and not uncommon. A common example of such accidental tattoos is the result of a deliberate or accidental stabbing with a pencil or pen, leaving graphite or ink beneath the skin.

DYES AND PIGMENTSEarly tattoo inks were obtained directly from nature and were extremely limited in pigment variety. Today, an almost unlimited number of colors and shades of tattoo ink are mass-produced and sold to parlors worldwide. Tattoo artists commonly mix these inks to create their own, unique pigments. A wide range of dyes and pigments can be used in tattoos, from inorganic materials like titanium dioxide and iron oxides to carbon black, azo dyes, and acridine, quinoline, phthalocyanine and naphthol derivates, dyes made from ash, and other mixtures. The current trend for tattoo pigment favors Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS plastic) as seen by the widespread popularity of Intenze, Millennium and other ABS pigmented brands. Iron oxide pigments are used in greater extent in cosmetic tattooing. Many pigments were found to be used in a survey of professional tattooists. Recently, a blacklight-reactive tattoo ink using PMMA microcapsules has surfaced. The technical name is BIOMETRIX System-1000, and is marketed under the name "Chameleon Tattoo Ink".

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THE TECHNIQUE OF TATTOOING AROUND THE WORLD

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Centuries and centuries ago, innovative men of those times realized that if there were any breaks in our skin, they could be made into permanent marks by introducing pigment in those areas. Over the centuries, this has been raised to the level of a fine art in terms of depth, line control and shading. This discovery spread to different cultures that practiced tattooing, each with different methods for pushing pigments into the dermis layer of our skin. Derived from the Tahitian word tattau, the word tattoo means to mark or brand someone. It was first mentioned in 1769 by explorer James Cooks after his expedition to the South Pacific.

Western Tattoo: Here, a tattoo machine is used. This machine, originallypatented in England in the late 1800s, has barely changed much since its early days. The tattooist moves a solid needle through a motor up and down in a metal tube dipped into a cup of ink while feet pedal controls the machines on and off positions. Outlining the pattern calls for just one needle, while groups of needles are arranged into even numbered flat configurations for shading.

Japanese Tattoo: This is a hand based style of tattooing which works withelaborate bamboo handles. These handles have bunches of needles and works as a hand powered tattoo machine. Here, the artist stretches the skin with one hand and dips the brush into black ink with his spread fingers.

Samoan Tattoo: Yet another Pacific culture, the Samoans use wooden handtools for tattooing. A group of assistants help to keep the skin taut as the tattooist uses two toolsa bone-tipped rake and a striking stick. The former is dipped in ink, and struck with the other stick to puncture the skin. This helps get some fantastic geometric shapes. While the artist does the tattooing, drumming and chanting continue.

Ancient Thai Tattoo: This ancient tattoo tool works just like the Westernmachine. The tattoo tradition here is tied to Buddhism and designs are religious

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symbols. It is made with a long brass tube, and a sliding pointed rod running down the centre. The artist dips it in ink, keeping a steady hand against the clients skin while the other pierces the skin like the needle of a sewing machine.

Modern Tattoo: The autographic printer was patented by Thomas Edison in1876. In 1891, Samuel OReilly modified this machine and what resulted was the modern tattoo machine, as we know it today. This is a steel instrument with needles to pierce the skin at the rate of 50-3,000 times a minute. It uses an updown direction to pierce the epidermis and inject ink particles between 0.6 and 2.2 mm, into the dermis. Today, the tattoo machine is an electric, vertical, vibrating instrument which injects ink into the dermis at a depth of 1/64 to 1/16 of an inch. Outlining of the pattern is done with one needle while the details are filled in with the help of five to seven needles in a needle bar. Tattooing clearly has come a long way, and has perfected itself over the ages. Today, it is a respected form of art and wins our admiration for even the smallest piece design we see on cheeks, thighs, arms and navels.

GETTING A TATTOO STEP BY STEPPAPERWORK AND PAYMENTIf you are thinking about getting your first tattoo, but are unfamiliar with the process, the thought might meet you with anticipation. Fear of the unknown, can 37

sometimes hold us back from doing things we really want to do. You might be concerned that it will hurt too much. You might be worried that you wouldn't know if the artist was doing something wrong. The best thing you can do is educate yourself on the process of the tattoo application and that way you will be prepared and know what to expect when you sit in the chair. Once you have decided on your tattoo design and your artist, you will be required to show valid identification for proof of age. You may also be asked for your address and phone number, so your artist can contact you in the future if need be. In most studios, payment must be made before services are rendered. It is up to each studio to decide which methods of payment they accept. Whatever method you pay with, make sure they give you a receipt.

SITTING IN THE CHAIR

After your paperwork is filled out, you will be seated in the tattoo chair. Sometimes this is in an open work area, and sometimes a private room depending on the location of your tattoo. If you are shy and don't want others to watch, you can request a private room, but be sure you have done this in advance. A lot of studios use dentist-style chairs, some use regular table chairs, and some use benches. Your artist will do his or her best to make you comfortable for the tattoo you have chosen.

A CLEAN SHAVE

Now it is time for the preparation. The area of your body you have chosen for your tattoo will be cleaned, usually with rubbing alcohol. Then,

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any hair will be removed from the area by shaving it with a new disposable razor which will be discarded after being used. Even the finest of hairs can get in the way and cause problems, so this is a crucial step, even if you can't see any hairs. Then, the area will be cleaned again to make sure it is smooth and ready for the transfer.

MAKING AND APPLYING THE STENSIL TRANSFERMost studios today use a wonderful machine called a thermal-fax to make their stencils. This saves on literally hours of tracing time by simply inserting your tattoo design into the machine, and it transfers it onto a special thermal paper in seconds. Once your stencil is ready, it's time to create the transfer onto your skin. Some artists will use soap or water to moisten the skin, and some will use stick deodorant. This aids in making the design transfer better and darker onto your skin. When the paper is pulled away from your skin, it will leave you with a purple-ish blue likeness of your future tattoo.

PREPARING THE TATTOO MACHINE EQUIPMENT

AND OTHER

It is at this time that your artist will start preparing their tattoo machine. The inks will be placed in little tiny cups called "ink caps", and the needles and tubes will be removed from their sterile pouches and placed in the 39

machine. Clean, distilled water will be poured into a cup for cleaning the needles during the tattoo process and to change from one color to the next. Some A&D ointment or Vaseline will be placed on a clean surface for your use only.

STARTING THE LINE WORKNow it is time to get down to serious business. A little ointment will be placed over your transfer design for a few reasons. One is that it helps keep the transfer on longer without accidentally rubbing it off, and it also helps the needle to slide along the skin more smoothly, which is certainly going to be more comfortable to you. After the ointment is applied, it is time for the first line. If you're nervous, don't hold your breath. Some people have passed out during a tattoo, and trust me - it wasn't the pain, it was the panic. Take a nice, slow, deep breath and try to relax. The first minute or so will be the roughest. After that, your skin will kind of get used to it and the pain will begin to subside.

SHADING AND COLORING

Once all the line work is done, your artist can breathe a little bit easier knowing that they won't have to worry about the transfer anymore. Now it's time to get creative with a little shading and possibly color. Depending on the size of your tattoo, your artist may switch to a different set of

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needles called magnums which are designed for coloring and shading. They may even switch tattoo machines altogether. The shading and coloring can go along quite quickly, and before you know it you've got a complete tattoo.

THE FINISHED TATTOOYour artist may like a picture of your tattoo for their portfolio. They'll clean it up real good, and sometimes even apply a hot towel to it first. Then they'll take a picture, and this is a good time for you to get a shot, too, if you brought a camera along. Taking a photo after the protective ointment is applied causes a glare, so it is best to do it now. If for any reason you do not want the artist to take a photo, just say so. You are not under obligation to let them.

DRESSING AND BANDAGINGNow that your tattoo is finished and clean, it needs to be treated just like a wound. A protective layer of ointment will be applied to the tattoo to prevent invasion of airborne bacteria that can cause infection. Then a bandage will be applied, and it will be

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taped up to make sure it is secure. It is important that you keep this bandage on for the amount of time your artist instructs.

RECEIVING AFTERCARE INSTRUCTIONS

Your artist will now give you aftercare instructions. These should be given both verbally, and on a piece of paper for you to take home with you. It is important that you listen and follow the instructions you are given. From this point on, it is your responsibility to make sure your tattoo is well taken care of.

WHERE ON THE BODY SHOULD ONE GET A TATTOO?The only places you cannot technically get permanent tattoos are your hair, teeth and nails (even the cornea used to be tattooed years ago for medical purposes). Interestingly, women and men tend to get tattoos in different locations. This, according to sociologist Clinton Sanders, is because men and women get tattoos for different reasons. Men, get them to show others, while women get them for the sake of decorating

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their body--and often place them where they can't normally be seen, so that it doesn't prompt comments about her "reputation." The following is a short list of areas to get inked; HEAD:

The "head" here refers mostly to the area where your hair grows. You'll need to shave the area for the tat to be most visible. If you need to hide your tat, you can grow your hair out. Areas more commonly inked are the sides of the head (above the ears), and above the nape of the neck in the back. There are people who have their entire heads inked. BACK OF NECK:

I've seen some tribal pieces, and tattoos done on the back of the neck. You'll need to keep your hair short or tied up to keep it visible. FACE:

Facial tattoos could fall into the cosmetic or standard categories. Cosmetic would include darkening of eyebrows, eye lining, lip lining, etc.Getting a tattoo on the face is serious business and crosses a portal because people will never look at you the same way.

UPPER CHEST:

One of the standard areas for tattoos for both men and women. Allows lots of flat area in which to get a fairly large piece. One of the areas where you can choose to get symmetrically inked on both sides. RIB CAGE:

Can be rather painful because of all the ribs you work over. However it offers a fairly large area, and can be incorporated into a major back piece, wrapping around toward the front.

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STOMACH/ABDOMEN:

Some people choose not to get work done on their stomachs for a couple of reasons. Area is difficult to work on because there's no solid backing to hold the skin down. It is a sensitive area that may feel uncomfortable. The tattoo may look horrible after your metabolism slows down and you develop a "beer gut."

THIGHS/HIPS:

A popular area for women to get larger pieces. Shows well with a bathing suit but easily concealable in modest shorts. The entire area of skin around your thighs is bigger than your back, so you can get quite a bit of work done. CALVES:

Nice area to get a standard size tattoo. However if you have very hairy legs, it may cut down on the visibility.

ANKELS:

You can either get a spot piece on the inner or outer ankle, or get something that goes around in a band.

FEET:

I've seen some incredible footwork. Probably don't have as much wear and tear as hands so you might get less blurring and color loss. This however, is the top of your feet. You will have trouble retaining a tattoo on the bottom of your feet. ARMPITS:

Usually reserved for those who want to get full coverage around the arm and chest area, & need the armpits filled. Probably not strongly recommended for the highly ticklish.

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UPPER ARMS:

It is one of the most common areas for men. If you decide to get a piece done on your upper arm, consider how much sun it's going to get. If you want some serious work done and you want to show it off, you may want to consider getting a "half sleeve". INNER ARMS:

A more unusual location than the outer upper arm area, this area is often not easily visible. FOREARMS:

Popeye sported his anchor on his forearm. You can have your upper arm "sleeve" extend down for a full sleeve.

WRISTS:

Janis Joplin had a dainty tattoo on her wrist...easily concealable with a watch.

HANDS (FINGERS AND PALMS):

Some artists don't do hands because the ink will have a tendency to blur or fade easily. Consider that you probably move your hands the most out of your entire body. Some people want to substitute their wedding bands with tattoo bands. Your palm doesn't retain ink well--if you can find an artist who will do it, you can expect it to be a rather basic line, and that it will not last too long.

SHOULDER BLADES:

The back shoulder blade area is another popular spot for women, who can show off the work with a bathing suit or tank top, but cover it up with regular clothes. If this is the case, be particularly careful with sun because you're not going to be wearing that unless it's warm & sunny. It's a "safe" place but may get in the way if you decide to commit yourself to a large back piece.

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BACK:

You can get any part of your back done, or find yourself an artist you really like, and save your money for a "back piece" that encompasses your entire back. Expect to pay several thousand dollars for a full back piece. BUTTOCKS:

Again, beware of potential sagging in the area.

SOME ANSWERS REGARDING TATTOOS HOW DOES WEIGHT GAIN/LOSS AFFECT A TATTOO?Tattoos can definitely be affected by stretch marks. Whether you will or won't get stretch marks is apparently determined genetically, so placement is a consideration if you are planning on getting pregnant. Stretch marks can ruin a tattoo, because it will look more like a blob. If your skin stretches from weight gain and then shrinks back up without losing its elasticity, then I would expect that there wouldn't be much distortion of the 46

tattoo, maybe none at all. Its better you put the tattoo in someplace that won't get stretched so much, like the chest area above the breasts.

HOW DOES LIFTING WEIGHTS AFFECT A TATTOO?For most people, the amount of muscle gain is nowhere near as quick or as dramatic as what you would see with the stretching of skin on a pregnant person. For this reason, you don't really have to worry about your tattoo changing shape when you start lifting weights. I don't know what would happen though, if you decide you want to be the next Mr. Universe and you currently weigh 90 pounds.

WHAT ABOUT ANAESTHETICS?Some people say that taking a couple of over-the-counter anesthetics before tattooing can take the edge off the pain. Acetaminophen, commonly sold under the brand name 'Tylenol' is generally recommended, but not aspirin, ibuprofen, or other NSAIDs, as they tend to inhibit clotting. The drawback of these is that they do not work on unbroken skin, but if they are applied after the first pass with the needle, they can make a tremendous difference.

HOW DOES PREGNANCY AFFECT A TATTOO NEAR THE ABDOMEN?If you are planning on getting pregnant, you should be very cautious about the placement of any tattoo near the abdominal area. Not only will the tattoo stretch during pregnancy--there is no guarantee that the tattoo will go back to its original shape after the birth of your baby.

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Be particularly wary of getting any tattoo where the shape is important, such as with symmetrical tribal pieces, or Celtic knots. Even geometric patterns such as a circle could end up looking like an irregular blob. There are two options you might want to consider: a) Do not get any tattoos around the abdominal area at all, but limit your ink to other parts of your torso; b) Put off getting your abdominal tattoos until after you have had your children.

CAN I GET AIDS FROM TATTOOING?During tattooing there is some concern about AIDS because when you get a tattoo, you bleed. But the mechanism of transmission needs to be better understood. AIDS is transmitted by intimate contact with bodily fluids, blood and semen. Intimate contact means that the fluid carrying the AIDS virus (HIV) enters into your system. Injection drug users (IDUs) use hollow medical syringes and needles to inject drugs directly into their bloodstream. It is common practice to withdraw a little blood back into the syringe to delay the onset of the high. When needles are passed from IDU to IDU and reused without sterilization, some of that blood remains in the syringe and is passed on to the next user. If infected blood is passed, the recipient can become infected with HIV, which leads to AIDS. Tattooing is very different from injecting drugs. The needles used in tattooing are not hollow. They do, however, travel back and forth through a hollow tube that acts as an ink reservoir. The tip of the tube is dipped into the ink, which draws a little into the tube. As the needle withdraws into the tube, it gets coated with ink. When it comes forward, it pierces your skin and deposits the ink. You then bleed a little through the needle hole. This happens several hundred times a second.

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You are only at risk of infection if you come in contact with infected blood. Since it is only your skin that is being pierced during the tattooing process, only your blood is being exposed. This means that the only person at greater risk is the artist, because he is the only one coming in contact with someone else's (potentially infected) blood. This is why reputable tattoo artist wears surgical gloves while working. Another source of infection is through the use of infected tools. This is why it is very important that you make sure your tattoo artist uses sterile equipment. Needles and tubes need to be autoclaved before EACH AND EVERY time they are used. Ink should come from separate cups and not directly from the bottle. Any leftover ink should be disposed of and not reused under any circumstances. The key to HIV transmission is transfer of bodily fluids. A pin prick almost certainly won't do it. HIV is also a very fragile virus that cannot survive long outside the human body, and is very easy to kill via autoclaving. If the tattoo artist maintains sterile conditions and procedures, there is almost no risk of infection.

TATTOO REMOVALWhile tattoos are considered permanent, it is possible to remove them. Complete removal, however, may not be possible. Although many doctors and laser practitioners make the claim that upwards of 95% removal is possible with the newest lasers, especially with black and darker colored inks, and the expense and pain of removing them typically will be greater than the expense and pain of applying them. Some jurisdictions will pay for the voluntary removal of gang tattoos. Gangs will often involuntarily remove gang tattoos, from a person who leaves the gang. Pre-laser tattoo removal methods include dermabrasion, salabrasion and excision which is sometimes still used along with skin grafts for larger tattoos.

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Tattoo removal is most commonly performed using lasers that react with the ink in the tattoo, and break it down. The broken-down ink is then absorbed by the body, mimicking the natural fading that time or sun exposure would create. This technique often requires many repeated visits to remove even a small tattoo, and may result in permanent scarring. The newer Q-switched lasers are said by the National Institute of Health to result in scarring only rarely, however, and are usually used only after a topical anesthetic has been applied. The NIH recognizes five types of tattoo; amateur, professional, cosmetic, medical, and traumatic. Areas with thin skin will be more likely to scar than thicker-skinned areas. There are several types of Q-switched lasers, and each is effective at removing a different range of the color spectrum. This laser effectively removes black, blue, purple and red tattoo pigment. New lasers like the Versapulse & Medlite laser treat these colors & yellow and green ink pigment, typically the hardest colors to remove. Black is the easiest color to remove. Also worth considering is the fact that some of the pigments used (especially Yellow) are known to break down into toxic chemicals in the body when attacked by light. This is especially a concern if these tattoos are exposed to UV light or laser removal; the resulting degradation products end up migrating to the kidneys and liver. Laser removal of traumatic tattoos may similarly be complicated depending on the substance of the pigmenting material. In one reported instance, the use of a laser resulted in the ignition of embedded particles of firework debris. Some wearers opt to cover an unwanted tattoo with a new tattoo. This is commonly known as a cover-up. An artfully done cover-up may render the old tattoo completely invisible, though this will depend largely on the size, style, colors and techniques used on the old tattoo. Some shops and artists use laser removal machines to break down and lighten undesired tattoos to make coverage with a new tattoo easier. Since tattoo ink is translucent, covering up a previous tattoo necessitates darker tones in the new tattoo to effectively hide the older, unwanted piece. 50

METHODS OF TATTOO REMOVALThere are several excellent methods of tattoo removal available today. The method that the physician chooses will depend upon the size of the tattoo and its location as well as the length of time it has been on the skin. How the patient heals may also be a factor in the decision.

EXCISION

Another popular method of tattoo removal especially when the dyed area is small is by excision. The advantage of this method is that the entire tattoo can be removed. With larger tattoos, however, it may be necessary to excise in stages, removing the center of it initially and the sides at a later date. Excision involves an injection of a local anesthetic to numb the area after which the tattoo is

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removed surgically. The edges are then brought together and sutured. With this procedure, there is minimal bleeding which is easily controlled with electrocute. In some cases involving large tattoos, a skin graft taken from another part of the body may be necessary.

Excision

DERMABRASION

Another method of tattoo removal is called dermabrasion in which a small portion of the tattoo is sprayed with a solution that freezes the area. The tattoo is then "sanded" with a rotary abrasive instrument causing the skin to peel. Because some bleeding is likely to occur, a dressing is immediately applied to the area.

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Dermabrasion LASERIn recent times, many physicians consider laser surgery one of the best methods of tattoo removal. Today, the Qswitched Alexandrite and the Qswitched Ruby are among the most frequently used lasers today for the removal of unwanted tattoos. They are all employed in a similar manner. If necessary, a cream to numb the skin can be applied prior to the treatment. Pulses of light from the laser are directed onto the tattoo breaking up the tattoo pigment. Over the next several weeks the body's scavenger cells remove the treated pigmented areas. More then one treatment is usually necessary to remove the entire tattoo.

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SALABRASI ONSalabrasion, a

Salabrasion

procedure which is centuries old, is a method still sometimes used today to remove tattoos. As with the anesthetic used around tattooed after solution ordinary table applied. abrading apparatus with dermabrasion, or such wooden wrapped vigorously abrade the area. When the area becomes deep red in color, a 54 an as even device a block in simpler such as the one used salt which on other is and the area a of tap is An methods, a local

COVER-UP

If you have a tattoo you just dont like, there is an alternative to having it removed and its much less painful and a lot less expensive. Its called a cover-up, and thats exactly what it is. A coverup is simply having an old tattoo covered up with a new tattoo. Many tattoo artists are becoming quite skilled in doing cover-up jobs, and can help you come up with a design that you will be much happier to live with. The price is usually just the price of a regular tattoo, and when done correctly your old tattoo will be completely invisible, reduced to a memory. There are limits to cover-ups. You cant cover something black with something yellow. A

water dipped in

gauze, is used to

very dark tattoo will need to be covered with something dark. Areas with ink on them obviously need to be covered.

DOES TATTOO REMOVAL HURT AND WHAT

CAN ONE EXPECT?The unfortunate thing about tattoos is that both getting them and having them taken off can be uncomfortable. The impact of the energy from the laser's powerful pulse of light has been described as similar to getting hot specks of bacon grease on your skin or being snapped by a thin rubber band. Because black pigment absorbs all laser wavelengths, it's the easiest to remove. Other colors, such as green, selectively absorb laser light and can only be treated by selected lasers based on the pigment color. In preparation for a laser procedure, doctors recommend that non-aspirin products, like Tylenol, be used for minor aches and pains prior to the procedure, because aspirin and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents such as Ibuprofen can produce pronounced bruising after treatment. Further pre-treatment steps might include the application of a prescription anesthetic cream two hours before the laser session. It is wiped off just before laser surgery begins. Then pulses of light from the laser are directed onto the tattoo, breaking up the pigment. Over the next few weeks, the body's scavenger cells remove pigment residues. More than one treatment, which actually only takes minutes, is usually needed to remove an entire tattoo - the number of sessions depends on the amount and type of ink used and how deeply it was injected. Three-week intervals between sessions are required to allow pigment residue to be absorbed by the body. Following treatment, the doctor will apply an antibacterial ointment and dressing to the area, which should be kept clean with continued application of ointment as directed by your doctor. A shower or bath the day after treatment is okay, but the

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treatment area should not be scrubbed. Your skin might feel slightly sunburned for a couple of days and the treated area may remain red for a few weeks. The site might also form a scab, which should be handled gently. After healing, the site will gradually and continually fade. Side effects of laser procedures are generally few but may include

hyperpigmentation, or an abundance of color in the skin at the treatment site, and hypopigmentation, where the treated area lacks normal skin color. Other possible side effects include infection of the site, lack of complete pigment removal and a 5 percent chance of permanent scarring.

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STUDIO HYGIENEThe properly equipped tattoo studio will use biohazard containers for objects that have come into contact with blood or bodily fluids, sharps containers for old needles, and an autoclave for sterilizing tools. Certain jurisdictions also require studios by law to have a sink in the work area supplied with both hot and cold water.

Autoclave sterilization machine Proper hygiene requires a body modification artist to wash his or her hands before starting to prepare a client for the stencil, between clients, and at any other time where cross contamination can occur. The use of single use disposable gloves is also mandatory. In some states and countries it is illegal to tattoo a minor even with parental consent, and it is usually not allowed to tattoo impaired persons, people with contraindicated skin conditions, those who are pregnant or nursing, those incapable of consent due to mental incapacity or those under the influence of alcohol or drugs. Before the tattooing begins the client is asked to approve the position of the applied stencil. After approval is given the artist will open new, sterile needle packages in front of the client, and always use new, sterile or sterile disposable

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instruments and supplies, and fresh ink for each session loaded into disposable ink caps which are discarded after each client. Also, all areas which may be touched with contaminated gloves will be wrapped in clear plastic to prevent cross-contamination. Equipment that cannot be autoclaved such as counter tops, machines, and furniture will be wiped with an approved disinfectant. Membership in professional organizations, or certificates of appreciation

/achievement, generally helps artists to be aware of the latest trends. However, many of the most notable tattooists do not belong to any association. While specific requirements to become a tattooist vary between jurisdictions, many mandate only formal training in bloodborne pathogens, and cross contamination. The local department of health regulates tattoo studios in many jurisdictions. For example, according to the health department in Oregon and Hawaii, tattoo artists in these states are required to take and pass a test ascertaining their knowledge of health and safety precautions, as well as the current state regulations. Performing a tattoo in Oregon state without a proper and current license or in an unlicensed facility is considered a felony offense.

AFTER CARE

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Tattoo artists, and people with tattoos, vary widely in their preferred methods of caring for new tattoos. Some artists recommend keeping a new tattoo wrapped for the first twenty-four hours, while others suggest removing temporary bandaging after two hours or less. Many tattooists advise against allowing too much contact with hot tub or pool water, or soaking in a tub for the first two weeks. This is to prevent the tattoo ink from washing out or fading due to overhydration and avoid infection from exposure to bacteria and chlorine. In contrast, other artists suggest that a new tattoo be bathed in very hot water early and often. General consensus for care advises against removing the scab that forms on a new tattoo, and avoiding exposing one's tattoo to the sun for extended periods; both of these can contribute to fading of the image. Furthermore, it is agreed that a new tattoo needs to be kept clean. Various products may be recommended for application to the skin, ranging from those intended for the treatment of cuts, burns and scrapes, to cocoa butter, lanolin, A&D or Aquaphor. Oil based ointments are almost always recommended to be used in very thin layers due to their inability to evaporate and therefore over-hydrate the already perforated skin. In recent years, specific commercial products have been developed for tattoo aftercare. Although opinions about these products vary, there is near total agreement that either alone or in addition to some other product, soap and warm water work well to keep a tattoo clean and free from infection. Ultimately, the amount of ink that remains in the skin throughout the healing process determines, in large part, how robust the final tattoo will look. If a tattoo becomes infected or if the scab falls off too soon, then the ink will not be properly fixed in the skin and the final image will be negatively affected.

TATTOO AFTER CARE INSTRUCTIONS

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1. Remove bandaid in 18 hrs. 2. Wash tattoo immediately, with soap and water. When washing off the tattoo, there should be old ink & some body Fluids. At this state there is little that can harm the tattoo. 3. When skin feels like normal wet skin, pat dry. 4. From day 4, apply the tiniest amount of lotion possible once a day to keep it from drying out completely; gently work it in. 5. Do not get the tattoo wet; moisture is your enemy. 6. Do not permit sun on tattoo. 7. Scabbing may or may not occur. Scabbing is normal. Do not pick the scab.

HOW TO PROTECT TATTOOS60

PROPERLY CARING FOR YOUR NEW TATTOOyou care for your tattoo during the first few weeks has a lot to do with

The way

whether or not your tattoo fades. Scabbing might pull up some of the pigments. That's why it's so important to continually apply ointments or moisturizers to your tattoo for the first 2 to 4 weeks. If scabs do develop, never pull them off. If you do, you risk pulling out some of the tattoo's pigment. Again, the less pigment there is, the less vibrant the tattoo's color, which gives it the appearance of fading. You've also got to keep your new tattoo clean to prevent it from becoming infected; something else that can cause pigment loss.

PROTECTING

YOUR

TATTOO

FROM

THE

SUN

The sun's powerful ultraviolet rays can eventually break down your skin and cause wrinkles they can also break down the pigments used to color your tattoo. Get into the habit of putting sunscreen on your tattoo every time you go outside, even on cloudy days. You're supposed to do this anyway to help protect your skin against premature aging. So protecting your tattoo is one more good reason why you should develop this healthy habit. Here's another way to look at this: Investing in sunscreen with a minimum SPF (sun protection factor) of 30 is an investment in your tattoo's future. So always apply a Liberal amount to completely cover your tattoo. Remember also to reapply sunscreen often especially after swimming or sweating. If you're always outside and applying sunscreen takes too much effort, you can instead cover your tattoo with clothing or a bandage. No matter which way you choose to protect your tattoo from the sun's damaging rays, just do it! Just like what can happen to your car's paint or the curtains inside

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your home, too much exposure to the sun ultimately causes your tattoo to fade.

USING CERTAIN COLOURSBlacks and blues are the most stable colors so they're the colours most resistant to fading. Colors with red-based pigments such as yellow, orange, magenta and purple are more difficult to maintain and that makes them more prone to fading. Keep this in mind when choosing colours for your tattoo.

DEVELOPING HEALTHY HABITS

As mentioned earlier, tattoo ink should penetrate the middle layer of skin. But natural biological changes are continually taking place within this layer of skin. New skin cells are always being regenerated while the effects of time, the environment and bad habits cause collagen and elating, crucial components that give skin its elasticity, to break down. While you can't stop these changes you can slow them by developing healthier habits. Eating better helps supply your skin with the vitamins, minerals and antioxidants. You can also stop smoking and drinking; two bad habits that irreversibly damage healthy skin cells. Changes in your skin will affect the appearance of your tattoo.

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HEALTH RISK

Modern tattoo artist's latex gloves and sterilized equipment Because it requires breaking the skin barrier, tattooing may carry health risks, including infection and allergic reactions. In the United States, the Red Cross prohibits a person who has received a tattoo from donating blood for 12 months unless the procedure was done in a state-regulated and licensed studio, using sterile technique. Not all states have a licensing program, meaning that people who receive tattoos in those states are subject to the 12-month deferral regardless of the hygienic standards of the studio. Similarly, the UK does not provide certification for tattooists, and so there is a six month waiting period without exception. Modern western tattooers reduce such risks by following universal precautions, working with single-use items, and sterilizing their equipment after each use. Many jurisdictions require that tattooists have bloodborne pathogen training, such as is provided through the Red Cross and OSHA.

INFECTIONSince tattoo instruments come in contact with blood and bodily fluids, diseases may be transmitted if the instruments are used on more than one person without being sterilized. However, infection from tattooing in clean and modern tattoo studios employing single-use needles is rare. In amateur tattoos, such as those applied in prisons, however, there is an elevated risk of infection. To address this 63

problem, a program was introduced in Canada as of the summer of 2005 that provides legal tattooing in prisons, both to reduce health risks and to provide inmates with a marketable skill. Inmates were to be trained to staff and operate the tattoo parlors once six of them opened successfully. Infections that could be transmitted via the use of unsterilized tattoo equipment include surface infections of the skin, herpes simplex virus, tetanus, staph, fungal infections, some forms of hepatitis, and HIV. No person in the United States is reported to have contracted HIV via a commercially-applied tattooing process. Washington States OSHA studies have suggested that since the needles used in tattooing are not hollow, in the case of a needle stick injury the amount of fluids transmitted may be small enough that HIV would be difficult to transmit. Tetanus risk is prevented by having an up-to-date tetanus booster prior to being tattooed. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention states that no data exist in the United States indicating that persons with exposures to tattooing alone are at increased risk for HCV infection. In 2006, the CDC reported 3 clusters with 44 cases of methicillin-resistant staph infection traced to unlicensed tattooists.

ALLERGIC REACTIONPerhaps due to the mechanism whereby the skin's immune system encapsulates pigment particles in fibrous tissue, tattoo inks have been described as "remarkably nonreactive histologically". Allergic reactions to tattoo pigments are uncommon except for certain brands of red and green. People who are sensitive or allergic to certain metals may react to pigments in the skin with swelling and/or itching, and/or oozing of clear fluid called serum. Such reactions are quite rare, however, and some artists will recommend performing a test patch. For those who are allergic to latex, many artists are using non-latex or will use non-latex gloves if asked.There is also a small risk of anaphylactic shock

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(hypersensitive reaction) in those who are susceptible, but the chance of a health risk is small. Due to the fact that laser removal of tattoo ink causes a release of ink into the bloodstream the risk of anaphylactic shock is also present during removal.

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MEANING OF SOME TATTOOSAMEN TATTOOSometimes said at the end of a prayer or as an expression of approval or agreement, the word "amen" appears in both Greek and Hebrew. But in either context, it carries a sense of solemnity, rather than just affirmation. In a very fundamental and yet nonliteral way, it is ultimately an expression of faith. Typically this tattoo is done with a lettering style that expresses something earnest, although it can be simple and cursive or ornate and Gothic.

ANCHOR TATTOOThe anchor is one of a handful of symbols in the tattoo world that has remained both popular and true to its origins. The bearer of the anchor is likely a seafarer of some type of traditionally military (Navy, Marines, or Coast Guard) but sometimes recreational or commercial. In maritime lore, the tattooed anchor showed that a seaman had sailed the Atlantic Ocean. In ancient times among Mediterranean seafarers, the anchor symbolized the sea gods. In early Christianity, the anchor (with horizontal tie bar under the ring) was used as a covert symbol by virtue of its resemblance to a cross. Many times the anchor is combined with other symbols that elaborate something more specificvarious creatures of the sea, ships, life preservers, names of ports. In general, though, it guarantees stability and security in the physical world and, by extension, steadfastness, hope, and trust in the spiritual world.

ANGEL TATTOOAn angel, in virtually any culture or time period, represents benevolent spirituality. Angel tattoos sometimes take the form of innocent or righteous avengers, but most frequently they are illustrated as gentle guardians, guides, and

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personal protectors. The word itself comes from the Greek word for "messenger," and angels are most frequently described as intermediaries between the supernatural world and the world of mankind. In some religions, angels are ranked, categorized by specific characteristics, and even personally named (ARCH ANGEL, ST. MICHAEL). Indeed, much of what angels do, even in tattoo symbolism, centers around their relationship to humans.

ANT TATTOOThe ant is associated with industriousness, both in the East and the West, but an industriousness that can be extreme. While in the West the ant is sometimes seen as selfishly greedy, in Tibetan Buddhism it is excessively attached to the good things of this life. Even a casual observation of this busy insect reveals that, although tiny, it is continuously working and lends itself to symbolize active and diligent engagement in this world, energy, and teamwork.

ARROW TATTOOThe arrow is one of the oldest, simplest, and most common symbols. Like other fundamental symbols, the range of meanings that it can take is very broad and actually tends to be contradictory at times. It has come to be associated with the male sex, lightning, weapons, swiftness, love, intuition, and sudden death. It is a symbol that has also been usurped by numerous disciplines, signaling an exponent in mathematics and a center of gravity in physics. Its appeal is direct in the sense that it can be used alone or in connection with other symbols to construct more complicated meanings. One well-known tattoo symbol PIERCED HEART - is a fine example of this type of usage

BARBWIRE TATTOOBarbwire symbolizes more than just the control of space and land. Because of its use in prison and war camp settings, it also carries a connotation of suffering,

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confinement, and capture. Its popularity in modem tattoo can be directly attributed to its use in armband styles and similarity to tribal styles.

BAR CODE TATTOOBar code when used in tattoo, it is part of a symbolism that simultaneously emphasizes the need for individuality and the human body as a commodity. Its application on skin is ironic, where it presumably cannot be used for scanning purposes (although real information might be encoded in the tattoo), and pokes fun at the way we see ourselves and our bodies.

BAT TATTOOThe bat is an animal that is generally associated with negative symbolism in the West and yet is a symbol of good luck and longevity in the Far East. Among the ancient Maya of Central America the bat was revered as a type of guardian god. Today, in the vast majority of tattoo iconography, the bat is synonymous with the dark side of the supernatural, sometimes represented as a winged demon, sometimes as a blood-sucking vampire. Sometimes simply associated with witches or part of a dark and ominous scene. No doubt that their association comes from its dual nature as a nocturnal, winged mammal, active at night and able to make its way in the dark.

BEAR CLAW TATTOOThe bear claw is a symbol of literal and spiritual power in the cosmology of some indigenous peoples in North America. Sometimes as-sociated with particular clans or organizations, the bear and its footprint symbol are more generally associated with the power of the animal itself and also the summoning of spiritual power from supernatural realms.

BEE TATTOO

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Bees have a very long history in symbolism both as individuals and in terms of the hive. Beekeeping has been documented in Egypt as far back as 2600 B.C.E. and beeswax was even used in mummification. In numerous cultures around the world, bees have taken on quite varied associationsfrom harbingers of death to resuscitators of the dead, from symbols of kingship to bringers of wisdom. In Western styles of tattoo imagery, the bee is a fairly popular insect, sometimes shown by itself but more often in a group. They carry the meanings of being industrious and busy, while working for the group. However, the appearance of a bee on the skin, in reality or in a tattoo, also brings to mind their stinging ability.

BIRD TATTOOIn mythology, symbolism, and tattoo, birds traditionally have mostly positive associations. The flight of birds leads them, naturally, to serve as symbols of the link between heaven and earth and to symbolize spiritual and emotional states. However, each bird, real or mythological, carries its own very specific symbolismthe DOVE (peace), the STORK (newborns), and the CRANE (long life) being just a few examples.

BUDDHA TATTOOBuddha (literally "awakened one") is actually a title given to the founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama. Of all the figures in Buddhism, the Buddha himself might be the most popular in tattoo imagery. Symbolic of all that his life and enlightenment represented, he is frequently portrayed in tattoo much as he is in Buddhist art with a serene and beautiful face, in cross-legged meditative position, and with hands in a meaningful gesture (mudra). The Buddha represents an escape from the grasp of worldly concerns, compassion for all others, and wisdom. He was moved by the suffering of others and devoted his life to teaching ways in which that suffering could be confronted and overcome.

BUTTERFLY TATTOO

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The butterfly is far and away the most-used insect image in all of tattoo. A symbolic creature in many cultures, it sometimes represents beauty itself or metamorphosis and other times the transitory nature of happiness and, indeed, all of life. To the Aztecs, the butterfly symbolized the soul or the breath of life exhaled by the dying. The same is true in classical antiquity, where it was a common belief that the soul left the body in the shape of a butterfly. In Western culture, butterflies are also seen as symbols of freedom. They lend themselves to all manner of colorful and fanciful adaptations in tattoo imagery. Despite their enormous variety with respect to color, shape, and size, their embellishments in tattoo art may well rival those found in nature.

CELTIC CROSS TATTOOThe Celtic Cross, sometimes also known as the Wheel Cross or the Ring Cross, which began to appear during the fifth century. Celtic Cross is a symbol of Christianity today, even though it may have been derived from much earlier pagan wheel symbols for the SUN. Although most commonly used to mark gravestones in Ireland and Scotland, it was once used throughout Scandinavia, where it was erected at sites of violence or accident, as well as in front of farmhouses. It has, unfortunately, been adopted by neo-Nazi.

CHERRY BLOSSOM TATTOOWhile the cherry fruit was a symbol used to represent the samurai warrior caste of shogun-era Japan, it is the blossom of a tree that is quintessentially Japanese and figures prominently in Japanese tattoo art. The brief and beautiful period of flowering and the swift fading and subsequent scattering of petals in the wind symbolize the fragility of human existence and also the perfect death, marked by indifference to the world left behind. Combined with its association with purity, it became the ultimate emblem of bushido, the warrior's code. The ideal samurai, a combination warrior and sometime poet or artist, was ever ready to meet his death, ever appreciative of the fleeting moment.

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CROSS TATTOOThe so-called crossed cross is a symbol of world evangelization. It is essentially four LATIN CROSSES, all touching at their bases, forming a larger cross of equal lengths overall. Here the compass aspect of the cross of equal lengths is exploited, with the small crosses radiating out in the four directions.

CRUCIFIXION TATTOOApart from the individual CRUCIFIX, the crucifixion is an oft-invoked image in Christian tattoo symbolism. From the moment that Christ is first made to carry his cross through the streets of Jerusalem, to the moment of his death between the two thieves, many different tableaux have been captured by artists, including tattooists. Apart from depicting the different significant points of the story, tattoos of the crucifixion are obviously symbols of Christian