Intro to Political ScienceIntro to Political Science

Political SciencePolitical Science

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Collective ActionCollective Action

Political Science DefinedPolitical Science Defined

• Academic discipline and social Academic discipline and social science dealing with the theory and science dealing with the theory and practice of politics and the practice of politics and the description of political systems and description of political systems and political behavior.political behavior.

What is Politics?What is Politics?

• The authoritative allocation of resourcesThe authoritative allocation of resources

• Politics usually describes the processes Politics usually describes the processes by which people and institutions by which people and institutions exercise and resist power. exercise and resist power.

• Political processes are used to Political processes are used to formulate policies, influence individuals formulate policies, influence individuals and institutions, and organize societies. and institutions, and organize societies.

Political Science Political Science DistinguishedDistinguished• The emphasis upon government and power The emphasis upon government and power

distinguishes political science from other social distinguishes political science from other social sciences.sciences.

• Although political scientists share an interest with Although political scientists share an interest with economists in studying relations between the economists in studying relations between the government and economy. government and economy.

• As well as with sociologists in considering As well as with sociologists in considering relations between social structures in general and relations between social structures in general and political structures in particular. political structures in particular.

• Political scientists attempt to explain and Political scientists attempt to explain and understand recurrent patterns in politics rather understand recurrent patterns in politics rather than specific political events. than specific political events.

Political Science FieldsPolitical Science Fields

• Political science is organized into five Political science is organized into five major fields, each representing a major major fields, each representing a major subject area of teaching and research in subject area of teaching and research in colleges and universities. colleges and universities.

• These fields include: These fields include: – Comparative politics Comparative politics – American politics American politics – International RelationsInternational Relations– Political Theory, Political Theory, – Public Administration / Public PolicyPublic Administration / Public Policy– Methodology Methodology

Comparative PoliticsComparative Politics

• Comparative politics involves study of the politics Comparative politics involves study of the politics of different countries. of different countries.

• Some political scientists, known as area Some political scientists, known as area specialists, study a single country or a culturally specialists, study a single country or a culturally similar group of nations, such as the countries of similar group of nations, such as the countries of Southeast Asia.Southeast Asia.

• Other political scientists compare culturally Other political scientists compare culturally dissimilar nations, and investigate the similarities dissimilar nations, and investigate the similarities and differences in the politics of these nations.and differences in the politics of these nations.

• Some question often considered: why are some Some question often considered: why are some countries democratic and others not? To what countries democratic and others not? To what extent and how does democritization occur?extent and how does democritization occur?

International RelationsInternational Relations

• International relations is the study of the International relations is the study of the international system, which involves interactions international system, which involves interactions between nations, international organizations, and between nations, international organizations, and multinational corporations. multinational corporations.

• International Relations experts often analyze the International Relations experts often analyze the international system in terms of the balance of international system in terms of the balance of power between nations and the threat of war power between nations and the threat of war while others examine the problem solving while others examine the problem solving capacity of international organizations. capacity of international organizations.

• Key questions considered: Why do nations go to Key questions considered: Why do nations go to war? Why do wars occur? How do different war? Why do wars occur? How do different political regimes affect international conflict?political regimes affect international conflict?

Political TheoryPolitical Theory

• Political theory involves the study of philosophical Political theory involves the study of philosophical thought about politics from ancient Greece to the thought about politics from ancient Greece to the present; present;

• the interpretation and development of concepts the interpretation and development of concepts such as freedom, democracy, human rights, justice, such as freedom, democracy, human rights, justice, and power; and power;

• the development of models for government, such as the development of models for government, such as participatory democracy or constitutional systems; participatory democracy or constitutional systems;

• and the logic that political scientists use in their and the logic that political scientists use in their inquiries.inquiries.

• Political Theory is the only sub-field that Political Theory is the only sub-field that consistently and primarily concerns itself with consistently and primarily concerns itself with normative questions. What is the good society? normative questions. What is the good society?

Public Policy / Public Public Policy / Public AdministrationAdministration

• Political scientists interested in public Political scientists interested in public administration study government organizations administration study government organizations and their relation to other parts of government. and their relation to other parts of government.

• Political scientists investigate how these Political scientists investigate how these organizations work, and try to devise methods organizations work, and try to devise methods of improving them of improving them

• Public Policy is more concerned with theoretical Public Policy is more concerned with theoretical and empirical investigations, while Public and empirical investigations, while Public Administration is more concerned with the Administration is more concerned with the practical applications of administrative tools.practical applications of administrative tools.

American PoliticsAmerican Politics

• American Politics: the study of the American American Politics: the study of the American political institutions and processes, as well as political institutions and processes, as well as the behavior of American citizens. the behavior of American citizens.

• Political scientists interested in American Political scientists interested in American politics often study the Congress of the politics often study the Congress of the United States, judicial politics, constitutional United States, judicial politics, constitutional law, the presidency, state and local politics, law, the presidency, state and local politics, voting and elections, and American political voting and elections, and American political history. history.

• Key Questions: Why do citizens vote? What Key Questions: Why do citizens vote? What role does Congress have in determining role does Congress have in determining public policy? public policy?

Competing Theories of American Competing Theories of American Politics Politics Majoritarian TheoryMajoritarian Theory• Majoritarianism is a political philosophy or Majoritarianism is a political philosophy or

agenda which asserts that a majority of the agenda which asserts that a majority of the population is entitled to a certain degree of population is entitled to a certain degree of primacy in society, and has the right to make primacy in society, and has the right to make decisions that affect the society.decisions that affect the society.

• Public policy is merely the produce of the U.S. Public policy is merely the produce of the U.S. majority – majority preferences are directly majority – majority preferences are directly translated into governmental actiontranslated into governmental action

• Not taken very seriously as an empirical Not taken very seriously as an empirical theorytheory

Competing Theories of American Competing Theories of American Politics Politics Elite TheoryElite Theory• The power-elite model is a sociological analysis of The power-elite model is a sociological analysis of

politics based on social-conflict theory that sees politics based on social-conflict theory that sees power as concentrated among the wealthy.power as concentrated among the wealthy.

• The term "power elite", coined in 1956 by social-The term "power elite", coined in 1956 by social-conflict theorist C. Wright Mills, is a small group of conflict theorist C. Wright Mills, is a small group of people who control a disproportionate amount of people who control a disproportionate amount of wealth, privilege and access to decision-makers in a wealth, privilege and access to decision-makers in a political system.political system.

• The power elite favors the status quo (as it favors The power elite favors the status quo (as it favors them), and hence oppose all significant political or them), and hence oppose all significant political or sociological change. sociological change.

• Dissidents from the political order are either quashed, Dissidents from the political order are either quashed, silenced through ‘bone throwing’ or co-opted.silenced through ‘bone throwing’ or co-opted.

• Important implication: voting is irrelevantImportant implication: voting is irrelevant

Competing Theories of American Competing Theories of American Politics Politics Group Theory (Pluralism)Group Theory (Pluralism)• Politics is primarily a struggle between groups Politics is primarily a struggle between groups

rather than individuals.rather than individuals.• The scope and content of the common good can The scope and content of the common good can

only be found out in and after the process of only be found out in and after the process of negotiation between groups with the government negotiation between groups with the government as mediator. as mediator.

• For pluralism to function and to be successful in For pluralism to function and to be successful in defining the common good, all groups have to defining the common good, all groups have to agree to a minimal consensus regarding shared agree to a minimal consensus regarding shared values, which tie the different groups to society, values, which tie the different groups to society, and shared rules for conflict resolution between the and shared rules for conflict resolution between the groups.groups.

• Caveat: What about the unorganized? Do they get Caveat: What about the unorganized? Do they get a seat at the table?a seat at the table?

Competing Theories of American Competing Theories of American Politics Politics InstitutionalismInstitutionalism• Institutions are social structures and social Institutions are social structures and social

mechanisms of order and cooperation, governing mechanisms of order and cooperation, governing the behavior of communities, societies, and states.the behavior of communities, societies, and states.

• Much of the research within Institutionalism deals Much of the research within Institutionalism deals with the pervasive influence of institutions on with the pervasive influence of institutions on human behavior through rules, norms, and other human behavior through rules, norms, and other frameworks. frameworks.

• Public policy is produced through the filter of Public policy is produced through the filter of institutions, where actors are often constrained institutions, where actors are often constrained from or pushed towards certain decisions and from or pushed towards certain decisions and decision-making processes as a result of the decision-making processes as a result of the institutional environment.institutional environment.

Four Theories Applied: Civil Four Theories Applied: Civil RightsRights• In 1964, Congress passed the Civil Rights In 1964, Congress passed the Civil Rights

Act, which prohibited discrimination based Act, which prohibited discrimination based on race or sex, and in 1965 passed the on race or sex, and in 1965 passed the Voting Rights Act, which eliminated Voting Rights Act, which eliminated literacy tests and aided registration.literacy tests and aided registration.

• Majoritarian TheoryMajoritarian Theory– These acts were passed because a majority of These acts were passed because a majority of

the public supported these acts in 1964-65.the public supported these acts in 1964-65.– Problem: Support for the principles enacted in Problem: Support for the principles enacted in

the Civil Rights Acts, according to polls, existed the Civil Rights Acts, according to polls, existed a full 20 years before the CRA & VRA were a full 20 years before the CRA & VRA were passed. passed.

Theories Applied: Elitism Theories Applied: Elitism

• Elite Theory: Elite Theory: – The CRA & VRA were “bones” thrown to the The CRA & VRA were “bones” thrown to the

public to quell agitation and maintain the status public to quell agitation and maintain the status quo.quo.

– Problem: Although enforcement mechanisms Problem: Although enforcement mechanisms were weak initially, the CRA was filibustered for were weak initially, the CRA was filibustered for 83 days and resulted in a significant shift in 83 days and resulted in a significant shift in political fortunes for the ruling Democratic Party. political fortunes for the ruling Democratic Party. Also, registration of minorities and women Also, registration of minorities and women spiked and continued to increase through the spiked and continued to increase through the 1970’s. 1970’s.

Theories Applied: PluralismTheories Applied: Pluralism

• Pluralism:Pluralism:– As civil rights groups organized in the political As civil rights groups organized in the political

process and through negotiation, blacks and process and through negotiation, blacks and other minorities achieved significant public other minorities achieved significant public policy success, resulting in a consensus on anti-policy success, resulting in a consensus on anti-discrimination in the economic and political discrimination in the economic and political realms.realms.

– Problem: while blacks and other minorities Problem: while blacks and other minorities lacked organized and funded groups, and even lacked organized and funded groups, and even after they organized, they remained a after they organized, they remained a persecuted class. persecuted class.

Theories Applied: Theories Applied: InstitutionalismInstitutionalism• While there was significant support for civil rights While there was significant support for civil rights

legislation by the 1960’s, it was institutional legislation by the 1960’s, it was institutional barriers that had stalled or defeated it.barriers that had stalled or defeated it.

• The House and Senate instituted reform in the The House and Senate instituted reform in the 1960’s, devolving authority away from committee 1960’s, devolving authority away from committee chairs (where Southern Democrats had long chairs (where Southern Democrats had long dominated).dominated).

• As a result of this institutional change, the CRA As a result of this institutional change, the CRA and VRA were successful whereas previous efforts and VRA were successful whereas previous efforts had failed (such as in the Truman administration).had failed (such as in the Truman administration).

Collective ActionCollective Action

• The theory of collective action is The theory of collective action is concerned with the provision of concerned with the provision of public public goodsgoods through the collaboration of two or through the collaboration of two or more individuals, and the impact of more individuals, and the impact of externalities on group behavior.externalities on group behavior.

• The foundational work in collective action The foundational work in collective action for political science was Mancur Olson's for political science was Mancur Olson's 1965 book 1965 book The Logic of Collective Action: The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of GroupsPublic Goods and the Theory of Groups..

Public GoodsPublic Goods

• A public good is a good that is hard or A public good is a good that is hard or even impossible to produce for private even impossible to produce for private profit, because the market fails to account profit, because the market fails to account for its large beneficial externalitiesfor its large beneficial externalities– Non-rivalrous — its benefits fail to exhibit Non-rivalrous — its benefits fail to exhibit

consumption scarcity; once it has been consumption scarcity; once it has been produced, everyone can benefit from it without produced, everyone can benefit from it without diminishing other's enjoyment. diminishing other's enjoyment.

– Non-excludable — once it has been created, it Non-excludable — once it has been created, it is very difficult, if not impossible, to prevent is very difficult, if not impossible, to prevent access to the good. access to the good.

Transaction CostsTransaction Costs• There are costs associated with any activity.There are costs associated with any activity.• In economics and related disciplines (i.e. political In economics and related disciplines (i.e. political

science), a science), a transaction costtransaction cost is a cost incurred in is a cost incurred in making an economic exchange.making an economic exchange.

• Consider buying a banana from a store--to Consider buying a banana from a store--to purchase the banana, your costs will be not only purchase the banana, your costs will be not only the price of the banana itself, but also:the price of the banana itself, but also:– the energy and effort it requires to find out which of the the energy and effort it requires to find out which of the

various banana products you prefer, various banana products you prefer, – where to get them and at what price,where to get them and at what price,– the cost of traveling from your house to the store and the cost of traveling from your house to the store and

back, back, – the time waiting in line, the time waiting in line, – and the effort of the paying itself; and the effort of the paying itself;

• the costs above and beyond the cost of the the costs above and beyond the cost of the banana are the transaction costs.banana are the transaction costs.

Conformity CostsConformity Costs

• Conformity Costs are specific to collective action Conformity Costs are specific to collective action problems. These costs occur when the collective problems. These costs occur when the collective decision differs from that of an individuals ideal decision differs from that of an individuals ideal preference. When this happens, that individual preference. When this happens, that individual has incurred a conformity cost.has incurred a conformity cost.

• Consider a decision of 4 friends who are going out Consider a decision of 4 friends who are going out to dinner. Mark, Mary, Frank, and Janie are going to dinner. Mark, Mary, Frank, and Janie are going out. Mark & Mary most prefers to go to pizza, out. Mark & Mary most prefers to go to pizza, where as the other two want to go to Chinese. where as the other two want to go to Chinese.

• If Mark & Mary agree to go to Chinese, they have If Mark & Mary agree to go to Chinese, they have suffered conformity costs: they will not get to eat suffered conformity costs: they will not get to eat their most preferred food at the restaurant that their most preferred food at the restaurant that has been chosen.has been chosen.

Costs & Collective ActionCosts & Collective Action

• These concepts are essential to understanding These concepts are essential to understanding collective action decision-making in politics.collective action decision-making in politics.

• It is important to consider transaction costs It is important to consider transaction costs when considering the ‘rationality’ of individual when considering the ‘rationality’ of individual decisions about politics (i.e. voting)decisions about politics (i.e. voting)

• It is important to consider upon whom It is important to consider upon whom conformity costs are placed when a collective conformity costs are placed when a collective decision is made (i.e. where to place a highway)decision is made (i.e. where to place a highway)

• And the provision of public goods is one of the And the provision of public goods is one of the primary functions of governments and other primary functions of governments and other forms of institutions. forms of institutions.

Game TheoryGame Theory

• Game theory is a branch of applied Game theory is a branch of applied mathematics that studies strategic situations mathematics that studies strategic situations where players choose different actions in an where players choose different actions in an attempt to maximize their returns.attempt to maximize their returns.

• A game consists of a set of players, a set of A game consists of a set of players, a set of moves (or strategies) available to those moves (or strategies) available to those players, and a specification of payoffs for players, and a specification of payoffs for each combination of strategies. each combination of strategies.

• Game theory is particularly useful in Game theory is particularly useful in assessing and understanding collective assessing and understanding collective action problems.action problems.

A Coordination ProblemA Coordination ProblemBattle of the SexesBattle of the Sexes

• Imagine a couple, Kelly and Chris. Imagine a couple, Kelly and Chris. Kelly would most of all like to go to Kelly would most of all like to go to the football game. Chris would like to the football game. Chris would like to go to the opera. Both would prefer to go to the opera. Both would prefer to go to the same place rather than go to the same place rather than different ones. If they cannot different ones. If they cannot communicate where should they go? communicate where should they go?

Battle of the SexesBattle of the Sexes

• The game has two Nash EquilibriumThe game has two Nash Equilibrium• A A Nash EquilibriumNash Equilibrium is an optimal collective is an optimal collective

strategy where no player has anything to gain by strategy where no player has anything to gain by unilaterally changing only his or her own strategyunilaterally changing only his or her own strategy

• Communication is Key Communication is Key

OperaOpera FootballFootball

OperaOpera 1 1 2,1 2,1 22 0,0 0,0

FootballFootball 33 -1,-1 -1,-1 44 1,2 1,2

Kelly

Chris

Lessons of the Coordination Lessons of the Coordination ProblemProblem

• When individuals are separated, even when When individuals are separated, even when they share similar preferences, they have they share similar preferences, they have difficulty coming to a common solution. difficulty coming to a common solution.

• This problem multiples as the number of This problem multiples as the number of individuals involved is taken past 2 and onto individuals involved is taken past 2 and onto communities and societies and where communities and societies and where communication between parties is difficult or communication between parties is difficult or implausible.implausible.

• Institutions provide a solution to this Institutions provide a solution to this collective action problem by serving as a collective action problem by serving as a central agent.central agent.

Non-Cooperative ProblemsNon-Cooperative ProblemsThe Prisoner’s Dilemma The Prisoner’s Dilemma • Two suspects, A and B, are arrested by the police. The Two suspects, A and B, are arrested by the police. The

police have insufficient evidence for a conviction, and police have insufficient evidence for a conviction, and having separated both prisoners, visit each of them and having separated both prisoners, visit each of them and offer the same deal: if one testifies for the prosecution offer the same deal: if one testifies for the prosecution (turns Queen's Evidence) against the other and the (turns Queen's Evidence) against the other and the other remains silent, the silent accomplice receives the other remains silent, the silent accomplice receives the full 10-year sentence and the betrayer goes free. full 10-year sentence and the betrayer goes free.

• If both stay silent, the police can only give both If both stay silent, the police can only give both prisoners 1 year for a minor charge. If both betray each prisoners 1 year for a minor charge. If both betray each other, they receive a 5-year sentence each. other, they receive a 5-year sentence each.

• Each prisoner must make a choice - to betray the other, Each prisoner must make a choice - to betray the other, or to remain silent. or to remain silent.

• Each player tries to maximize her advantage without Each player tries to maximize her advantage without regard for the other player’s payoffsregard for the other player’s payoffs

Prisoner’s DilemmaPrisoner’s Dilemma

• Is there a Nash Equilibrium?Is there a Nash Equilibrium?

• What if they could talk to one another What if they could talk to one another before the interrogation. Would that make before the interrogation. Would that make a difference?a difference?

Don’t RatDon’t Rat RatRat

Don’t RatDon’t Rat 1 1 -1,-1 -1,-1 22 -10,0 -10,0

RatRat 33 0,-10 0,-10 44 -5,-5 -5,-5Prisoner A

Prisoner B

Prisoner’s DilemmaPrisoner’s Dilemma

• Let's assume the protagonist prisoner is working Let's assume the protagonist prisoner is working out his best move. If his partner stays quiet, his out his best move. If his partner stays quiet, his best move is to betray as he then walks free best move is to betray as he then walks free instead of receiving the minor sentence. instead of receiving the minor sentence.

• If his partner betrays, his best move is still to If his partner betrays, his best move is still to betray, as by doing it he receives a relatively lesser betray, as by doing it he receives a relatively lesser sentence than staying silent. sentence than staying silent.

• At the same time, the other prisoner thinking At the same time, the other prisoner thinking would also have arrived at the same conclusion would also have arrived at the same conclusion and would therefore also betray.and would therefore also betray.

• The Nash Equilibrium is not “praeto-optimal.”The Nash Equilibrium is not “praeto-optimal.”• PD games are useful in understanding conflict in PD games are useful in understanding conflict in

politics where the parties do not trust one another. politics where the parties do not trust one another.

The Free-Rider ProblemThe Free-Rider Problem

• Free riders are actors who consume more than Free riders are actors who consume more than their fair share of a resource, or shoulder less their fair share of a resource, or shoulder less than a fair share of the costs of its production.than a fair share of the costs of its production.

• Olson pointed to the free rider problem as a Olson pointed to the free rider problem as a significant factor in the difficulty of large significant factor in the difficulty of large group membership.group membership.

• The ‘tragedy of the commons’ is a phrase The ‘tragedy of the commons’ is a phrase used to refer to a class of phenomena that used to refer to a class of phenomena that involve a conflict for resources between involve a conflict for resources between individual interests and the common good and individual interests and the common good and a classic example of the free-rider problem.a classic example of the free-rider problem.

Tragedy of the CommonsTragedy of the Commons

• The parable demonstrates how unrestricted access to The parable demonstrates how unrestricted access to a resource such as a pasture ultimately dooms the a resource such as a pasture ultimately dooms the resource because of over-exploitation. resource because of over-exploitation.

• This occurs because the benefits of exploitation accrue This occurs because the benefits of exploitation accrue to individuals, while the costs of exploitation are to individuals, while the costs of exploitation are distributed between all those exploiting the resource.distributed between all those exploiting the resource.

• The herders are assumed to wish to maximize their The herders are assumed to wish to maximize their yield, and so will increase their herd size whenever yield, and so will increase their herd size whenever possible. The utility of each additional animal has both possible. The utility of each additional animal has both a positive and negative component:a positive and negative component:– Positive : the herder receives all of the proceeds Positive : the herder receives all of the proceeds

from each additional animal from each additional animal – Negative : the pasture is slightly degraded by each Negative : the pasture is slightly degraded by each

additional animal additional animal

Tragedy of the CommonsTragedy of the Commons

• Crucially, the division of these components is Crucially, the division of these components is unequal: the individual herder gains all of the unequal: the individual herder gains all of the advantage, but the disadvantage is shared between advantage, but the disadvantage is shared between all herders using the pasture. all herders using the pasture.

• Consequently, for an individual herder weighing up Consequently, for an individual herder weighing up these utilities, the rational course of action is to add these utilities, the rational course of action is to add an extra animal. And another, and another. an extra animal. And another, and another.

• overgrazing and degradation of the pasture is its overgrazing and degradation of the pasture is its long-term fate.long-term fate.

• Government can step in to solve PD and TotC Government can step in to solve PD and TotC problems by mediating between non-trustful parties problems by mediating between non-trustful parties and setting limits on grazing rights. Thus tragedies and setting limits on grazing rights. Thus tragedies that are inevitable outside of an authoritative actor that are inevitable outside of an authoritative actor can be avoided.can be avoided.

Games in PerspectiveGames in Perspective

• Solving Collective Action problems is Solving Collective Action problems is one of the primary functions of one of the primary functions of governmentgovernment

• Games help us better understand the Games help us better understand the nature of collective action problems and nature of collective action problems and can provide key insights in formulating can provide key insights in formulating solutions to these problems.solutions to these problems.

• Game Theory is cool. Game Theory is cool.