Introduction - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/17101/9/09... · 2018-07-09 ·...
Transcript of Introduction - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/17101/9/09... · 2018-07-09 ·...
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Introduction
The need to study rural society occured to me during my visit to village (or
some research purpose. More than 75% of Indian population resides in villages.
From the accounts given in various newspapers. periodicals. books and research
studies, one can gather information about the village life of earlier times. From
these accounts we gather that most of the villages had kuchcha houses and
Kuchcba roads. Most villages did not have approach roads and civic amenities.
like water, sanitation, dispensaries, and schools, leading to an isolated life. In
these villages, social customs and traditions were adhered to very strictly as even
the slightest deviation resulted in ex-communication or other form of social
punishment. Inspite of various hardships faced in the yillage life, the villagers are
appreciated for sustenance of their culture and tradition.
Along with kuccha houses, thatched roofs, simple dhoti clad people loving
their tradition. cattle and bullock carts, I observed signs of change and
advancement. The village had pucca houses, TV, fridge, coolers and loudspeakers at
temples. The milkman had a motorbike with milk cans tied to it. Advertisements of
·uncle chips' and 'Tata Tea' covered walls to mention a few brand names. Men
were wearing pants, shirts, women were wearing salwar-kameez suits without
covering their heads, and children were wearing Jeans, T -Shirts and Skirts. All this
made me wonder about the changes in attitude and the cuYural modernization of "
villages. Villages are supposed to be repositories of our cultural traditions. This
inspired me to make a holistic study about the emergent patterns of
communication and consequent changes in the folk culture· and communication,
social structure and power structure. The changes were mainly due·to alteration in
communication pattern, due to urban-contact. mass media and technological
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innovations. These changes have now made many traditions, customs and
practices redundant or obsolete.
Thus changes in folk society and folk culture due to ramifications of
modernization became the area of my study. To study the emergent patterns of
communication, to understand the decreasing popularity of folk form of recreation,
performances, and , practices, it was important to perceive the changes and
understand people's attitude about their lives and culture. For this it was
necessary to understand modernization of traditional culture and communication
in a village society at present.
Communication functions as a sub-system within larger social system of
village. The outside changes also made an effect on village, as it was no longer
insulated from outer world. Mass media had also made an impact on lives ,and
behaviour of villagers. These all constituted the problem area to be studied in
present study.
For this purpose, I selected a village, Sikhera near Meerut, in Uttar Pradesh. __-::::::= -
It is situated at a distance of about seven kilometers from Meerut city. This was
found ideal to study my problem. In Sikhera 65% of the households have some
members - working outside in city. Sikhera also had all other variables like
mass media-use, close contact with city, a peculiar local 'little tradition' strongly
entrenched within village culture. All these factors, observed during pilot study,
helped me to decide to take Sikhera as my field of study.
In Sikhera Rajputs, Brahmins, Baniyas, Dhimars, Jatavs, Balmikis,Muslims
live together, but Rajputs, (mostly Chauhan Rajputs) were till few years back de-
facto rulers of the village. But now due to implementation of provisions of new
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Panchayati Raj Act 1994, much has changed within its socio-political structure
and culture. Now the village Pradhan is a Balmiki (Bhangi) and most of the village
land, which was lying vacant but was formerly owned by Rajputs, has been given
on lease (patta) to lower castes by the government. Recently conflicts between
upper castes and lower castes have increased which have created problem of law
and order for District Administration. As the village has been made more accessible
· by metalled road to Disrtrict headquarter,· it becomes convenient for officials to
manage the problems easily.
All these factors, have helped me to understand the recent changes in
cultural communication and social structure in modernization perspective, in the
village.
IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY
Communication is an integral process of a society. It preserves and
transmits the culture of society. The defmitions of tradition and communication
are synonymous with each other and also complementary. Tradition means
something which is transmitted from generation to . generation through the
medium of communication. Only the nature of channel has been changing from
generation to generation. Now word of mouth is relpaced by mass media. Thus
communication has played an important role in preserving and communicating
tradition.
With technological innovations, communication became more complex· and
more efficient. It came to be associated with modernization and development
especially in the third world countries. Communication while being a modernizing
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force has been criticized by Frankfurt School for creating 'universal symbols' and
destroying traditional culture and the specific nature of different cultures.
In India, mass media and technological innovations did not 'kill' our
tradition; infact mass media was adapted to keep our tradition thriving (Milton
Singer 1972). The themes and concepts adopted by mass media were much on the
lines of traditional recreational ways and religious themes. Most of the research
studies done on villages show this developmental side and modernization role of
mass media.
Communication is not only concerned with mass media, but it also
subsumes social interactions and ritual, recreational and symbolic
communication (R~mond Williams 1966, Edward T.Hall 1971, Y.Singh
1977,1994, James Carey 1992). The changes in society cause changes in
communication.
Communication broadly subsumes three aspects. Firstly, communication is
preserved through rituals, festivals, customs, day to day practices, folk dialects. folk
songs, other oral traditions, and aesthetic folk culture. Secondly, all these cultural
items and practices communicate about social stratification, economic and
political structure which are all part of "Communication Structure"
(Y,.Singh,77:14). Thirdly, these all overlap to express themselves in the
communication process. Hence 'universalization' or 'parochialisation' is itself a
process of communication between two levels of tradition i.e. 'little tradition' and
'great tradition'.
The study of the social cultural rites like marriage and other Vedic rites are
important to know how communication is integrated with cultural ethos of ·
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society. Such studies on oral tradition and folk culture have been done by
sociologists like D.N.Majumdar, Stephen Fuchs, Milton Singer, Kathleenre; Ghough,
Pauline Kolenda, V.P.Vatuk, Sylvia Vatuk and Shyam Parmar. These studies arc
isolated studies of folk culture and aesthetics, but no study has been attempted
upon in the context of changes taking place in the folk society and its culture.
The present study has taken communication in a broader perspective and in
its various forms which arc emerging at present and which continue even today.
Cultural communication is collected after much probing regarding all castes. Their
ways of marriage, customs, rituals, sayings etc. are integrated in the present study.
An attempt has been made to study the little tradition of the village which is
integrated and is even prevalent in Western U.P. and neighbouring states of
Rajasthan and Haryana.
The importance of the study lies in studying cultural communication in
interaction with mass media and the overlapping areas. The study of
modernization is mostly done through developmental activities and indices of
change could be identified in the socio-cultural tradition and communication. The
communication has been treated both as 'a system' and a 'process' here. Rituals,
songs and recreational media are parts of communication system, but when lower
castes arc abused or not allowed to enter the temples, houses, or wells of upper
castes, or arc required to have separate residential area in the village,_ then it is a
'process'. The status of a person within the social stratification is communicated in
social functions, and festivals (Pauline Kolenda, Gough). Thus status, caste, class,
profession and power position arc processes of communication within a society.
This is termed as 'ritual view of communication'.
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The modernization in the village has been studied through the process of
communication as the change in the professional structure in the village
communicates how far which caste is getting modernized. Hence I have made an
attempt to study rural social change through the process of communication in a
broader perspective which includes transmission of symbols, social interaction,
communication with town, folk communication, ritualistic communication and
mass communication.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
For. making a systematic study, review of literature has been divided in two
parts:
(A) First section deals with the review of Indian village studies done on rural
culture, social structure and power aspects. The studies also review the concepts
and theories, given by various sociologists for understanding and describing these
cultural changes occuring in the rural society.
(B) Second section deals with the studies done with communication perspective,
dealing with village and society in general. This section has again been divided in
two parts. First part deals with research in Latin American Villages sponsored by
UNESOJ and second part deals with studies done in Indian villages.
REVIEW OF INDIAN VILLAGE STUDIES
There are many village studies done since the time of Britishers who were
intrigued by these 'little communities' and their power of sustenance. Regarding
this, Bemad S.Cohn1 has identified three major traditions of approach for Indian
society which were, (i) The Administrative Approach, (ii) The Missionari.es
Approach and (iii) The Orientalist's Approach.
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(i) The Administrative Approach
The studies which adopted the Administrative AppiR~ch were undertaken
for better understanding of village social structure, culture and economy, for
making policy of integration of villages in the financial system, for better
extraction of land tax and for production of cheap cash crops. The figures of
Census and lapdholding surveys were the main bases of the Administrative or
Official Approach which covered social structural, political and economic system
of villages.
(ii) Missionarie s'A.pproach
Missionaries who came with Britishers were out to show that the
western society and its culture is scientific, and based on egalitarian ideology.
Hence they saw the Indian society and culture as 'corrupt'2• Charles Grane. saw
Indian men as 'degenerate and base' with feeble sense of moral obligations and
obstinate. The Caste system, the legal system, the government and the despotic role ·
of Brahmins were considered the causes of the degraded state of the Hindus by the
followers of the Missionaries' Approach. Thus they supported the rationality of
denegration of Hinduism. This view was based on here...say accounts and not on
empirical investigations.
(iii) Orientalists' Approach
Orientalists' view of Indian society was textual version of Indian
'Civilization,' ·where Brahmins' supremacy over other variants was highlighted.
The Brahmins made the rules and controlled the social system through these
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norms. Therefore this view placed Indian society among other traditional societies
as 'Static'. 'timeless'. 'castiest' and 'closed'4 ·
Britishers like Munro. Metcalf and Baden- Powell considered Indian village
'closed' and isolated5· This intrigued number of sociologists and anthropologists
who studied Indian village in larger perspective and took village as an active unit
· of Indian ~ivilization. Mandelbaum6 wrote that 'Indian village is far from. "a
locale", and more than "just a collection of houses. lanes and fields". There is a
variety of villages sprawled on Indian mainland. Some are multi-caste villages and
some are multi-village castes7• There are variations in dialects. rituals, culture,
traditions. religion. colour, almost in all the villages. On comparison among these
basic characteristics of villages from U.P, Kerala. West Bengal. there are some basic
characteristics of village which give it, its uniqueness while retaining some
similarities. According to Louis Dumont8 the Indian village community can be
studied (1) as a political society, (2) as a body of co-owners 1,the soil and (3) as
an emblem of traditional economy and polity. a catchword of Indian patriotism.
After independence. many village studies have been done like those of S.C.
Dube's Indian Villagt!, M.N.Srinivas's (ed) Village India/0 D.N.MajumdaA Rural
Profile/1 McKim Marriot (ed) Village India12 S.K.Dey's(ed) Indian Villages)J. Most
of the studies of villages have been done in the perspective of economic structure,
kinship structure and . caste and cultural tradition. Many concepts like great
tradition and little tradition of Robert Redfield inspired Milton Singer and Mckim
Marriot to conduct studies by utilizing this conceptual framework14• Secondly
concepts like Sanskritisation. Brahminisation, Kshatriyas~on. etc. within the
study of cultural approach were utilized to study society. In his study of Coorgs
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Srinivas15 gave the concept of Sanskritisation to understand the changes taking
place in Coorg. Sanskritisation was seen as a social process through which the
lower castes were trying to bring about changes in their ways of life to obtain
greater ritual purity and thereby to attain higher status in the ritual hierarchy of
castes. Srinivas also analyzed the process of 'Westernization'. Similarly
'Universalisation' and 'Parochialisation' concepts given by Mckim Marriot are
refinements within the same general theme of Robert Redfield's16 concept.
D.N.Majumdar17 has given the term 'De-sanskritisation' regarding the social
change in a Northern Indian village. Majumdar through 'de-sanskritisation' -r~tu.zl..s
suggests a reverse process by which the Brahmin castes also try to~i¥4'.--u-~~). in some
matters. Secondly Edmund Leach18 .C. Parvathamma and others have criticized the
concepts of 'dominant caste' and 'sanskritisation' as these are based on upper caste
view. 19 K.Ishwaran20 considers that concept of Sanskritisation is misleading and be e
referred to as Brahminisation. Marriot ga\(: two polar processes of Universalisation'
and 'Parochialisation' which explains the complexity of Indian civilization and the
communication channels that exist between the Great and Little Traditions of the
country. To avoid the confusion created by these cultural distinctions. Dubel1
conceptualized the total realm of traditions into four fold divisions: contextual-
classical tradition. local regional (cultural) tradition, western (ideological-
technological) tradition and emergrent national (monitistic- reinterpretational
adaptive) tradition.
Like Mead. Damle (1968) and Lynch22 used the concept of 'reference group'
to analyse the structural process of caste mobility. Lynch claims that reference
group approach enables one to understand the structural aspects of mobility
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implied in 'Sanskritization' and 'Westernization'. The approach focusses upon the
following three aspects:-
i. The motivational structure or aspirations of members to move upward.
ii. The opportunity structure or eligibility/ineligibility of members to move in
desired direction.
iii. Communication structure or the extent of 'visibility/observability' of the
degrees of relative deprivation in the system of stratification, which
influenc~s people's motivation for social mobility.
Some other important studies of social change have been 'Twice bom' by
Caisters in 1957, 'Caste and Communication In an Indian Village' by
D.N.Manjumdar 1958, 'Village Life In Northern India' (Oscar Lewis 1958),23
'Indian Changing Villages. by S.C.Dube 1958, 'Caste and Economic Frontier' by
F.G.Bailel4 1957, and 'Caste and Kinship in Central India' by Adrian Mayers25
1960. Dubey in his book has considered the impact of innovation of ideas,
implements and practices introduced through the medium of the community
development programmes in western U.P. Epstein26 (1962) made a comparative
study of two villages in Mysore and discussed the impact of economic factors on
social institutions. Similarly a study was made on various economic and political
. aspects in Orissa village Bissipara by Bail~y.In 'Politics and Social Change Study
(1963). Bailey examined the relationship between parliamentary democracy and
traditional forms of social and political organizations. Margaret Cormark (1961)27
discussed the attitude towards social change in relation to Indian student. In
1965, Orenstein's28 study yielded important findings about villagers becoming
apathetic to the village traditional ties of family and caste as a result of drift
10
towards impersonality, formality and secularization in social relations. Kathleene
Gough29 in her study of social structure of Tanjore village has takeri up class view
of caste. 30
Oscar Lewis has taken up comparative study of Mexican village Tepoztlan
and Rani Khera and established the superiority of Mexican village at structural
level. Similar to D.N.Majumdar's, Oscar Lewis's study empahasiied 'Des
Sanskritiation' role of caste and clan in factionalism and horizontal mobility. The "
studies of villages done by Bailey, Epstein, Gough, Ishwaran, Mukherjee and Rao
have emphasized on specific aspects of village community such as social change,
economic development, social stratification, class relations, economy and
urbanization. The studies in fifties were neither memographic nor holistic as they
emphasized only one of these aspects.
In seventies the shift in Indian Sociologists' approach to study the villages
could be seen. K. Ishwaran31 observed that changes seen in the villages are
'national oriented' and 'global-oriented' i.e. the villages were not isolated entities
but were constantly influenced by outside world and its ramifications were
changing the village society33•
Earlier, the studies were influenced by structural and functional approaches
which gave lop-sided view of Indian village community. Secondly-apriori
ideological perspective have been prominent. Many factors which are important in
mordemizing Indian villages like education. legal system and technological
devices. which were ignored earlier. were henceforth taken up with extensive field
studies. Y.Singh32 (1972) has referred to the concept of 'levels' for analyzing social
change and social stratification. which integrates the Culturological Approach viz.
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Little and Great tradition, Dialectic· Approach of D.P.Mukherjee and Structural
Approach of Bailey, Mayer, Epstien and others. The underlying theoritical
similarities in the conceptual formulations of various approaches to social change
were emphasised. These approaches were integrated on a systematic and logical
principle to achieve a fair degree of conceptual clarity. Y.Singh 33 has divided these
approaches on the levels of direction of change, levels of structure (Macro and
Micro), causes of change and the substantive domain undergoing changes. His
paradigm for an Integrated Approach can be understood clearly from the diagram
given below (1972:25).
Sources of changes Cultural Structure Littlle tradition Great tradition
Heterogenetic Islamization Secondary Changes Islamic Impact
Primary- Secondary-Westernization Westernization
or modernization
Orthogenetic Sanskritization or Cultural changes Traditionalization Renaissance
Table 1 Paradigm For An Integrated Approach (Source Y.Singh 1972)
Studies Done With Communication Perspective
(i) UNESOO And Latin American studies
Social Structure Micro structure Macro structure Role- Political Differentiation Innovations Legitimations New Structures
of / Elite. Bureaucrac)', Industzy, etc.
Pattern- Elite Circulation, Recurrence, Sucession of Compulsive Kings, Rise and migration or Fall of Cities and Population Shift Trade Centres
The 'United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization' has
sponsored many researches on the role of communication in the development of
the third world countries. In sixties an inter American school of sociology FLASOO
was set up with the collaboration of UNESOO. This school undertook community
studies in Latin American countries34
12
In association with UNESa:J, several sociologists have studied socio-
economic development in villages in Mexico, other Latin American countries.
Philippines and Indonesia. They have discussed the potential of communication
technology in bringing development and modernization in these developing rural
societies. john Kunkel's (1961) Economic Autonomy and Social Change in
Mexican Villages and Selvia Segal's (1961)" Ruista de Sociologia, B.A.Argentina.
English Translation are some of the prominent studies done in Latin America. Like
Si£lvia Segal, who studied incorporation of modern values in the folk communities.
Padam Guritno discusses the potential of shadow puppetry "Wayang Purwa" as an
important sources of change in his paper ' Wyang Purwa as a Medium of Change' 35
Besides the functional role of traditional communication the electronic mass
media has received the deserved attention from various sociologists working on
Latin American countries. They have noticed changes in socio-economic
conditions and inculcation of new cultural values or rather the increased affinity
towards Western values and life-style in these countries.Daniel Lerner, 36 after the
Second World War, noticed remarkable changes in the Middle East countries. To
an extent, he expounded hypothesis that the exposure to mass media is related to
increase in literacy in the Middle East countries.
Wilbur Schramm37 with his research in four countries concedes that
communication has been playing a refreshing role of bringing social change in
countries like Tanganyika, India, Cuba and Italy.
\1 0 Clifford Geertz38 has done study of two Indonesian villages of ModjokW:l:l and
Lebangn and studied the modernization process and changes in culture and values.
Patricia Arriaga [Publicity, Economic and Mass Communication, 'Mexico 1980]
discusses the change in life style, and consumption pattern after the introduction
of Mass communication. L.Doob39 (1961) in Communication in Africa: A Search
for Boundaries, shows that Disney Cartoons arc as popular among the people of
Cuba as in American society,Similar phenomenon has been reported by E. Santaro
in Caracas, while studying effect of TV on children [Problem of Culture And
Cultural value in Developing Countries, UNESOO 1983].
Sola de Pool and Everett Rogers in Lucian Pye40 (ed) l 975 Communication
and Political Development, consider that mass communication in Third World
IS · countries/\ utilized to increase' political socialization and political participation. The
Print media, Radio, TV and loudspeakers are used for improving living conditions
such as health, hygiene, literacy etc. in third world countries.
The role of interpersonal communication ·which is mostly verbal is also
dealt in context of culture, while discussing the issue of cultural change and
communication. Edward T. Halls41 has called communication as culture and he
termed the interpersonal communication mainly culture bound and defined
culture as transmission of symbols. Different meanings are assigned to symbols in
various cultures during verbal communication as the word 'rape' does not occur in
Arabic language, due to absence of the concept of privacy of females in that
culture. Blunqi's Symbolic lnteractionism-Perspective and Method 1969, Firth's,
Symbols, Public and Private, 1973, Fischer's Communication in Primitive Systems,
1973 discuss the role of interpersonal communication in developing rural illiterate
societies.42 Dr. Fuchs's paper" Village Peace Corps': A Study of Phillipine Village
14
discussed the role of interpersonal communication in bringing changes in the
country side.
(ii) INDIAN STUDIES
Considerable amount of work has been done by indigenous and western
sociologists on the role of communication in development of Indian villages.
The role and processes of traditional communication have been discussed by
D.N.Majumdar, 'Caste and Communication In An Indian Village: 1958, Me
Cormack, Forms of Communication in Vaishnava Religion 1951. J.T.Hitchcock
and Lugh Mintwin, The Rajputs of Khalapur, India, 1963 and V.R. Gaikward
Rural Social Structure and Communication in an Indian Village,1973. All these
studies have emphasized the socialization process through communication and
social messages conveyed through Kathas, Keertans and social values embedded in
religious rituals and practices.43
Extensive work has been done by sociologists to study the role of
communication in the development of villages and in bringing social change in the
country side. The studies include dissemination of information about better
quality seeds, fertilizers,agriculturalimplements, education, sanitation, and family
planning programmes etc.
Role of communication in development has been discussed in
Y.L.Lakshmana Rao44• 'Lommunication and Development: A study of Two Indian
Villages, 1961 and, Y.B. Damle's46 Communication of Modern Ideas. V. Desai has
done a project on Chambal where better quality seeds of rice were adopted and
were popularly known as Radio Rice in 'Communication and Rural Change,
15
1976". Paul Hartman, B.R. Patil and Anita Dighe46 in their study The Mass Media
and Village life, 1989., have discussed the role of communication in transforming
all aspects of social life at different levels in three villages, one each of A.P .. West
Bengal and Kerala. D.N.Saksena47 in his paper 'Communication Media and Target:
Reputation for Family Planning Program in Indian Context 73-74' in Saharanpur
discusses the congratulatory role of radio in making program successful.
The complementary role of interpersonal communication and folk
communication along with modern means of communication has been highlighted
by Madhu Malik in 'Folk Media and Communication'48 1986 and many other
sociologists. Similarly K.B. Kothari and A.G.K. Murthy in their study of an
Ahemdabad village about promotion of fertilizers found out [Rural Marketing
Communication-Role of Opinion Leaders in Promotion of Fertilizer. 1969] that
interpersonal communication is a potential.medium to disseminate information in
rural society.
Iqbal Nart(n, The Rural Elite in the an Indian State. A case Study of I'
Rajasthan, 1976, Joseph E.Kelvin and Prodipti Roy. Communication in India-
Experiments in Introducing Change 1968 and Nawal Singh and Maweal Singh
'Communication and Development-A study of Two Blocks in Ball{l District, UP.
1981, came out with similar findings. Arbind K. Sinha49 Mass Media and Rural O!J-t
development, 1985, in his study of a village of Bihar pointed;.__the role of T.V. in
education and over all development and considered that cultural norms, govern
communication in a stratified rural setting like India.. Similar views have been
expressed along with the study of various forms of communication in Kheda
16
district by Benod C. Aggrawal50 and M.R.Malik in TV in Kheda: A Social evaluation
of Site. A recent work has been done by Ranjit Singh in 'Communication
Technology for Rural Development in Village' through intelligent blend of
traditional and modern channels of communication.
All the above studies. have touched upon the concepts of change. culture
and communication. but they fail to present wholesome picture of the changes
that are occurring in Indian villages at present. This handicap could be
successfully· done away with the systematic study and sociological analysis of the
changes in social life attitudes and other practices related to culture.
THE PROBLEM
**
**
**
**
**
The existence and continuation of oral tradition despite the presence of
electronic and print media.
The changes in the folk cultural and recreational media's structures and
meanings.
Redundancy and discontinuation of certain parts of cultural
communication like sayings about weather, health, irrigation etc. due to
technological innovations.
Replacement of status symbols of ritual superiority and agriculture land
superiority by technology use efficiency.
Modernization among lower castes has been more than among upper castes
since the lower castes are exploiting associational and secular features of
caste, accepting technology, taking up salaried professions, and getting
education at much faster rate than upper castes who still live by their
17
**
**
**
**
**
tradition and fail to diversify sources of income and compete in new
environment.
The attitudes and values are changing due to new communication pattern.
The changes arc, however, restricted to peripheral values regarding
education, profession, adoption of new style of dressing, buying consumer
items, acceptance of mass media etc. whereas the core values regarding
caste, family, community, marriage, purity, social customs, norms and
taboos (even proverbs) serve as an interpretive frame.work within which
the folk communication operates. Any change in these 'core values' would
endanger the person's identity and position within his own community
(biradiri) and tradition's normative and hermeneutic aspects are to be tested
within the changed village scenario.
The integration of the 'little tradition' in the village communication. social
structure and culture.
The emergence of alternative structures of communication due to the effect
of modem communication structures in the village.
The changes in composition and structure of cultural communicators due to
lack of patronage and economic pressures of livelihood.
Model of mobility is no longer only cultural (viz. Sanskritisation etc.) but is
also through secular processes of education, reservation and politics, and
the latter form of mobility is followed by the former i.e. cultural.
18
REASEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction:
To understand the changes occurring in a village society it is difficult to do
a study just through sampling few houses and through interview schedules.
Observation of their everyday lives and activities gave me better insight. My
method of study included an understanding of the changes taking place in rural
communication process, the symbolic acts and rituals which cannot be expressed
or talked about. and participant observation in the various village practices like
Vrat (fasts). pooja (worships), marriages, festivals was also part of my study. I
conducted a stratified random sampling and age was controlled and maintained in
an equal proportion of all castes in each age group. This random sampling enabled
me to cover considerable number of households in Sikhera.
Area of Study -Sikbera
Sikhera village, lies about seven kilometers from Meerut District
Headquarter and is approachable with road transport facility. The village has
changed considerably during the past decades due to urban contact. media use and
political changes are sweeping over it. Despite being primarily an upper caste
village, presently, a Balmiki is its Pradhan. Mordem gadgets like TV_s Refrigirators. ~
Mixies, Scooters have been purchased by many villagers. There is an English
medium school in the village. The village has considerable number of lawyers,
doctors, judges from upper castes. The middle castes and the lower castes have
been emerging as middle class. purchasing number of· consumer durable and
luxury goods.
1~
The village has its own peculiar 'little tradition· for which it is known in
Meerut region. The informant, during this field study was Mr.Ravindra Kumar
Singh. a practising lawyer in Meerut district court. Interestingly till 1994. his
father and ancestors had been the pradhanJMukhiya of the village. This initial
introduction to villagers. through him. helped me to conduct my study smoothly
and successfully.
Data collection:
The sample size was decided 240. There were 120 males and 120 females.
Three age groups were taken both for males and females.
Males Females
I I I I I (40) (40) (40) (40) (40) (40)
<30Yrs 30-50 Yrs >50Yrs <30Yrs 30-50 Yrs >50Yrs
The caste was not controlled. but an attempt was made for equal
representation of households of various castes. Hence proportion was maintained
in each age group. Samples were selected randomly from the various households.
Secondly. case studies were taken to highlight the patterns of social. cultural and
political structure and communication. For example Bhats the geneologists.Jogis.
the religio-cultural mendicants Bhagats, the magico-ritual practitioners or local
shamans in Sikhera were studied and closely observed.
Thirdly, an interview schedule was prepared and I conversed with the
samples taken according to three levels of age group. The variations in age group
i.e. from below 30 years. thirty to fifty years and fifty and above helped in studying
.20
the changes in life-style.· and culture and social change. and attitudinal change.
occuring in the village.
Before beginning the sample survey. general information was obtained from
various village records during pilot survey.
(i) Lists of families with caste-wise classification maintained by Gram Pradhan.
(ii) Report of survey conducted in 1996 by Parivar Ka~van Samiti (Family Welfare
Commitee)
(iii) Lists of vaJ;ious government schemes and projects which have been completed
in recent years through the village Panchayat.
(iv) Lists of various government schemes and projects which were being
implemented through the village Panchayat presently.
(v) Record of landownership. maintained by Officer Incharge. Revenue Record
Room, Collectorate, Meerut.'
(vi) List of artisans, craftsmen and other professionals of Sikhera prepared by a
resident of Sikhera.
(vii) Lists of voters of the past two elections.
(viii) List of members of Panchayat.
(ix) District Census records
(x) District Gazetteer
The general proforma of Interview Schedule included the following particulars;-
(a) Basic information
Age, sex. marital status, relationship with the head of the family. nature of
occupation, education. and type of family Goint/nuclear).
(b) Older cultural patterns and communication
THESIS 302.20954 Si645 Cu
1111111111111111111111111 TH6926
21
\\1 "{) 31) ~~~ :5 ·l-\4 ~~ !!..~;:: s ("'~ q
~7
()..,
Observations of f!lcnd~c and household rituals viz. marriage. birth etc .. '1i 'I •
native folk songs, customs practised. traditional artists. traditional theatre and art
forms and other symbolic cultural patterns practised in the village.
(c) Emerging culture due to change in pattems of communication
Alternative-structures emerging due to changes in politics. economy,
occupation, cultural dependency, saving patterns. contact with urban culture and
change in power structure.
(d) Nature of change in social economic structure
Changes in rituals. cultural dependency. inter-caste relations. commensality
pattern, practice of caste related attributes like hierarchy observed during social
functions, changes in relation of caste, status and class structure of village and
convivial groups.
(e) Change in political structure and communication
Nature of change in political communication. political factions.
organisation on party lines. methods of propaganda and changes in power
relations between various castes.
(f) Change in cultural pattern and communication
Change in religious and ritualistic practices. symbolic communication.
professional cultural artists e.g. Jogis. Bhagats, Bhats. ~ahars and Bhaksors.
recreational media, folk songs, and aesthetic tradition.
(g) Attitudinal change regarding traditionalism and modemity,
Regarding caste. untouchability, religion, dowry, role of daughter-in-law.
media, status of women. changing social relations in joint family, education of
girls and other gender related matters.
22
The interview schedule was typed in local language, Hindi, khadi boli (local
dialect) and was pre-tested, which led to certain modifications in the final schedule
after initial survey. The field study was initiated in October 1995 and continued
till January 1997. The field was visited upon, in between for back up information
again and again.
Besides this interview schedule, the following sources were also tapped.
(i) Group discussions were held with the villagers especially the elder ones who
narrated old incidents and threw light on the nature of changes in rural society,
a.nd.. power structureAeconomy of the village.
(ii) Particip:iant observation in various cultural activities like marriage ceremonies,
village festivals, conflicts and caste fueds which provided opportunity to know
their customs, their religious functions and their responses to various situations.
Brief note on the field study
After the field study started, almost a week passed by before I could get
acquainted with the villagers. Initially, villagers suspected me to be a government
official under cover, with some ulterior motive. As recently the village has
undergone caste conflict, the villagers were apprehensive. Upper castes considered
it to be a government sponsored study, which was believed to be in favour of lower
castes and vice versa. This caused much trouble as many questions were
answered reluctantly by the villagers.·
Only with the help of the village informant and village Pradhan, villager's
apprehension was allayed regarding my research work. Except for some Muslims.
people were generally coperative in Sikhera. On the whole, this field study was a
23
unique experience. The villagers were very hospitable. They offered me food and
willingly allowed me to participate and observe their rituals and family functions.
Chapter scheme
The first chapter ~Introduction'has a discussion on the importance of study.
review of literature of village studies and studies done with communication
perspective in the rural society. The problem studied and research methodology
used also has been discussed. The research methodology includes area of study.
sample size, data collection, method, and information about interview schedule.
The second chapter, 'The Village-Sikhera' deals with the description of the
village Sikh era. In this chapter I have given Sikh era's origin, area of village,
population. spatial distribution about castes. family structure. occupation
structure, status of women, literacy, public institutions and facilities (schools.
village Panchayat. post office). places of socio-cultural importance as temples.
wells. weekly markets. shops, chaupal and transport.
The third chapter 'Traditional Forms of Communication' deals with
traditional communication like Chaupal, Nautanki, and Ramlila in general. along
with those features which are particularly evident in Sikhera like Ghera, Sang. The
various terms of traditional communication,have been further divided for heuristic
purposes since they overlap each other in recreational and religious spheres, like
Ramlila. folk tales, and epic stories.
The fourth chapter 'The Emergent Patterns of Communications' deals with
mass media-use and the pattern of programs. ·which are being watched and
24
preferred by the samples, in respect to Radio, TV newspaper/magazine and cinema.
This chapter explains the changes in the recreational patterns, media preferences
and changes in attitude with regard to oral tradition, like proverbs, sayings,
riddles etc.
The fifth chapter 'Changing Patterns of Communication and Social
Structure deals with prominent aspects of social structure, which are affected by
changing patterns of communication like castes, family structure, marriage,
women and youth. The areas of change seen in terms of language of
communication, content of communication and channel of communication and
how these three are changing with the time, have also been analysed in this
chapter. stvvc:t.IYC...'
The sixth chapter 'Changing Patterns of Communication and Power1 deals
with the emergent power structure with respect to the changes in communication
pattern; the intercaste conflicts and mutual relations; political communication,
and political participation in elections at the Parliament. Assembly, Block,
Panchayat levels: the role of opinion leaders as the channel of communication; the
content of communication about awareness regarding national leaders, party
symbols. contact with party workers and various unions in the village.
The seventh chapter, 'Changing Patterns of Communication and Culture
deals with changes in cultural sphere, religious rituals, festivals (both calendric
and pertaining to life cycle), oral tradition, traditional media, folk medicine, food
habits, leisure, cultural artefacts, as arts, crafts, architecture and technology
adoption in rural society.
Z5
The last chapter 'Conclusiori_ contains the conclusions of my research work
specifically in terms of Sikhera and generally in terms of Indian rural society.
,.~. Theoretical Framework·
" Communication. through language and other symbolic forms. comprises the
ambien'.:ce of human excellel nee. The activities we collectively call
communication. having conversations, giving instructions, imparting knowledge,
sharing significant ideas, seeking information, entertaining and being entertained
are so ordinary and mu, mdane thatit is difficult for them to arrest our attention."
(Carey, 1989).
CULTURE AS COMMUNICATION
Dewey (1916) de\fined communication as "the most wonderful" because it 'II
is the basis of human fellowship: It produces social bonds, bogus or not. that tie
men together and make associated life possible. Society is possible because of the
binding forces of shared information circulated in organic system. Communication
and culture overlap each other in the above definition because culture also refers
to shared beliefs, customs. conventions, habits. and practices which are
characteristics of a particular society. This conception of culture is termed as
Descriptive Conception. Defining culture by only focusing on the interpretation of
symbols and symbolic action is called as Symbolic Conception by J.B. Thompson
(Thompson, 1986).
In 1871. in 'Primitive Culture' E.B. T: ,ylor gave defmition of culture as
inter-related array of beliefs, customs, laws, forms of knowledge and art, which are
acquired by individuals as member of a particular society and concepts which
26
could be studied scientifically by sociologists. 'Taylor's interpretation of culture has
been considered scientific since he treated culture as the object of a systematic,
scientific inquiry, where as in earlier studies culture was found to be more
concerned with developing human faculties through work of scholarship and art.
Malinowski elaborated this scientific theory of culture, in 1940's. He
considered that 'culture comprises of inherited artefacts, goods, technical
processes, ideas, habits and values .... culture is a reality and must be studied as
such. This sort of cultural description became co-extensive with anthropology
itself or more precisely with 'cultural anthropology'. Culture is thus defined as
array of beliefs, customs, ideas and values, as well as the material artefacts, objects
and instruments. which are acquired by individuals as members of the group or
society.
Symbolic Conception of Culture
Whereas animals (non-humans) can emit and respond to signals of various
kinds, only human beings. it is argued, have fully developed language by virtue of
which meaningful expressions can be constructed and exchanged. Human beings
not only produce and receive meaningful linguistic expressions, but also bestow
meaning on non-linguistic constructions as on actions, worksof art. and material
objects of various kinds. Thus use of symbols is a distinctive feature of human life.
In recent years, the symbolic conception of culture has been placed at the
centre of anthropological debates by Clifford Geertz, whose major work. ("The
Interpretation Of Culture"), represents an attempt to draw out the implications of
this· conception for the anthropolog~cal inquiry. Geertz is mainly concerned with
questions of meaning, symbolism and interpretation of culture. Geertz has argued
27
that human behaviour is fundamentally symbolic and, therefore, laden with
meaning for social actors. Geertz considered human being, being suspended in
hP webs of significance that,\ himself has spun; thus culture is a 'stratified hierarchy of
meaningful structures; it consists of actions, symbols and signs of twitches.
conversations and soliloquies'. Thus analysing culture is like unfolding layer of
meanings, which are known to the individuals.
An ethnographer inscribes the social discourse and transforms culture from
fleeting, transient event into a durable, perusable text. The study of culture
according to Geertz, is an activity more akin to interpreting a text than to
classi(ying flora and fauna; and Anthropology, is not an experimental science,
looking for universal laws, but an interpretive science in search of meaning. Geertz
describes culture thus: "culture is the pattern of meanings embedded in symbolic
forms, including actions, utterances and meaningful objects of various kinds, by
virtue of which individuals communicate with one another and share their
experiences, conceptions and beliefs'.
Another theory regarding the symbolic conception is of symbolic
interactionism. This theory was developed in the University of Chicago by Herbert
Blumer in 193 7 and challenged the dominance of Parson's Grand theory. Again
the philosophical leanings to the Symbolic Interaction theory were provided by
G.H.Mead. This theory focussed on the ways in which meanias emerge through 1\
interaction. Its prime concern has been to analyse the meanings of everyday life,
through close observations, and intimate familiarity, and from these an
understanding of underlying forms of human interaction was developed.
2.8
There are four main foci in this theory. Firstly, human. beings are distinctly
seen as 'symbol manipulating individuals' and it is through symbols that culture is
transmitted. Interactions are concerned about the meaning that the individuals
give to their bodies. feelings. selves. biographers. situations and wider world in
which their lives exist. Participant observation has been employed by Becker
(1982) to study social relations. Secondly, for symbolic interactionists the social
world is a dynamic and dialecticial web. and it considers that social situations are
never fixed or stable. Thirdly. social world is interactive. From this view point
individuals are not isolated but are always connected to others. The most basic
unit is the self. which stresses the ways in which people can view themselves as
objects and assume role of others through process of role taking (Cooley. and
Mead). Fourthly. the symbolic ihteractionism looks beneath . these symbols.
processes and interactions in order to determine underlying patterns or forms of
social life. Thus while studying the life-experiences of doctors. dancers, band
musicians. drug users and dying artists they study the common processes at work
in all such seemingly disparate groups.
In "Mind. Self. Society" G.H.Mead laid the foundation for a social
psychology. An analysis was made on the experiences located flllilly within
society. The study of importance of language, symbols and communication in
human group life, the way in which our words and gestures bring forth our
responses to others and the process of role making are dealt by G.H.Mead. Mead's
idea of 'generalized other' has also contributed in developing interactional
conception of reference group theory. A reference group becomes any collectivity,
real or imagined. envied or disposed. whose perspective is assumed by the actor.
29
Hence reference group is one whose outlook is used by actor as the frame of
reference in the organization of his perceptual field. This is evident in Indian
society where lower castes consider upper castes as reference group for purpose of
social mobility. Thus in the symbolic conception of culture. the symbolic forms
have determinate relations with one another. The structure of a symbolic form is a
pattern of elements which can be discerned in actual instances of expressions. i.e.
in actual utterances. expressions or texts. The Swiss linguist Ferdiil./and. de
Saussure was primarily concerned with symbolic systems. By distinguishing
between language (/a-langue) and speech (Ia parole). Saussure sought to isolate
language as a system of signs so as to study its basic elements· and principle of
functioning of language.
The sign according to Saussure consisted of signifier (differentiated graphic
or sound image) and signified (differentiated item of thought or mental image).
The sign gains value or meaning syntagmatically according to its linear position in
discourse e.g. as determined by grammar. Secondly. it gains value paradigmatically
according to what signs could have been substituted for it but were not e.g. as
determined by nature of particular lexicon used in the language. For Saussure
language does not consist or operate on individuaUstic basis, but rather consists of
signs that are products of extra-individual structures or systems of differences
.f (such as alphabets, gramm<tr and lexicons). Thus language is a medium~social and
cultural <iJ expression besides being symbolic in nature.
Cultural Transmission and Mass Communication
The production of symbolic forms and their transmission is a social
phenomenon which involves different aspects. These aspects of cultural
30
transmission are:
(I) firstly, the technical medium of transmission.
(2) secondly)nstitutional aspects of transmission.
(3) and thirdly, the space-time of distanciation involved in
transmission.
Now. the symbolic cues have become more general than specific due to
abs;4nce of the same context of reference to interpret the meaning of symbols.
, The Social Int~actions have been changing from society to society as shown ~ .
in table 1.2. Primitive society. mostly used face to face interaction and word-of-
mouth channel. But as technology developed the channels of telegraph. wireless,
~ letters came in practice. Mass media developed in the late fifteenth century. when
techniques associated with Gutenberg's printing press were taken up by a number
of ·institutions and individuals in major trading centres for the purposes of
producing multiple copies of manuscripts and texts.
The aspects of Cultural transmt~{n can be categoritd on the common basis A 1\
of:
(1) Space time constitution- time difference/distanciation
(2) Range of symbolic cues- multiple/narrow range generalised
(3) Action stimulation -specific range/indefinite range (audience)
(4) Dialogical/Monological- personal interaction/through a medium of
technology
The figure given below clearly shows that the distance between two actors
has increased and the communication is more decontextualised as both of them
are miles away from each other.
31
Aspects Attributes
Technical medium~ ---------
Fixation
Reproduction
Participation
~ Channels of selective diffusion
Institutional apparatu~ . -------- Mechanisms for restricted implementations
Contexts of cQpresence
Space-time distanciatio~ ·
--------Extension of availability
Fig 1 Aspects of Cultural Transmission (Source J.B.Thompson)
The technical medium of transmission is the material substratum of
symbolic form. i.e. the material component with which and by virtue of which.
symbolic form is produced and transmitted. These components vary enormously
from the material conditions of face-to face conversation to electronic and satellite
communication. The technology-use also changes the degree of ftxation of
symbols (similar to Geertz's "said") since video CD or paper would 'fix' the symbols
for a longer time than done through use of phone, etc. Hence degree of
reprodtition of the messages is also dependent on technical medium used. Similarly "
the degree of participation in production of messages e.g. the skills. faculties and
32 \
resources. to write personal matter are different from one required in scripting,
producing, transmitting and watching a TV program. In addition to the technical
medium. the exchange of symbolic forms involves an institutional apparatus of
transm~ion. The institutional apparatus includes institutional arrangements
within which the technical medium is deployed and the individuals are involved in
encoding and decoding symbolic forms. These arrangements are characterized by
rules. resources and relations of various · kinds. They typically. involve
hierarchial relations of power between individuals occupying institutionalised
positions. By virtue of such arrangements, individuals are endowed with differing
degrees of control over the process of cultural transmission.
With commodific_~tions of symbolic forms. the channels of symbolic
diffusion acquire a key role in the process of 'econo~ic valorization' i.e. ascribing
certain valursto symbolic forms and ascribing certain values for which they can be
bought and sold in the market. Thus ~mbols become commodities for sale in
market. This is a historical process which is essential part of emergence and
development of mass communications. In primitive society the symbolic forms
could not be bought or sold but were shared by all, unlike in a modem society.
The institutional apparatus also includes mechanism for the restricted
implementations of symbolic forms. When symbolic forms are stored through
modem techniques, they can be controlled and their diffus:~nn can be restricted. It
is more operative in a folk society, where alternate apparatus of information is not
available except the institutional apparatus like, head of community, priest,
landlord or elites in the society.
33
Both Harold Innis and Anthony Giddens have emphasized on the
importance of space-time to social theory in the analysis of systems of
communication. The transmission of a symbolic form necessarily involves the
detachment of its form, to varying degrees. from the context of its production;· Ii is
distanced from this context, both spatially and temporally, and inserted into new
coritxt. which may be located at different times and places (distanciation). This
distanciation varies from one technical medium to another. Infact in face-to-face
interaction, the context of co-presence is there i.e. the availability of the symbolic
form is limited to the participants of the conversation as in table 1.2
Interactional Different Interactions perspective Face-to .face Mediated Mediated q1,1asi Space time constitution Context of prescence, Seperation of contexts, Seperation of contexts,
shared spatial- extended availability extended availability temporal reference in time space. in time and space. system.
Range of symbolic cues Multiplicity of Narrowing the range Narrowing the range symbolic cues. of symbolic cues. of symbolic cues.
Action stimulation Oriented towards Oriented towards Oriented towards an specific others. specific others. indefinite range of
potential recepients. Dialogicai/Monological Dialogical. Dialogical. Monological.
Table 1.2 Development of Interaction Perspective in Different Societies.
(Source J.B.Thompson. 1995;85)
The su~ementation of speech by certain technical media made the extention of
availability of symbolic forms in time and space. Thus prior to development of
telecommunication, symbolic forms could only be physically transported. Mass
media extended the availability of symbolic forms and time through press, phones,
and other electric channels.
In reference to time aspect, fixation of symbolic forms were facilitated by
development of mass media which allowed a high degree of fixation, which were
34
relatively durable. Thus symbolic forms stored on film, tape or disc also made the
availability possible in different times. Thus mass media exercised power across
temporal distances (Thompson, 1995).
Characteristics of Mass Media
The mass communications or mass media distinctively associated with the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries are the press. radio, gramophone. tape
recorder. cinema and television which have been traditionally grouped together
under the heading of 'mass-media'. The word 'mass' refers to the audience created
by the new media, which was socially undifferentiated, and lacking any clear
divisions along. class, caste, sex or race lines.
The mass communication is characterised by the institutionalised
production and generalized diffus, ·ion of symbolic goods through the transmission
and storage of information. Thus due to institutionalized production and diffu sion
of symbolic goods, the symbolic forms are reproducible and have become
commodities to be bought and sold in the market.
Due to its technical medium of transmission it breaks the process of
production and reception of symbolic goods. These forms were .. mediated" in the
society and were distanciated in time and in space. With increase in such mass
producing industries and media apparatus, sociologists became interested in the
effects of this mass production of symbolic forms on society. It would be
noteworthy, · that in twentieth century media studies these processes are
grouped under different headings. Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer, coined
the phrase ' the culture industry' while referring to the collective operations of
media, (Horkheimer arid Adon-no, 1972) whereas. Louis Althusser has grouped the
35
media with the family, the church, and the education system under the heading of
'ideological state apparatuses' (Althusser, 1971).
APPROACHES TO STUDY MASS MEDIA
There arc distinct schools and traditions which have been developed for the
study of mass communication. First is the Mass Society Tradition, of the mid
nineteenth century, which has viewed the development of the media
pessimistically as constituting a threat to the integrity of elite cultural values or
viablility of political institutions of democracy. The second tradition, is the Liberal
Pluralist Tradition where media, functions as the fourth estate and plays an
important part in the democratic process and in constituting a source of
information that is independent of government. The third is the Critical Theory of
Frankfurt School which is an attempt to incorporate critique of the mass society
and is employed within Marxian framework. Fourth is the Marxist Approach to
the media, which is a more general theory of ideology concerned with the role
played by ideological institutions in the social process whereby existing relations of
class domination are reproduced and perpetuated.
Here we are concerned with the last two schools of thought on mass
communication.
The Frankfurt School
The mass culture or mass society arose with the rise of processes of
industrialisation, urbanisation, the development of political democracy, the
beginning of popular education and the emergence of contemlfr<UY ~s of "mass
communication". Some theorists even impute the emergence of mass society with
.l6
the formal processes of government through the extension of franchise, for others it
is due to the levelling and homogenisation effects of a market economy or to the
preponderance which has been given to the opinion of the 'average man' by the
development of the press.
The mass society outlook has also influenced the development of Marxist
theories of the media. Marx and Engels did not theorize the concept of mass media
and their ideological role in society. The attempt was made by Frankfurt School to
provide the criUque of culture industry. The Frankfurt School includes Theodor
Adorno, Herbert Marcuse and Max Horkheilfl:r. In early 20th century these three
were associated with Institute for Social Research founded in Frankfurt, Germany.
Three main factors which guided these scholars were-the revolution of 1917
which did not spread to western Europe, their experience of Fascim and lastly the
political instability which was present in the post war western world. These factors
played an important role in shaping their theories. Marcuse in One Dimensional
Man, 1968 contended that the apparent rationality of production in advanced
capitalism renders the social system immune to criticism. The system was 'sold' by
its ability to produce the goods and cultural artefacts.
The goods and services which the social system produces, are imposed on
the social system as a whole. The means of mass transportation and
communication, the commodities of food,lodging, and clothing, the irresistible
output of the entertainment and information industry carry with them prescribed MlcL
attitudes and habits,t certain intellectual and emotional reactions which bind the
consumers more or less pleasantly to the producers and through the latter. to the
whole society. The products indoctrinate and manipulate; they promote a false
37
consciousness which is immune against its falsehood .. Thus emerges a pattern of
one dimensional thought and behaviour in which ideas, aspirations and objectives,
by their content, transcend the established universe of discourse and actions.
~arcuse, 1968: 26-27).
According to Marcuse, the political issues discussed were how to manage
and maintain the system. No alternative political ends were looked into. This
tendency is called 'a closing of the universe of discourse' This is similar to
Haberma s'concept of 'public sphere' where the opinion becomes 'public' and more
people participate in public sphere, through mass communications' exposure. The
language used in mass media, was of overwhelming concreteness which imposes
the preconcieved 'images'.
Adorno and Horkheimer argued that the media had invaded and subverted
the world of traditionally high or bourgeois culture, by making it more widely
available only on the price of depriving its 'aura' of its seperatedness. Frankfurt
theorists consider that the media made serious culture more widely available only
at the price of depriving it of its critical substance and by bringing culture into
every day life, media wrenched it from the local tradition. Due to the techniques of
mass production the work of art was deprived of the 'aura' of its uniqueness
(Marcuse, 1970: 64). The followers of Fran'furt School despite their detailed "
discussion on 'culture industry' have not given positive suggestions as to how it
can be changed.
38
Marxism: Class, ideology and media
Frankfurt theorists, while remaining committed to Marxism, were more
interested in critique of mass society and the presuppositions of German
philosophical idealism was grafted on the framework of Marxist theory of ideology.
Marx ref ered to ideologies as definite forms of 'social consciousness. ' which,
together with legal and political relationships, constituted a 'superstructure' built
upon and was corresponding to the real foundation constituted by the relations of
production (Bottomore and Rubel, 1965: 67). Marx had_also discussed the relative
autonomy of ideology, their own distinctive properties, so that their dependence on
the 'base' may be viewed as a highly complex and mediated one.
Ideologies can be distorted and structured due to relative autonomy.
Althusser (71:154) said that. ideology is a process which takes place behind our
. backs, producing and structuring our consciousness in ways that we are not aware
of. Althusser sees ideology not as intellectual abstraction but as a concrete social
process embodied in the material culture signifying practices of a collectivity and
of ideological apparatus like the family, school, church and media. (Althusser.
1971). The media is thus an ideological state apparatus as opposed to more
classically repressive state apparatuses. The effecti~~ess of the media lies not in
an imposed false consciousness, nor in changing attitudes, but in the conscious
categories through which conditions are presented and experienced. This
perspective makes Althusser's approach a" structuralist approach.
39
Culturalist Approach
The culturalist approach to media was initiated by Raymond William: who
studied culture through every day practices, customs, and habits. Methods of
dealing with problems, and concept of space and time were seen as a Silent
Language continuing through the ages by him. The other proponents of this theory
.£.i..K-t- Haggart, Thompson, Hall, Bourdieu and Carrey. Stu art Hall, also define-_ society as
an expressive totality where the media play a part in c9mbination with other
primary institutional arrangements(Hall 1978).
The culture is defined as the study of whole way of life in the Culturalist
Approach. Besides Raymond William, and stuart Hall, James W. Carey has given a
'Ritual View of Communication', Carey states that communication is a symbolic
process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repailil.and transformed by social
beings. Ritual view does not exclude the processes of information, transmission or
attitude change which are included in mass media studies. It merely contends that ~
one cannot understand these proecesses if they are not studied in their own frame
of refer~ce. The Cultural Appro~h does not reduce communication studies to only II
mass communication or media studies (Carey, 1992).
The theoretical framework of Bourdieu has also been subsumed under
at culturist approach, from which one . can understand the mechanism of the
1\
communication process. His theory includes analysis of societal change and
production, lifestyle and preference. The habitJsthus function as 'structuring-
structure', systematically organized practices and perception of practices. The
habitus is the internalized class condition which varies and depends on the volume
40
of economic, social and cultural capital possessed. The composition ot total
volume can be symmetrical (high economic,high cultural) or asymmetrical.
Though influence of Bou(...()ieu on communication research paradigm has
been less (Garnham and William 1980), buJ, his theory is appropriate to
understand the cultural change in communication pattern. His theory is based on
historical understanding of human conditions. He propounds that human
behaviour is shaped by material conditions, shared by individuals belonging to
groups or classes with similar conditions of exisl:ence, without neglecting the part
played by individual in shaping his own existence. Secondly, social space is
coneidered a field of struggle, where every group strives to maintain and improve
its position.
According to Bourdieu pre-industrial and primitive social formations were
characterized by limited spatial extension, limited division of labour and simple
reproduction. The material and symbolic culture, the mode of production and
domination could not be seper:ated whereas in the developed societies autonomous
economic sphere and a relatively autonomous symbolic sphere exist. In the
transitional phase (as in Indian villages) the creation of market economy and
capitalism leads to an open exercise of material class power. The social agents
enter a field of struggle with an aim of reproducing the capital, cultural and
economic of their group and if possible to augment it.
Thus it remains important that cultural stratification is determined directly
by unequal distribution of economic capital and of cultural goods, for example
~working class cannot afford frequent visits to cinema, or expensive restaurants.
The class distinctions arc internalised within the habitus which arc distinguished
41
by differing dispositions, differing attitudes toward~ culture and diffcn)ng attittt_es
to utilize cultural objects and practices, and thus result in different logic of cultural
practices.
Hence the consumption pattern is dependent on one's habitus, taste, and
life style. Changes in one leads to change in another i.e. the cultural capital is
transformed into economic capital and vice versa. Thus the communication and
contact with symbolic goods and forms, defines oncistation and creates a relational
field of struggle where social actors, seck to convert their total volume of capital
composition. Thus individuals are constantly moving in social space. The habitus
thus structures the communication process and the contradiJions, struggles and
resistances in the social space of life styles. The never ending struggle between
groups in order to improve positions, is done through communication, and it also
creates new contests and struggles.
It is here, in this changing, social and cultural field, that one can
understand the underlying importance of the mechanics of communication in
· bringing social change.
Reference Notes
1. Cohn, B.S., "Notes On The History Of The Study Of Indian Society And Culture" in Milton Singer And Bernard Cohn, (ed)., "Structure And Change In Indian societ;l' Chicago, Aldine Pub., Co, 1968, p.6.
2. ibid p. 8.
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