1

INTRODUCTION

Environment plays a very significant role in human

civilization. Trees, plants, creepers, water, river, air, etc. and different

kinds of animals play a vital role towards human civilization. The

survival of human being is perhaps impossible, even for a single

moment, without nature or natural environment. The human being

flourish in its lap and at the end take eternal rest therein. Any kind of

intolerance and carelessness towards nature and natural elements may

bring destruction to human civilization. So, the newly emerging

concepts, like the concept of Environmental Awareness has moved

into the mainstream of public life as a major national and

international concern intending to make aware about the role of

nature in human life.

T World Chapter for Nature

declared that is a part of nature and life depends on the

uninterrupted functioning of natural system which ensures the supply

of energy and nutrients; that civilization is rooted in nature, which has

shaped human culture and influenced all artistic and scientific

achievement and living in harmony with nature gives man the best

opportunities for the development of his creativity, leisure and

recrea 1

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(A) The Meaning of Environmental Awareness:

In common parlance, environment means the surroundings, i.e.

the surroundings where we, the human beings live. Etimologicaly

which one is surrounded. In a bit technological terminology, it means

the complex of climatically adaphic and biotic factors that act upon

an organism or an ecological community and support their survival.

And in a narrower sense, it may mean the aggregate of social and

cultural conditions that influence the life of an individual and

community2. In Sanskrit, the equivalent word for environment is

Paryavarana. This word is constitutes as- pari + a + vr-anat in which

completely

refers to the

environment which entirely surrounds the living creatures, especially

the human beings, whose existence depends upon it.

As per the , the term

circumstances etc. affecting a

3.

The Cambridge International Dictionary of English defines

or work in and the way that they influence how you feel or how

environment (the quality of) the air, water and land in or which

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people, animals and plants live. And the adjective form of it i.e.

- when people claim that a product or activity

is environmentally friendly, they either mean that it will not harm the

land, sea or air, or that it will do less damage than other similar 4.

The Compact Oxford Reference Dictionary gives the

Environment: the surroundings or

conditions in which a person, animal or plant lives or operates; or (ii) 5.

Dictionary of Environmental Science of

Techn environment means-

all, or any, of the following media, namely, the air, water and land;

and the medium of air includes the air within buildings and the air

within other natural or man-made structures above or below 6.

Similarly,

Technology states the meaning

(1) The physical and chemical surroundings of an object, e.g. the

temperature and humidity, the physical structures, the gases. (2) when

applied to human societies, the cultural, aesthetic and any other

factors which contribute to the quality of life, are included in the

defina 7.

4

According to the Stockholm Conference on Human

Environment (1972)

of his own environment situations. This environment provides him all

the opportunities of economic, social and cultural development. Man

has achieved all the abilities to change the environment. Nature and

biotic environment factors contributes in the well-being of human

being 8.

Thus, different dictionaries put the meaning of the term

environment widely differs in its connotation in the micro-scale or in

the macro-scale. For example, the micro environment of man could

constitute his home, the food he takes or the air he breaths from the

immediate surroundings, whereas the macro environment would

mean the climatic conditions he lives in or the general rise in world

temperature conditions that is likely to affect him etc. Environment is

an inseparable whole and is constituted by the interacting system of

physical and biological elements which are interlinked individually as

well as collectively. Both physical elements (air, water, land etc.) and

biological elements (plants, animals and micro-organisms) can play a

large impact on human beings. So, it should be always in balance.

Broadly, environment contains two sets of components

(elements). These are- (a) the biotic or living and (b) the abiotic or the

non-living. The biotic environment contains all the living beings on

this planet broadly classified into plants and animals. The biotic

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elements contains air, water etc. which are non-living objects of the

world.

Thus, Environmental Awareness means in general, an

nts etc. and

some ethical commitment towards its general health. The current

perception of environment implies a consciousness and awareness

about all the facts of environment and need for their protection and

preservation surfaced only recently in the global scale beginning with

the world conference on Human Environment (Man and Biosphere)

in Stockholm in 1972, under the aegis of the United Nations

Organization, and drawing up therein the Charters as guiding

principles towards this goal9. In the scholarly article entitled

Environmental Conception and Measurement Dunlap and Jones

Environmental concern is defined as the awareness or

insight of individuals that the natural state of the environment is

threatened through resource overuse and pollution by humans 10.

Similarly, in the words of Inglehart environmental awareness is part

of a general change in fundamental values that take place as societies

develop. As societies become more affluent, their members are less

preoccupied with the economic struggle for survival and are free to

pursue what Inglehart termed postmaterialistic goals, such as political

freedom, individual self-fulfillment, and environmental protection.

Inglehart asserted that the shift from materialism to post-materialism

is irreversible as long as material prosperity continues11.

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similar and must be

oikos (i.e.home)

knowledge of 12. Hence, it denotes the knowledge or study of mutual

interactions between organisms and physical environment on one

hand and interactions among the organisms on the other hand in a

given eco-system. During the discussion of the term Ecology, The

Encyclopedia of Britannica

unit including all the organisms (biological factors) interacting with

the environment (physical factors) so that a flow of energy within a

system leads to a clearly defined trophic (nutrient requiring) structure

to biotic diversity and to an exchange of materials between living and

non-living sectors 13. The knowledge of this eco-system is Ecology.

Ecology implies love, intimacy, order and symbiosis between man

and nature, as also their interdependence and universal brotherhood.

as defined by the

German biologist

the body of knowledge concerning the economy of nature, the

investigation of total relations of the animals both to its inorganic and

to its organic environment, including above all, its friendly and

inimical relation with those animals and plants with which it comes

directly and indirectly into contact 14.

Thus, ecology is a scientific study of mutual relationship of

biotic and abiotic components of whole biosphere or part thereof to

the environmental problems in terms of environmental degradation

and ecological crisis arising out of increased human impacts on

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natural or ecological resources through advanced modern

technologies aimed at accelerate rate of economic development to

meet the demands of ever-increasing population at global and

regional levels. The environment, i.e. surroundings comprises of

various biotic and non-biotic factors which can be classified as

climatic factors (i.e. attitude, direction of mountain-chains etc.)

edaphic (i.e. formation of soil etc.) and biotic factors (i.e. plants and

animals etc.). Thus, human being is considered as an integral part of

environment or nature and there should be harmony and not hostility

between the two.

(B) Environmental Awareness as Revealed in Ancient Indian

Scriptures:

Environment is very rich in Indian tradition. Although the

concept of Environmental Awareness has become a very serious issue

and a matter of a great discussion in the contemporary age, it did

arrest the attention of the ancient Indians since the early stage of

civilization. From the Vedic upto Classical, the intimate relationship

between Nature and Man is being reflected and highlighted in the

pages of Sanskrit literature. So, they tried to make an intimate

relationship between these two aspects.

The Vedic seers visualized the various aspects of nature, its

glamour, regularity, helpfulness, loveliness, virile and unassailable

power and sometimes fear caught up their imagination. They felt it

very well that nature reserves all the immense potentialities to

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maintain ecological balance which is the boon for good health and

happiness of man. So, in view of Indian sages,

plays with perfect rhythm with life-waves. In

perception of our ancestors, there is a particular order in the universe

and the nature has its own system of manifestation. All natural objects

and natural power move through this rules and regulations, because,

there is an the changeable. The

unchangeable regularity of nature is by the Vedic

thinkers15.

In the famous hymn Bhumisukta, the Atharvaveda also clearly

mentions Rita for clear explanation of the concept of the formation of

the earth and its cosmic order16.

The Rgveda is the earliest monument of the Aryan culture and

civilization where nature plays a prominent role. In the Rgveda alone,

we have several suktas where Rishi propitiates the natural elements as

deities showing the significance of these objects in human life or in

all living beings. As for instance, in the Vayu-sukta of the Rgveda

states that Vayu or the air is the essence of all living beings17. Science

also regards pure air (vayu) as a boon to good health and happiness.

In the Vedic period, the fur-fathered sages established this fact by

their mantras where the Rishi shows his high gratitude towards vayu

by designating it as his father, brother and friend etc. The sages felt

vayu as the store-house of ambrosial. It has medicinal qualities also

i.e.

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vata a vatu bhesajam sambhu mayobhu no hrde prana ayumsi tarisat

uta vata pitasi nah uta bhratota nah sakha / sa no jivata vekrdhi /

yadado vata / tato no dehi jivase // 18.

In the same tone, Artharvaveda states that air is the support of

all beings. We sing the praises of Vayu and Savitr, who protect us and

who surround (i.e. pervade) the whole world. May they free us from

sin.

vayoh savituvidayani manmahe cavatmavad visayau yo ca rakshayah /

yau vidyasya paribhu babhuvayustau nau muccatamhamsah //19

The Taittiriya-upanisad regards vayu as Brahma, the supreme

power of the life for us. i.e.

namaste vayu / tvameva pratyaksam brahmasi /

tvameva pratyaksam brahmavadisam / rtamvadisam /

satyamvadisam / tanmamavit /

tadvaktaramavit / avinmam / avidvaktaram //20

Likewise vayu (air), without water the survival of all living

being is impossible. Sayanacharya, the commentator of the Rgveda

states that the water jalat prasastamam

lokopakarakam kimapi nasti 21 Water is life, it is the vital breath, and

it is the nectar of the nectars-

apo vai pranah / tadsminnetan pranan dadhati /

tathaitajjivameva devanamhavirbhavati / amrtamamrtanam //22

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Again, the tenth Mandala of the Rgveda states water as the

element of welfare to all living being- yo vah sivatamo rasastasya23.

The Isopanisad states that the God is present in each and every

part of this creation- isa vasyamidam sarvam yatkinca jagatyam

jagat 24. Thus, it includes that one should not dare to disturb the

environment which is nothing but a manifestation of God. Following

the Upanisadic maxims like- sarvam khalu idam brahmah ,

ayamatma brahmasmi , yat pinde tat brahmande etc. also bear the

same moral obligation to all.

Similarly, the Yajurveda states that the molecules, air, fire, sun

etc. are components and are the creation of God, through which he

composes the universe. e.f.

yasmajjatam na puram kimcanaica ya ababhuva bhavanani viswa /

prajapati prajaya sasamrarana strini jyotisksamsi sacate sa sorasi //25

In the Bhumisukta of the Atharvaveda, the seer Atharvan has

presented a beautiful picture of Modern Earth which is the basis of

our sustenance and a symbol of entire environment. This earth or

bhumi means the wide-world, ground, site, soil, clay etc. i.e. the

cosmic elements of solidity.

The earth takes utmost care of all living being, and like a

mother looks after her children. The Atharvan

our mother - mata bhumi putr

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prthivyah 26. Similarly, the Visnupurana also praises the earth as our

mother as she nurse and nourish all existing things saisa dhatri

vidhatri ca dharini prasani tatha / 27 Similar instances are found in

the Ramayana also. c.f.

api svarnamyi lanka na me laksamana ! rosate /

janani janmabhumisca svargadapi gariyasi //28

The plant-ecology has a significant role to keep the

environment in balance. Since the early stage of human development,

the plant world has been recognized as an inseparable part of human

civilization. In the Ramayana, when Sita was abducted by Ravana, at

this mournful situation, the flora and fauna had shown their sympathy

towards Rama and paved his way in their own languages. c.f.

evamukta narendrena te mrgah sahasotthitah /

daksinabhimukhah sarve darsayanto nabhah sthalam //

maithili hliyamano sa disam yamabhyapadyat /

tena margena gacchanto niriksante naradhipam //

darsayanti ksitim caiva daksinam ca disam mrigah /

sadhu gcchavahe deva disametam ca nairrtim //29

Thus, the intimate relationships between man and nature have

been observed in the pages of ancient Indian scriptures since its very

past.

12

The Mahabharata considers the trees as like one own son

and laid emphasis on planting more trees. c.f.

manavam putravat brksah tarayanti paratra ca /

putravatparipalyaste putraste dharmatah smrtah //30

The Matyapurana also suggests taking care and protection of

trees which is highly beneficial for the existence of human beings and

nature. i.e.

padapanam vidhi suta! yathavad vistarad vada /

vidhina kena kartavyam padapodyapanam vudhaih //31

Again,

savausadyukaih siktan vistatakavibhusitan /

vrksan malyairalamkrtya vasobhih parivastayet //32

Considering the significance of such useful trees, the

Mahabharata alerts the people regarding the need of taking care and

protection of trees-

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It is mentioned in the Sivapurana that one who cuts down trees

will f asipa and he would have to abandon

human society and take recluse in the forest as punishment. i.e.

13

34

The Vrhatsamhita of Brahamihira is an outstanding specimen

of ancient India where we have innumerable utility of plants, the

methods of plant propagation, its care and other valuable

information35 which may play a vital role formulating new way of

investigation by the modern scientists. Some specific tree such as

Neem, Asoka, Kadamva etc. are very useful for purification of air.

Therefore, the Vrhatsamhita suggests broadcasting of these trees

before build own residence:

aristasokapumnagasirisah sapriyangavah /

mangalyah purvamarame ropaniya grhesu va //36

Kautilya, in his Arthasastra, have enough moral lessons in

connection to the care and protection of trees with their practical

value. According to Kautilya, plants are the basis of human

civilization. c.f.

yopajivina 37

Kautilya too, prescribes punishments for cutting of trees. It

includes imposition of fine upto six panas for cutting down tender

sports, flowers and trees providing shade in the park near a city.

When a small branch is cut, the fine is raised upto twelve panas; and

in case big branches it may extend upto twenty four panas38.

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The conservation of the forest and new plantation are two main

policies of modern scientists with regard to maintenance the plant-

ecology which have been observed in the Arthasastra of Kautilya.

c.f.

evam dravyadvipavana setuvandhamathakaran /

raksetyurvakrtanraja navamscabhipravartayet //39

Kautilya has prescribed the appointment a Sitadhyaksa for

protecting forests-

samaharta durgam rastram khanim setum vanam vajram

vanikyapatham cavekseta /40

Similarly, Manu, known as the first law-giver of India, suggests

punishment to those who cut down useful tress. c.f.

//41

Also,

42

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43.

Likewise, the animals are also a major part of our environment.

Some animals like cow, horse etc. have been described in the Vedas

emphatically.

annam hi gauh //44 45 etc.

Therefore, the Atharvaveda suggest punishment to those who

become threat to such type of animals for their existence. c.f.

visam gavam yatudhana bharantama brscantamaditaye duresah /

parainan devah savita dadatu para bhagamosadhinam jayantam //46

The killing of co anagohatya vai bhima 47. On

the other hand, those who serves c yah

pranati sa ha devasu gacchati 48 In the Ramayana also, Lord

Valmiki, through his poetic manner states that killing an innocent

animal is a great offence. Anyone exerting violence in nature must be

punished. The following citation is a clear instance regarding this

aspect.

ma nisada ! pratistham tvamagamah sasvatih samah /

yatkauncamithunadekamavadhih kamamohitam //49

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The ancient Indian law givers prescribe punishment for killing

different kinds of birds and animals by different person of the society.

For example, according to Manu, if a Brahmin kills a snake, she/he

should give a spade of black iron. For killing a boar, one should give

pot clarified butter. For destructing a partridge, one should give a

drone of sea-mum grains; and for killing a parrot. One should give a

calf of two years old. And if anybody kills a crane, she/he should give

a calf of three years old50. Similarly, it is mentioned in the

Manusamhita that a person who kills a Hamsa, Bakula, a heron, a

peacock, a monkey, a falcon or a Bhasa, should give a cow to a

Brahmin. If anybody kills a horse, she/he should give a garment. For

killing an elephant one should give five black bulls. One should give

a draught ox for destroying a goat or a sheep. It has been prescribed

that if anybody kills a donkey, she/he should give a calf of one year

old51.

Thus, the protection of birds, animals and other plants is the

norm of the Indian tradition. The great sage Caraka, the author of

Carakasamhita also suggests to maintaining a cordial relationship

with the animals providing all humanly behaviors as like one own

friend. In the words of Caraka bhutah syat,

kruddhanamanuneta, bhitanamasvasayita, dinanamabhyupapatta,

satyasandhah, samapradhanah, paraparusavacanasahisnuh,

amarsa 52

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Again,

nanujnatena ca) pravicarata purvam

gurvarthopaharane yathasakti prayatitavyam,

karmasiddhimarthasiddhim yasolabham pretya ca svargamicchata

bhisaja tvaya gobrahmanamadau krtva sarvapranabhrtam sarma

sasitavyamaharaharuttistha copavisata ca sarvatmana

caturanamarogyaya prayatitavyam jivitahetorapi caturebhyo

nabhidrogdhavyam 53

The Hindus believe fourteen avataras (birth) of the God like

Matsya-Kurma-Varaha-Nrsingha etc. which signify the divine forms

in such animals. Accordingly, various gods assume animal form. As

for instance, Lord Ganesha is the elephant god; and Vishnu incarnates

as Varaha etc. The Hindu has been worshiping the different kinds of

animals in assuming forms of gods in their respective religious

activities. The cobra is worshiped on the eve of Nagapanchami and

cows are offered adorations on Balabhadra-puja. Likewise, some

plants like Tulshi, Bilva, Banyan-tree etc. are worshiped by the

Hindus. All these are nothing but the indication of the importance of

such animals and plants, in absence of which the survival of human

being is quite impossible. Therefore, such needed or respectful

objects should be protected or preserved by all means.

In Buddhist culture, also nature is considered most sacred. In

Buddhism, the preservation of animals, birds, small creatures and

plants are pointed out as essential as human beings. Causin pain to a

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defenseless animal is declared unjustified. In the Jatakamala of

Aryasutra, Buddha has been depicted in the form of animals and birds

in many times. Thus, it exhorts that one should follow the path of

non-violence and kindness for the welfare and happiness of all living

beings, keeping in mind a natural and protective environment.

Similarly, our ancient Indian ancestors prescribe some spiritual

and disciplined life-style for the people, which is useful for

preservation of the environment. It has been advised to every house-

holder that they should perform five great sacrifices (Mahayajnas)

regularly. These five Mahayajnas are: brahmayajna; the sacrifice

offered to the Brahmanas (i.e. teaching and studying of the vedas),

pitryajana; the sacrifice offered to the means (i.e. offering to water

and food), devayajna, the sacrifice offered to the Gods (i.e. the burnt

oblations), bhutayajna, the sacrifice offered to men (i.e. hospitable

reception of the guest)54. Hence, these five sacrifices are suggested

with the preservation of environment. The concept of these five

Mahayajnas is a lesson to the people that nobody should disturb the

balance in the creation.

The Bhagavadgita clearly enunciates the theory of

interconnection and interdependence of the whole cosmos in a

definite and scientific form. Accordingly, all life of the whole cosmos

is made of five elements pancamahabhutas-the earth-water-fire-sky

and wind.

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ksetrajnam capi mam viddhi sarvaksetresu bharata /

ksetraksetrajnayojnanam yatjnanam matam mama //55.

The Mahabharata also proclaims that these elements are the

root of this universe. c.f.

bhumirapastatha jyotirvayurakasameva ca /

gunottarani sarvani tesam vaksami te gunan //

ete pancadasa brahman guna bhutesu pancasu /

vartante sarvabhutesu yesu lokah pratisthita //56

In this context, the Indian philosophy recognizes two types of

aspects i.e. external and internal. According to Indian philosophy, for

a conducive environment both aspects should be well, for which they

refer these five mahabhutas i.e. the earth, water, fire, air, and space,

where the internal aspect includes mainly mind (manas). As to the

nomenclature of the environment, the concept developed by the

ecologists based upon the five gross elements of nature is completely

considered one-sided since no scientist has accepted mind or intellect

as a component of environment, except the components of Sanskrit

literature57. The Bhagavadgita also states that this prakriti of mind is

divided into eight fold thus: earth, water, fire, air, space, mind

intellect and also egoism. i.e.

bhumir lo vayuh kham mano buddhireva ca /

ahamkara itiyam me bhinna prakrtirastadha // 58

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According to Indian seers, environment is consisting with these

elements. So, these five visible gross elements have a great

significance for an environment, without which the survival of

mankind is quite impossible. Several Indian philosophers are also in

favor of these facts that, God is present in each and every element of

this universe are not so ordinary elements which have been

deified in Sanskrit literature. The significance of deification of these

elements is that, the human beings will be psychologically and

spontaneously eager to develop a sense of respect towards these

elements. The Vajasaneyi Samhita declares that almost all the

elements of nature such as fire, air, the Sun, the Moon, Vayu, and

Rudras etc. are deities59.

The Samkhya philosophy advocates the theory of this

cosmology with the help of two aspects viz. Purusa and Prakriti.

According to this philosophy, Prakriti is the uncaused cause of the

world and all the gross and subtle elements comes from this prakrit60.

Here, Samkhya refers to five natural elements i.e. earth, water, space,

fire and air as well as the human beings as products of this Prakriti61.

So, the divine virtue of Mother Nature is responsible for the creation

of this universe.

In this way, the ancient Indian seers observed nature from

different angles viz. as creator or a creation. As creator, nature or

Prakriti is the ultimate cause of this universe from which innumerable

forms come out. In Samkhya, it is termed as Prakriti, the principle of

creation, whether it is creator or creation, nature stands for

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environment and without nature or natural gifts the survival of

human-being is quite impossible. This has been aptly realized by our

ancient Indian seers. So, for preservation of these natural properties,

they analyzed nature carefully and deified the natural substances.

For a conducive environment, sacrifices have a great

significance. It purifies our environment. Therefore, the Mundaka-

upanisada suggests us to perform yajna with a great respect. c.f.

etesu yascarate bhrajamanesu yathakalam cahutayo hrdadayana /

tam nayanaptyetah su .62.

Similarly, the Bhagavadgita recognizes yajnas as the essence

for all living being63. The offering made to gods reaches the Sun

through fire and again comes down to the earth as rain. Without rain

or water, the survival of living being cannot be imagined.

Thus, Nature as well as environment plays a very significant

role in the whole ancient scriptures. These texts also encourage us to

embrace the ancient Indian way to life and inspire the people to

perform some activities (like plantation) with an attitude of reverence

towards the environment.

In his Nirukta, Yaska gives the definition of manusya as:

matva karmani sivyunti iti 64. It is through such actions that man

realized the truth behind the cosmos. The ancient Indian thinkers

considered the whole world as the creation of God. The entire world

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is interconnected with both animate and inanimate objects. There is a

deep relationship among plants, animals and human beings.

Therefore, as being the superior to all of these, it is the duty of every

man of this earth to maintain the beauty of nature and not to disturb

its equilibrium. The Vedic ancestors devoted their life for welfare of

the whole universe. For that, they performed some religious activities

(like yajnas) through which they had been teaching human beings to

respect natural objects, peace, purity, sanity and serenity forever.

Hence, they prayed:

// 65

Also,

madu vata rtayate madhu ksaranti sindhavah /

madhvirnah santvosadhih //

madhu naktamutosaso madhumat parthivam rajah /

madhu dyaurastu nah pita //

madhuman no vanaspatirmadhuman astu suryah /

madhvirgavo bhavantu nah //66

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(C) Kalidasa and His Works:

Kalidasa, the prince in Sanskrit literature, occupies an unique

place in the history of the world literature both as an immortal poet

and dramatist. The matchless qualities of his works have been

lavishly praised both by ancient Indian critics and modern scholars.

Kalidasa has been designated as the Kavikulaguru i.e. mentors of the

poets. In spite of the great popularity of his name, it must be admitted

that there are hardly any trustworthy information regarding the

alone stand as a monument of his surpassing poetical excellence.

There are a few information of this world-wide repute from external

sources and a few incidents are found here and there in his works,

which may be supposed to have a distant link to the history of his life.

About the personal life of Kalidasa, Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrisnan

realm of

reasonable conjecture and nothing more. Kalidasa speaks very little of

himself, and we cannot therefore be sure of his authorship of many

works attributed to him. We hardly have any details of his life.

Numerous legends have gathered round his name, which have no 67. Virtually, no facts are known about his life,

although many colorful legends bear testimony of glorious

life. According to such myth, Kalidasa was a Brahmine by caste and

originally, was a dull child and grew up quite uneducated, but through

the match-making efforts of a scheming minister he married to a

princess who was ashamed of his ignorance and coarseness. Later, he

acquired extra-ordinary intelligence and erudition through the grace

24

of the goddess Kali. It is further narrated in the story that when

Kalidasa returned to his wife after attaining deep learning, his wife

(the learned) asked him: asti kascid vagvisesah (Is there any

excellence in your speech?). In response to this quarry Kalidasa

composed his three famous works starting with these three words-the

Kumarasambhava, opening with the word asti (astyuttarasyam disi

devatatma himalayo..........)68, the Meghaduta, with the word kascit

(kascitkantavirahaguruna svadhikaratpramattah )69 and the

Raghuvamsa, with the word vak (vagarthaviva samprktau

vagarthapratipattaye )70. According to another story,

Kalidasa was murdered by a greedy courtesan when he was, as a

guest of his friend and Ceylonee king Kumaradasa, in Ceylon.

Similarly, many tales are there for the birth place of the great

poet. Some call him native of Ujjayini, some of Kashmir, some of

Bengal and other of Vidarva. A time-honoured tradition supported by

internal and external evidence, associates the name of Kalidasa with

the city Ujjayini. In his lyric Meghaduta, Kalidasa gives a vivid

description of this city. For that, the poet devotes a number of stanzas

and shows his close acquaintance of the geographical region or

objects, in comparison to other places, rivers and hills situated in

central India. From those, scholars assume that the poet spent the best

part of his life in this beautiful city which may be the native place of

Kalidasa.

In this context, some other modern scholars like

Mahamahopadhya Dr. Lachmi Dhar Kalla71 propounded this view

25

that Kalidasa, in his works enthuastically presents the glorious

graphic description of Kashmir with several rivers, and holy places.

and customs that are

prevalent in Kashmir. As for instance, through his all plays, Kalidasa

propogates the doctrine of the Kashmirian Shaiva doctrine of

Prayabhijnana-darsana (the doctrine of the recognition of unity of

divine soul). These indicate that Kalidasa was born and brought up in

Kashmir and later on he migrated to the central India to seek royal

patronage due to disturbed conditions in Kashmir.

To another apocryphal, Bengal was the native place of

Kalidasa. Supporting this, the scholars explain the name Kalidasa as a

devotee of goddess Kali i.e. Kalidasa, the devotee of Kali. On account

of predominance of the worship of Kali in Bengal, scholars assign

that to be the birth-place of the poet. For asserting the birth-place of

Kalidasa, some scholars explain fondles in Vaidarva style of

composition and on the basis of this, they presume that Vidarva was

the place where Kalidasa, the great poet was born. But these two are

very weak arguments, because the internal evidences available from

s do not corroborate the view that he was a devotee of

Kali; and secondly, no argument about the birth place of a writer can

be built on the basis of his style of writing72.

Similarly, it is a topic of great discussion among the scholars

about the date of Kalidasa which still remains debated. On the basis

of various chronological evidences which are directly or indirectly

associate with Kalidasa, scholars assign the date of Kalidasa in

26

various centuries. So, there is a sharp difference of opinion among

scholars with regard to the date of Kalidasa. According to these

most upward date of Kalidasa is stated by French scholar Mr.

Hippolyte Fouce, places Kalidasa in the eight century B.C. on the

assumption that he was contemporary to Agnivarma, the last king of

Raghu-dynasty73. On the other hand, the earliest mention of Kalidasa

by name is in the Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II which proves

Kalidasa as a poet of six century A.D. or before this era.74. Bana, the

court poet of Sriharsa of Kanauj, who reigned from 606 A.D. to 647

A. D. pays rich tribute to Kalidasa75. On the strength of these

evidences, Kalidasa might have flourished during or before the six

century A.D.

Although different scholars put numerous arguments

supporting their own view to assign a definite date of the great poet

but there are some common theories associated Kalidasa with the

period, known as Vikrama era. After the discovery of the Mandasor

inscription, this theory became untenable and remains unshaken.

Similarly, according to some modern European scholars are generally

inclined to hold that Kalidasa must have flourished under one or more

of the Gupta kings. Mr. Vincent A. Smith in his book entitled Early

History of India mentions that Kalidasa must have lived in the

region of the first two, or even in that of the third, of the Gupta kings

i.e. Chandragupta II (357-413 A.D.), Kumaragupta I (413-455 A.D.)

and Skandagupta (455-480 A.D.), where both Chandragupta had

adopted the title of Vikramaditya74. In this regard Mr. Smith

27

comments:

say, while Chandragupta II was on throne; but I am inclined to regard

the reign of Kumaragupta I (413-

later works were composed and it seems possible, that the whole of

his literary career fell within the limits of that region. It is also

possible that he may have continued his writing after the accession of 77. Thus, Mr. Smith states Vikramaditya as the patron of

Kalidasa. But it is vague because more than one king bears the same

title in the history of ancient India. However, from the internal

evidences it proves that a period of peace, prosperity, power, victory

and glory portrayed in the works of Kalidasa especially in the

Raghuvamsa. After many arguments, some scholars believe that

Kalidasa flourished in the Gupta age and was a contemporary of

Chandragupta II or Kumaragupta I, who had assumed the title of

Vikramaditya. Then there is the theory of the nine gems by unknown

in the court of Vikramaditya.

i.e.

dhvanantariksapanakamarasimhasamkuvetalabhattaghatakarparakalidasah /

khyato varahamihiro nrpateh sabhayam ratnani vai vararucirnava vikramasya

Of these nine gems, Amarasingha is said to have lived between

414 A.D. to 642 A.D. Varahamihir is believed to have died in 587

A.D. So, on the basis of this strong ground, Kalidasa is supposed to

be their contemporary.

28

Ghatakapara-Kavya is a khandakavya containing 22 verses is

a poetic contribution by Ghatakarpara, an eminent gem of the court of

Vikramaditya. In this literary credit, like Kalidasa, Ghatakarpara

portrays nature as an integral part of human life and like Kalidasa

sends cloud to his love-lorn heroine as messenger.

Varahamihi Brihatsamhita is one of best contribution

to Indian astrology; represents the social, cultural, and environmental

spheres of his time. A.B. Keith also clearly states that Varahamihir

flourished in the six century A.D. where the date of Ksaparnaka and

Vararuci are unknown. But on the basis of the verse of

Jyotividhyabharana78 most of scholars are in favour of the view that

Vararuci, Ksaparanaka etc. all are contemporary of the poet Kalidasa.

Furthermore, considering similarities of ideas, situations and

descriptions, some scholars advocate the impact of Asvaghosa on

Kalidasa. According to them, Asvaghosa, the Buddhist poet, paved

the ground for Kalidasa for his compositions. In this context, E. B.

Cowell

Buddhacarita remarks doubt

picture was suggested by the rough but vigorous outlines in

Asvaghosa; he was the Buddhist Ennius who gave the first inspiration

to the Hindu v 79. A. B. Keith also observes that Kalidasa

exhibits the influence of increased refinement of style in his dramas

just as in his epics he normally avoids the pedestrian traits which are

easily to be found in the epics of his forerunner Asvaghosa.80. History

also proves Asvaghosa as a court poet of the Kaunsa king Kaniska

29

who ruled in 78 A. D81. Hence, Kalidasa flourished after Asvaghosa.

But there is no consensus among the scholars about the matters.

As like the matter birth-province and date, the

works of Kalidasa is also a matter of great dispute among the

scholars. The poet is silent about himself in his works. Numerous

se

works are interpolated by some anterior or by some later poets

bearing the name of Kalidasa or who has been associated with

Kalidasa directly or indirectily. Rajasekhara, the author of

Kavyamimamsa also states that there were three other poets who bore

the name Kalidasa. c.f.

kenacit /

kimu // 82.

Generally, the following works are associated with regard to

the authorship of Kalidasa: Sakuntala, Vikramorvasiyam,

Malavikagnimitram, Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambhava, Meghaduta,

Kuntesvaradautya, Rtusamhara, Ambastava, Kalyanastava,

Kalastotra, Kavyanatakalamkara, two Gangastakas, Ghatakarpa,

Chandikadandastrotra, Carcastava, Jyotirvidyabharana,

Durghatakavya, Nalodaya, Navaratnamala, Puspabanavilasa,

Makarandastva, two Mangalastakas, Mahapadyastaka, Ratnakosa,

Raksasakavya, Laksmistava, Laghustava, Vidvadvinodakavya,

Vrndavanakavya, Vaidyamanorama, Suddhicandrika,

Srngaratilaka, Srngararasastakavya, Sringararasastaka,

Syamaladandaka, Srutabodha, Saptaslokiramayana and

30

Setubandha Sanskrit Manuscripts

also assigns 34 works to Kalidasa83.

Although these large number of works are attributed as

; but, on the basis of the grounds of common

ideas, expressions and style most of modern scholars come to a view

that only two epics (Mahakavyas) namely, The Raghuvamsa and the

Kumarasmbhava two lyrics (Khandakavyas) named the Rtusamhara

and the Meghaduta and three plays viz. the Malivikagnimitram, the

Vikramorvasiyam and the Abhijnanasakuntalam can be ascribed to

his unique creation. Among these seven works, which are analyzed

from various poetical art, delineation of emotiom sentiments, and the

are sought

to be discovered. A.D. Singh follows the views of Bail Pandey84 as

mentioned here for determining

which stand in the following order- the Rtusamhara-

Malavikagnimitram- Kumarasambhava- Vikramorvasiyam-

Meghaduta- Raghuvamsa and the Abhijnanasakuntalam.

The Ritusamhara is regarded as the first literary credit of the

great genius. It is a lyric containing about 153 verses, where the poet

praises the glory of six Indian seasons like Grisma, Varsa etc. with all

their aspects and the changes brought about in nature by the advent of

each and every season and its impact on the living being, especially

on the love-affected persons. It starts from a passionate address by a

young romantic his beloved. By the description these six

31

seasons, the poet adjoins the human life with nature which reflects

The Malavikagnimitram is considered as the first attempt of

dramatic creation and the second literary achievement of Kalidasa. It

is a five-act play containing the love story between the king

Agnivarma of Vidisa and Malavika as its main theme. Here, Kalidasa

portrays this sensual love along with a description of the frailties,

selfishness and weakness of the queens of the palace-harem bearing

the cultural, social and historical value of past India by its character

and theme.

The Meghaduta, a lyrical poem containing 120 verses, is

another majestic work of Kalidasa. It is divided into two parts viz.

Purvamegha and Uttaramegha respectively. A newly-wedded

Yaksha, who was appointed in the survice of Kuvera, the custodian of

riches, for gross negligence of his duty was exiled by his master from

Aloka to Ramagiri for a year. There he took shelter on that mount,

abounded in trees yi

ablutions85. Seeing a piece of cloud in summer, the love-mudded

Yaksa becomes anxious and desires to send his message of well-being

to his beloved through it. Thus, the whole poem is a message of

longing and hope in which passion in purified and desire is enabled.

The Vikramorvasiyam of Kalidasa is a trotaka class of Rupaka

with five acts, relating the love-story between the terrestrial king

Agnimitra and Celestial Urvasi as its central theme. Therefore, the

32

play is a blending of human and super human elements with earth and

heaven. Both the hero and heroine of this play are well-known

legendary figures who are hallowed by tradition.

The Kumarasambhava

relating how Parvati won the love of Siva in order to bring Kumara

(i.e. Kartikeya), the god of war to destroy the demon Tadaka. At first,

the physical glamour of Uma failed to win the heard of Siva, finally,

the plan was successful and as a result Uma gave birth Kumara who

saved the universe from Tadaka. Although the epic contains

seventeen cantos, from its various poetical aspects, some scholars

considered ;

and remaining positions have been perceived to be added later on by

any unknown poet for a sweetable conclusion of the poem.

Nevertheless, the Kumarasambhava ranks one of the most designed

mahakavya among the five-mahakavyas in Sanskrit literature.

Abhijnanasakuntalam is a full-fledged play in

seven acts which has a world-wide appreciation and is universally

acclaimed as the best creation of the great genius. In this play, the

dramatist portraits the passionate love between the king Dusyanta and

Sakuntala, the daughter of a celestial nymph, Menaka and sage

Viswamitra. So, it represents a blending between earthly and

heavenly elements. Due to perfect delineation, elegance of language

and so on, it is accorded as the best jewel not only in Sanskrit

literature but also in the world literature by the critics.

33

The Raghuvamsa

Kalidasa containing nineteen cantos describing the life of Raghu

together with a record of his ancestors and descendants. It based on

the Ramayana of Valmiki. According to Indian critics, it is the finest

specimen of a Mahakavya which enumerated among the five famous

Mahakavyas of Sanskrit literature.

In the realm of Sanskrit literature, Kalidasa, the immortal poet

and playwright, occupies a unique position whose works have been

lavishly praised by critics all over the world. Among his seven well-

known creations, the Abhijnanasakuntalam is highly praised as his

best paragon.

Not only by the modern scholars, the ancient Indian critics like

Dandin, Bana etc. and the famous prose-writers of Sanskrit literature

also pray rich compliments to Kalidasa. Dandin admires Kalidasa for

his Vaidarbha

charming says are lan 86.

In Sanskrit literature, Kalidasa is known as the master of

upama (simile). It bears the striking feature of the genius which can

easily captive the hearts of sahrdayas. Hence, the saying goes as

upama Kalidasyasya

His upama are clear, complete and beautiful. Prosperity of his use of

simile is so charming that later rhetoricians like Vamana have laid

down certain rules for the use of figures of speech in general and

upama in particular87.

34

In Kalidasa, we find the normal state of prakrti in the later

dramas, Sauraseni for the prose speech and Maharastri for the verses.

His Sanskrit is classical where the deviations from the norm are found

in many cases. His expressions are capable of defense on some rule or

other, while in others we may remember the fact of the epic

tradition88.

Kalidasa is considered as the greatest poet of Sringara-rasa in

classical Sanskrit literature. The Sringara has two kinds- Sambhoga

and Vipralambha type of Srngara, where Kalidasa shows his

Excellence in both. The Meghaduta and the eight canto of the

Kumarasambhava stand as excellent specimens of vipralambha-

srngara and sambhoga-sringara respectively. Similarly, the episode

raiti- as found in the eight canto of the Raghuvamsa and

rati- of the Kumarasambhava are two superb examples of

Karuna-rasa by Kalidasa. Moreover, in his works, Kalidasa shows

his deep acquaintance in the use of eight types of comedies as

mentioned in the Natyasatra of Bharata.

In field of dramatic creation, Kalidasa is ranked at the topmost

of the dramatist of the world by the critics and the Shakespear of

India s. In his plays, the playwright maintains a

harmony with the development of his dramatic art. His dramatic plot,

flight of imagination, unique delineation of human feelings and

characters, elegance and simplicity of expression, fusion of sound and

sense, sympathetic description of Nature, and wonderful blend of

natural and supernatural elements etc. leads to an unique creation not

35

only in Sanskrit literature but also in the world literature. His dramas

are good composition of both earthly and celestial characters where

he depicts various types of characters such as: male, female, kumara,

and inanimate objects, divine, semi-divine and combined mortal-

divine figures, where the human characters have been depicted as the

ideal which is free from all blemishes and have universal virtues.

Similarly, due to his poetical compositions, Kalidasa has been

able to draw rich tribute both from ancient and modern scholars since

his time. Kalidas

unparallel and in

compositions attach greater importance to the employment of similes

and metaphors and to the delineation of natural scenery and human

sentiments than to a simple narration of events. Kalidasa concives

only the beautiful, refined and harmonious aspects of life and nature,

for which he his famous as the Poet of Beauty . Moreover, his

Excellent of poetic art is distinguished by elegators, accomplishment,

and harmony of sound and sense, which delights our mind and

elevates the soul of the sahrdayas.

The poet has an unfailing eye for the wonderful aspects of

nature which lead him to establish himself the poet of Nature

Sanskrit literature. In his minute observation, he includes all the

living and non-living objects of the world with equal impotence. In

the imagination of Kalidasa every river is bound with the sea in

wedlock, and every tree and plant awaits a male. The mountains and

forests are bosom friends of clouds; and the wind and vernal blooms

36

confidence of love. uman nature is inextricably

interlinked with nature89.

Thus, Kalidasa, known as the prince in Sanskrit literature,

occupies the highest position in the field of Sanskrit literature. The

works of Kalidasa bears numerous kinds of poetic excellences. He

adopted most of the arts of learning available at his time whose

richness of creation is beyond words. Virtually, Kalidasa is the highly

laudable person in classical literature that has been able to shake the

hearts of every reader. Numerous legends on him prove the popularity

of Kalidasa. In modern time also, different people from various

countries languages have spread his fame all over the world. Goethe,

the renowned German poet was also so inspired by the German

version of the Abhijnanasakuntalam that it evoked him to compose a

beautiful poem in German language to extol the play. The English

translation of this famous epigram is as follows:

Wouldst thou have the blossoms of youth

and the fruits of maturity,

Wouldst thou have charms and delights,

Wouldst have satisfaction and support,

Wouldst thou grasp the heaven and the earth

with a single name,

I name thee, O Sakuntala!

and thus everything is said 90.

37

Likewise Goethe, the well-known philosopher and traveler Hamboldt

tributes Kalidasa as:

a masterly describer of the influence which nature exercises upon the

minds of lovers. ression of feeling and

richness of creative fancy have assigned to him his lofty place among 91.

Several eminent scalars Shakespear of

brightest star in

firmament 92. Similarly, the most celebrated Bengali

poet Rabindra Nath Tagore shows his great complement to Kalidasa

by writing a long poem in Bengali. The English translation of the last

stanza of this sweetable poem runs thus-

Did you not have joy and sorrow?

Hope and despair, even like ourselves,

O immortal poet? Were not there always

The intrigues of a royal court, the stabbing in back?

Did you never suffer humiliation,

Affront, distrust, injustice,

Want, hard and pitiless? Did you never pass

A sleepless night of poignant agony?

Yet above them all, unconcerned pure,

Has flowered your poem a lotus of beauty

Opening to the sun of joy. Nowhere

Does it show any sign of sorrow, affliction, evil times,

38

Churning the sea of life you drank the poison,

The nectar that arose you gave away!93.

(D) Objectives and Scope of the Study:

Environment and human-being are closely interrelated as the

two sides of the same coin. Environmental imbalance invites

destruction not only to the human life but also to the entire

civilization too. In order to obtain sustainable development of human

life, favorable environment is essential. In the twenty first century,

the era of science of technology, human civilization has achieved

tremendous progress in different fields of society. At the same time, it

is probably an undeniable fact that human being has failed to provide

required attention towards Mother-Nature. The process of

industrialization and technological advancement has created

environmental pollution, which is undoubtedly a threat to both human

society and nature. The overall evil effect of industrialization upon

the harmony between living beings and environment demands serious

Environment and

Development observes

created an environment in which life has became physically and

mentally unhealthy. Polluted air, irritating noise, traffic congestion,

chemical containments, radiation hazards and many other sources of

physical and psychological stress have become part of every-day life

for most of us. These manifold health hazards are not just incidental

by products of technological progress. They are integral features of an

economic system obsessed with growth and expansion, continuing to

intensify its high technology in an attempt to increase productivity 94.

39

In this context, at present, Environmental Science has begun to be

taught as a core subject in schools, colleges and at the university level

also. The Stockholm conference of Human Environment (1972)

acclaimed the efforts, both national and international to establish

programmes of environment education, interdisciplinary in approach,

in school and out of school en-compassing all levels of education and

directed towards the general public in particular the ordinary citizens

living in rural and urban area, youth and adult alike, with a view to

educating him as to simple steps he might take, within his means to

manage and control his environment 95.

It, thus, cannot be denied that a sustainable environment is the

pre-requisite for well-being of the society. In the present era of

science and technology, the main environmental problems are: air

pollution, ozone layer depletion, noise pollution, problems related to

wild-life protection, water pollution, land degradation etc. which

creates hazards for human-beings as well as nature to exist in this

planet. So, various types of environmental laws like the Forest Act,

1927; Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980; Wild-life Protection Act;

1970; Water (Protection and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981;

Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 have formulated to curve

destraction of nature natural resources, and at the same time to protect

their sustainability. In India and abroad, both central and different

state Govts. have taken numerous significant and effective

programmes and research projects to create environmental awareness

among the people. To understand the crisis of environmental

40

degradation and to create awareness about the same, every year 5th

World Environmental Day

Ancient Indian scriptures, as has already been discussed, have

enough to reveal for protection and maintenance of ecological

balance. Environment includes all parts of nature necessary for health

and happiness of human beings. Nature reserves immense

potentialities to maintain ecological balance. Our ancient Rishis is

adequately realized the importance of natural objects on human life.

Hence, they worshiped these natural objects as deity to protect and

maintain a healthy environment. Ancient Indian scientists inspired

and provided various ways to maintain the most intimate relationship

between nature and human beings. Moreover, they have inspired and

shown ways to the people to maintain a conducive environment in

human society where nature and human beings can exist

harmoniously.

The ancient Indian environmental principles are based on the

idea of unity, interconnectedness, interdependence which are able to

address the environmental problems of bio-diversity, global warming,

water pollution, nuclear proliferation etc. Dr. Biswanarayan Sastri in

his paper entitled Environment in Sanskrit Literature presented

in the World Sanskrit Conference 2001, held in New Delhi has urged

us to follow the teaching of Sanskrit literature to maintain

environmental equilibrium. To quote Dr. Sastri passage of

time and the development of science and technology, trade and

industry, the total economic growth has caused a sea change in the

41

living pattern of the people of today with those of yore. In short, the

economic growth and environment are moving in two directions and

hence science and technology seem to be the enemy of nature and the

question of environment arises. On the other hand in this scientific

age nobody could think of stepping opposite progress of science and

technology. The natural environment is the ideal of humanity, and

that is why the Vedic and Puranic literatures sing the glory of nature

and environment. Today, the situation caused by the man to fulfill his

greed is bent upon to destroy nature in the name of advancement of

material civilization, which eats at its root. The greed surpasses the

need and it becomes a global problem. To maintain the purity of air

and water as remedial measures one may look into the Sanskrit

literature to find an answer for living with nature and may prove that

green is good! Sanskrit has the inherent capacity to find a solution in

the face of aggression by the modern technology to save not only the

human beings but the inanimate beings too, the ecology 96. R.C.

Panda Indian Spiritual Life and Environment

suggests to follow the ancient Indian life style which will inspire

everybody to respect nature and to create a sustainable environment97.

Kalidasa, the prince in Sanskrit Literature, perhaps occupies the

highest position in this field. His works earns world-wide fame

among the heart of the different levels of scholars and scientists. The

works of Kalidasa, the poet of nature, is, infect, a treasure house of

moral lessons which can work as the basis for developing new

environmental ethics in the world. Kalidasa portrays in a very

appreciating manner the universal relationship between Nature and

42

Human beings, which is having much relevance in the present day

world. He is a minute observer of both animate and inanimate objects,

where he not only depicts the beautiful sides of nature, their feelings

and emotions but also their other humanly attitudes too. Therefore, it

is probably highly essential, in this era of science and technology, to

examine the concepts of Environmental Awareness as revealed in the

works of Kalidasa, the great poet dramatist.

The present work is an humble attempt to study and examine

the different aspects of environmental awareness as is revealed in the

works of Kalidasa, and to find out their relevance, if any, for

maintaining a eco-friendly society.

43

Notes and References:

1. EASL, P-XIX

2. GIC, P-20

3. OALD, P-387

4. CIDE,P-463

5. CORD, P-274

6. DEST, P-217

7. WDST,P-307

8. TAEE, P-15

9. EAIST, P-53

10. HES, 2002

11. MPCEPCS, 1997

12. JUJI, Vol.-6, 2001, P-132

13. Ibid, Vol.-6, 2001, pp-132-133

14. GIC, P-52

15. EEE, P-262

16. AV., 12-1.1

17. Rg., 10-186.2

44

18. Rg., 10-86.1-3

19. AV., IV, 5.25.1

20. Tai., Sikhsavalli, XII Anuvaka

21. Rg., Sayanacharya, 1.16.1.9

22. SB, III, 8.2.4

23. Rg., 10.9.2

24. Iso, 1

25. YV, 35

26. AV., 12.1.12

27. VP, 1.32.92

28. Ram, Yuddhakanda,

29. Ibid, Ayanyakanda, 17.19-22

30. Mbh, Anusasanaparva, 8.30

31. MsP,59.1

32. Ibid, 59.3

33. Mbh, Uddyogaparva

34. SvP,5.11.67

35. Vrhat, Vriksayuraveda, 55.6,12

36. Ibid, Viksayurveda,55.3

45

37. Arth, 2.13.18

38. Ibid, 2.13.24

39. Ibid, 2.1.47

40. Ibid, 2.6.1

41. MS, 11.142.113

42. Ibid, 8.2.85

43. Ibid., 12, 58

44. SB, 4.3.1.25

45. Ibid., 13.9.6.3

46. AV., 8.3.16

47. AV., 10.1.29

48. Rg., 1.125.5

49. Ram, Valakanda, 2.15

50. MS, 134-135

51. Ibid, 136-137

52. CS, ch,8

53. Ibid, Nidanasthana, 8.13

54. MS., 3.70

55. BG, 13.2

46

56. Mbh, Vanaparva, 222.3-10

57. JUJI., Vol. 6, 2001, pp-192-193

58. BG, Ch. 3

59. VS, 14. 2

60. Sam,3

61. Ibid. 22

62. MU, 2.5

63. BG., 3.14

64. Niru, 3.6

65. AV., 19.8.14

66. Rg., 1.90.6-8

67. Kl. P-02

68. Ku,1.1

69. Megha, 1

70. Raghu, 1.1

71. Kl, P-3

72. Ibid. 4

73. KCS, P-7

74. SD, P-146

47

75. Kl, P-5

76. Vik, P-18

77. Ibid, P-18

78. Jdv, 20-22

79. Kl, 19

80. Ibid, P-23

81. KCS, P-11

82. Mal, P-III

83. KCS, P-10

84. Ibid, P-11

85. PMegha, 1

86. KHAC, P-1

87. JUJI, Vol. 5, 1996, P-175

88. SD, P-166

89. Kl, P-87

90. KHAC, pp 1-2

91. Mal, P-IV

92. Ibid. P-V

93. KHAC, P-2

48

94. EASL, P-XVIII

95. Ibid, P- XXII

96. Ibid, P-XX

97. JUJI, Vol. 6, 2001, P-70