Intro, Lab Math, And Safety
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Transcript of Intro, Lab Math, And Safety
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MRBPINEDA, RMT, MSMT UST 1
Unit 1. Introduction toClinical Chemistry 1
Maria Ruth B. Pineda, Ph.D.Department of Medical TechnologyUniversity of Santo Tomas
1
Objective and Scope ofUnit 1
Understand the basics and scopes of Clinical Chemistry 1
2
Scope of Clinical Chemistry 1:Lecture:1. Overview2. Importance3. Role of Medical technologists4. Definition of Terms
Laboratory:1. Clinical Laboratory Apparatus and Supplies2. Volume Measurement
! Linkage among the knowledge of general chemistry, organicchemistry, and biochemistry with an understanding of humanphysiology
General chemistry
Organic chemistry
Biochemistry
HUMANPHYSIOLOGY
What is Clinical Chemistry ? What is Clinical Chemistry ?
! Laboratory section that performs qualitative andquantitative analyses of blood, urine, spinal fluid,feces, calculi and other materials.
! A division concerned with the analysis of bodyfluids to yield timely, relevant, accurate and preciseinformation on the clinical status of the humanbody.
! Branch of medical science that involves the analysis ofbiological materials, usually body fluids, to providediagnostic information on the state of the human body
! Foundation of science that underlies biochemistry andpathophysiology
What is Clinical Chemistry ?
Also known as:
Clinical Biochemistry andChemical Pathology
Importance ofClinical Chemistry
! Carbohydrates
! Proteins
! Lipids
! Nucleic Acids
MRBPINEDA UST 6
HeartLiver
KidneysLungsReproductive
Human Diseases
Organ Systems:
NervousEndocrine
MusclesSkeletalBlood
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Role of MedicalTechnologists
! Deliver accurate and precise laboratory information! Provide reliable laboratory results
7
Patient diagnosis and treatment
No. 1 Priority: Patient
Definition of Terms
! Accuracy: ability to determine the true and knownvalue of as substance
! Biochemical Marker: any biochemical compoundthat is sufficiently altered in a disease to serve as anaid in diagnosing or predicting susceptibility to thedisease.
! Blood borne: carried or transmitted by blood
8
! Pathogen: causative agent of a disease
! Precision: ability to reproduce the same results inrepeated analysis of the sample
! Reliability: ability of an analytical procedure tomaintain its original accuracy, precision, specificity,and sensitivity over an extended period of time
MRBPINEDA UST 9
Definition of Terms Summary
! Clinical Chemistry measures biochemicalcompounds to detect abnormalities on the levels ofsuch compounds.
10
Abnormalities
Disease Diagnosis
Treatment to correct
the abnormalities
PAT 1 ENT
Unit 2. LaboratoryMathematicsMaria Ruth B. Pineda, Ph.D.Department of Medical TechnologyUniversity of Santo Tomas
Objectives and Scopes ofUnit 2
! Unit Conversions
! Percent Solutions
! Normality
! Molarity
! Molality
! Dilutions
! Ratios
! pH and pOH
! Significant figures
! Scientific Notation12
Compute concentration of solutions using the different ways of expressingconcentration and using different units of measurement.
Apply the formula for computing concentrations in the preparation of reagentsnecessary in laboratory testing.
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What is a laboratory result?
! Qualitative Determination:presence or absence of a certaincompound
! Quantitative Determination:exact amount of the compoundpresent! High or low???
13
Presence of glucose in urine
Bilirubin detected in the brain
9.0 mmol/L of glucose
405 umol/L of uric acid
Positive for tetrahydrocannabinol
Dependent on the type of determination
QuantitativeDetermination
! Two parts: actual value and label! Actual value: a number
! Label: a unit that defines the physical quantity ordimension! Mass, length, time, volume, temperature,
concentration, activity, frequency, current
14
Unit of measurement
! Systeme International dUnites (SI units): 1960! Provides a uniform system or method of describing
physical quantities
! Basic units
! Derived units
! Selected accepted non-SI units
MRBPINEDA UST 15
SI Units
16
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TABLE 1-1 SI UNITS
BASE QUANTITY NAME SYMBOL
Length Meter mMass Kilogram kgTime Second sElectric current Ampere AThermodynamic temperature Kelvin KAmount of substance Mole molLuminous intensity Candela cdSELECTED DERIVEDFrequency Hertz HzForce Newton NCelsius temperature Degree Celsius CCatalytic activity Katal katSELECTED ACCEPTED NON-SIMinute (time) (60s) minHour (3,600s) hDay (86,400s) d
Liter (volume) (1 dm3 10 3 m3) LAngstrom (0.1 nm 10 10 m)
Prefixes used with SI unitsFACTOR PREFIX SYMBOL
10-18 atto a
10-15 femto f
10-12 pico p
10-9 nano n
10-6 micro
10-3 milli m
10-2 centi c 10-1 deci d
101 deka da
102 hecto h
103 kilo k
106 mega M
109 giga G
1015 peta P
1018 exa E 17
Examples:1. 1 millimeter = ________ m2. 2 micromoles = _______ mol3. 5 deciliter = __________ L
4. 2 milligram = _________ kg5. 5 microliter = _________ L
Basic clinical laboratoryconversions
To convert into Multiply by
Inches Centimeters 2.54
Centimeters Inches 0.39
Yards Meters 0.91
Meters Yards 1.09Gallons Liters 3.78
Liters Gallons 0.26
Fluid ounces Milliliters 29.6
Milliliters Fluid ounces 0.034
Ounces Grams 28.4
Grams Ounces 0.035
Pounds Kilograms 0.45
Kilograms Pounds 2.218
Length, volume, weight conversions
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To convert into Use
Celsius (C) Kelvin (K) K = C +273
Celsius (C) Fahrenheit (F) F = (C x 1.8) + 32
Fahrenheit (F) Celsius (C) C = (F 32) x 0.556
MRBPINEDA UST 19
Basic clinical laboratoryconversions
Temperature conversions
Ways of expressingconcentration of solution
! As percent solution! As a molar (M) solution
! As a normal (N) solution
! As a molal (m) solution
MRBPINEDA UST 20
Percent Solution: Weight/volume
= _grams solute_ X 100mL of solution
21
%w/v
What is the concentration of a solutionprepared by mixing 2 milligrams of KCland 100 mL of distilled water?
Answer = 0.002% or 2.0 x 10 -3%
22
Percent Solution: Weight/volume
What amount of NaCl is needed to make800 mL of 0.85% solution?
Answer = 6.8 g
23
Percent Solution: Weight/volume
What amount of distilled water is neededto make 1.5% of MgCl 2 solution with 0.005kg of salt.
Answer = 333.3 mL
24
Percent Solution: Weight/volume
You were asked to prepare agarose gel forelectrophoresis of DNA. Fifty milliliters of2% gel is needed. How much agar is to bedissolved? Also 3 uL of ethidium bromideis added every 100 mL of agarose gel, howmuch Ethidium bromide is needed?
Answer = 1.0 gram of agarose and1.5 uL of Ethidium bromide
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Percent solution:volume/volume
= _mL of solute__ X 100mL of solution
25
%v/v
What is the concentration of a solution with2000 mL of liquid lidocaine dissolved in 5liters of deionized water?
Answer = 28.57%
MRBPINEDA UST 26
Percent solution:volume/volume
Prepare 500 mL 40% alcohol from stockabsolute alcohol solution.
Answer = 200 mL stock absolute alcohol + 300mL distilled water to make 500 mL solution
27
Percent solution:volume/volume
Prepare 0.05 L of 2% sulfuric acid.
Answer = 1 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid +49 mL of distilled water.
Percent Solution: Weight/weight
= _grams solute_ X 100grams solution
28
%w/w
Determine the percent composition by mass of a100 g salt solution which contains 20 g salt.
Answer: 20% NaCl solution
29
Percent Solution: Weight/weight
How much KCl in grams is needed to make10% of a solution weighing 0.48 kg?
Answer: 48 grams of KCl
Molar Solution orMolarity
! Number of moles expressed per 1 liter of solution
! Moles = gram/molecular weight
! Gram molecular weight of a substance dissolved toa final volume of 1 liter solution
MRBPINEDA UST 30
= grams of soluteMW x volume of solution (L)
M
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MRBPINEDA UST 31
73 g HCl
L2 mol
L36.5 g HCl
mol
How many grams are needed to make 1 Lof a 2M solution of HCl?
Molar Solution orMolarity
Answer = 73 g per L of 2M HCl is needed.
32
What is the molarity of a solution madewhen water is added to 11 g CaCl 2 tomake 100 mL of solution?
Answer = 1.0 M
Molar Solution orMolarity
33
Prepare 400 mL of a 0.5 M solution ofNaCl.
Answer = 11.6 g of NaCl is dissolved in400 mL distilled water to make 0.5 Msolution of NaCl
Molar Solution orMolarity
Normal solution orNormality
! Number of gram equivalent weight per 1 liter ofsolution (Eq/L)
! Equivalent weight = molecular weight/valence
34
= grams of soluteEW x volume of solution (L)
N
35
Normal solution orNormality
What is the Normality of a 500-mL solution thatcontains 7 g of sulfuric acid?
Answer: 0.285 Eq/L or 0.285 N
1,000 mL1 L1 Eq49 g H 2 SO47 g H2 SO4500 mL
36
Normal solution orNormality
If a solution contains 111 g CaCl 2 perliter, what is the normality?
Answer = 2 N CaCl 2
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Molarity vs Normality
MRBPINEDA UST 37
! Normality is always equal to or greater thanMolarity
! Molarity is always equal to or less than Normality
N ! MM " N
Convert Molarity toNormality
38
Convert 0.5 M sulfuric acid to N.
1 Eq H 2 SO449 g H 2 SO4
98 g H 2 SO4mol H 2 SO4
0.5 mol H 2 SO4L
Answer: 1 N
To simplify: multiply Molarity with the valence
Molal Solution orMolality
! Amount of solute per 1 kg of solvent
! mol/kg (or m)
39
= grams of soluteMW x kg of solvent
m
Molal Solution orMolality
40
What is the molality of a solution of10 g NaOH in 500 g water?
Answer = 0.5 m
mg/dL to milliequivalent
! In milliequivalent, equivalent weight is expressed inmilligrams
! To convert mg/dL to milliequivalent per liter (mEq/
L)
MRBPINEDA UST 41Other Conversions
= mg/dL X 10 X valenceMW
mEq/L
mg/dL to millimoles
! In millimoles, molecular weight expressed inmilligrams
! To convert mg/dL to millimoles:
MRBPINEDA UST 42Other Conversions
= mg/dL X 10MW
mmol/L
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To convert into Use
%w/v Molarity (M) M = (%w/v x 10) / GMW%w/v Normality (N) N = (%w/v x 10)/eq.wt.mg/dL mEq/L mEq/L = (mg/dL x 10)/eq. wt.Molarity (M) Normality (N) N = M x valence
43
Basic concentrationconversions
What is the differencebetween ratio and dilution ?
! ratio: volume of solute per volume of solvent
! dilution: volume of solute per volume of solution
44
A ratio of 1:100 vs a dilution of 1:100
Ratio and Dilution
45
Prepare 150 mL solution of sodiumhydroxide with a dilution of 1:20.
Answer: pipet 7.5 mL of NaOH and mix with142.5 mL of distilled water.
Ratio and Dilution
46
Prepare 200 mL solution of HClusing the ratio of 1:20.
Answer: pipet 10.0 mL of HCl and mix with200 mL of distilled water.
Serial dilution
! multiple progressive dilutions ranging from moreconcentrated solutions to less concentrated solutions
47
Specific Gravity, Density,and Percent Purity
! Density: mass per unit volume
! Specific gravity: density of a substance over densityof water at a given temperature (g/mL)
! Actual concentration: specific gravity x percentpurity
MRBPINEDA UST 48
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49
Specific Gravity, Density,and Percent Purity
What is the actual weight of HCl whose labelreads specific gravity 1.3 with an assay value of40%? What is the Molarity of the solution?
Answer:Actual weight = 0.52 g/mLMolarity = 14.86 M
pH and pOH
! Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
pH = pK a + log (A -/HA)
pH = log (1/H +)
pH = -log (H +)
pH + pOH = 14
50
Scientific Notation
! Uses exponential method of expressing very largeand very small numbers
! Numbers are expressed as a product of twonumbers: digit term and exponential term! Digit term: > or equal to 1 but < 10! Exponential term: written as a power of 10
MRBPINEDA UST 51
Scientific Notation
! Positive exponents: when the decimal point hasbeen moved to the left
! Negative exponents: when the decimal point hasbeen moved to the right
52
Examples:214 = 2.14 X 1020.115 = 1.15 X 10-1
Significant Figures
! Minimum number of digits needed to express aparticular value in scientific notation without loss ofaccuracy.
MRBPINEDA UST 53
Examples:1. 1028.9 = _________2. 213 = ___________3. 0.000032 = _______4. 4000 = __________
Significant Figures
1. All nonzero integers are significant figures.
2. Zeros used to locate decimal points are notsignificant (0.0002; 0.002; 0.02 = 1 significant figure)
3. Zeros appearing between numbers are significant.
4. Zeros appearing at the end of a number with adecimal are significant (18.80).
5. Zeros appearing at the end of a number without adecimal may or may not be significant (180).
54
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Significant Figures
! Laboratory Application
1. Addition and Subtraction:
5.324 + 0.0031 = 5.3209 = 5.321
2. Multiplication and Division: product or quotient cancontain no more significant digits than the leastnumber of significant figures in the numbers involvedin the calculation
0.8832 X 1.5 = 1.32480 = 1.3
55
END OF UNIT 2Quiz next meeting!Bring calculator and periodic table of elements.
56
Unit 3. Laboratory Safety
57
Maria Ruth B. Pineda, Ph.D.Department of Medical TechnologyUniversity of Santo Tomas
Objectives and Scopes ofUnit 3
Lecture:1. Universal Precaution2. Laboratory Hazards
2.1. Biological2.2. Chemical2.3. Electrical2.4. Fire2.5. Radiation2.6. Others
3. Safety equipment4. Laboratory waste management:Segregation , Storage,Treatment, andDisposal
Laboratory:1. Hand washing2. Cleaning of glassware3. Disinfection of working areas4. Laboratory waste management
58
Apply laboratory safety procedures and precautions inthe performance of laboratory measurements.
Hierarchy of Controls
! Levels of dealing with laboratory hazards
1. Engineering controls
2.
Administrative controls3. Work practices
4. Personal protective equipment (PPE)
59
Examples of PreventionStrategies
MRBPINEDA UST 60
Laboratory Hazard Prevention Strategies
Work practice controls (general procedures/policies thatmandate measures to reduce or eliminate exposure tohazard)
Hand washing after each patient contactCleaning surfaces with disinfectants Avoiding unnecessary use of needles and sharps and not recappingRed bag waste disposalImmunization for hepatitisJob rotation to minimize repetitive tasksOrientation, training, and continuing educationNo eating, drinking, or smoking in laboratory Warning signage
Engineering controls (safety features built into the overalldesign of a product)
Puncture-resistant containers for disposal and transport of needles and sharpsSafety needles that automatically retract after removalBiohazard bagsSplash guards Volatile liquid carriersCentrifuge safety bucketsBiological safety cabinets and fume hoodsMechanical pipetting devicesComputer wrist/arm padsSensor-controlled sinks or foot/knee/elbow-controlled faucets
Personal protective equipment (PPE; barriers that physicallyseparate the user from a hazard)
Nonlatex glovesGowns and laboratory coatsMasks, including particulate respiratorsFace shieldsProtective eyewear (goggles, safety glasses)Eyewash stationChemical-resistant gloves; subzero (freezer) gloves; thermal gloves
.
.
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OSHA STANDARDS
! Bloodborne pathogen standard! Formaldehyde standard
! Laboratory standard
! Hazard communication standard
! Respiratory hazard
! Air contaminants standard
! Personal protective equipment standard61 MRBPINEDA UST 62
63
SafetyEquipment
64
..
.
Equipment D escription Use
PERSONAL PROTECTIVEEQUIPMENT
Glasses or goggles
Work shields
GlovesCoat or apron
FUME HOOD
S TORAGEUNITS
Explosion-proof refrigerators
Compressed gasstorage
Storage cabinets
FIRE E XTINGUISHERS
Class AClass BClass CClass ABC
SAFETY SHOWER
E YEWASHES
SPILL K ITS
Unbreakable eye shields that sur-round the eye area
Spatter protection for exposedskin
Latex or vinyl cover for handsCover for clothes that will be
worn outside the laboratory
Ventilation system that operatesat 100120 ft/min at the sash;system must be monitored reg-ularly
Refrigerators that can contain theforce of a chemical explosion
Reinforcement straps or chainsfor storing compressed gas con-tainers vertically
Separate cabinets for storing:Flammable solidsOrganic acidsOxidizers Water-reactive substances
Pressurized water Carbon dioxideDry chemicalDry chemical
Drench-type safety shower
Fountain that can be used todrench the eye with water
Commercial kits that may be
used to collect spills of specificsubstances such as acids or mercury
Protects exposed skin and clothesthat may be worn outside thelaboratory
Reduces the risk of inhaling caus-tic chemicals; respirators withHEPA filters may be used whenfume hoods are not available
Reduce the risk of unwantedchemical reactions; reduce thedanger of injury from chemicalreactions
Wood, paper, cloth firesFlammable liquid, paint, oil firesElectrical firesAll fires
Remove chemical spills fromclothing, skin, or eyes
Restrict the spill to a localized
area; collect the spill in a safecontainer for disposal
r ) :
Safety showers: deliver 30-50gallons of water per minute at20-50 psi
Other materials needed:Fire blanketsPipetting aidsScrew capped tubesFirst aid supplies
gauzeband aidalcoholbetadinemicroporeburn ointmentpetroleum jelly
Chemical Fume Hoodsand Biosafety Cabinets
! Fume Hoods! Expel noxious and hazardous
fumes from chemical reagents! Suitable for chemicals and non
sterile work
! Biosafety Cabinets! Recirculates filtered air into the
laboratory! Utilized to ensure sterility of
infectious work
MRBPINEDA UST 65
Fume Hood
MRBPINEDA UST 66
Obviously not what were looking for
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MRBPINEDA UST 67
Work 6 back into hood
!" $"% &'% ()*+ ,$-,+) (""+ .()$ /"$%*0,$*$%- *1) 2),$33)$)1*%)+4
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Mechanism of BSC
! BSC I: minimum inward flow; no product protection! BSC II: minimum inward flow; with product protection! BSC III: maximum product protection if laminar flow is included and with two HEPA filters
Types of BSC
MRBPINEDA UST 70
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TABLE 3-1 COMPARISON OF BIOLOGIC SAFETY CABINETS
CABINETS APPLICATIONS
FACEVELOCITY RADIONUCLIDES/ BIOSAFETY PRODUCT
TYPE (IFPM) AIRFLOW PATTERN TOXIC CHEMICALS LEVEL(S) PROTECTION
C la ss I, * o pe n fr on t 75 I n at fr on t; re ar an d t opthrough HEPA filter No 2, 3 No
Class II Type A 75 70% Recirculated through No 2, 3 YesHEPA; exhaust through HEPA
Type B1 100 30% Recirculated through Yes 2, 3 YesHEPA; exhaust via HEPA and (low levels/ hard-ducted volatility)
Type B2 100 No recirculation; total exhaust Yes 2, 3 Yesvia HEPA and hard-ducted
Type B3 100 Same as IIA, but plenums under Yes 2, 3 Yesnegative pressure to roomand exhaust air is ducted
Class III NA Supply air inlets and exhaust Yes 3, 4through 2 HEPA filters
MRBPINEDA UST 71
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Types of Hazards
! Chemical Hazards! Biological Hazards! Physical Hazards
! Ergonomic hazards! Ionizing Radiation! Non-Ionizing Radiation! Noise
! Electrical hazards! Mechanical Hazards
Chemical Hazards
! Flammable/Combustible Chemicals:! Flammable: flashpoint below 37.8C! Combustible: flashpoint above 37.8C
! Corrosive Chemicals
! Reactive Chemicals
! Carcinogenic Chemicals
MRBPINEDA UST 74
Biological Hazards
! Biological Agents andToxins
! Bloodborne pathogens
! Research Animals
! Ingestion
! Inoculation
! Tactile contamination
! Inhalation of infectiousmaterial
MRBPINEDA UST 75
Sources:Contact with patients, specimens of patients, supplies or materials, aerosolmaterials, improperly processed blood products, inappropriate disposal ofwaste products, expelling a spray from needles, centrifugation of infectedfluids, spills on laboratory counters, flaming inoculating loops
What to avoid in thelaboratory?
! Consumption of food! Mouth pipetting! Smoking! Applying cosmetics! Drinking fluids! Leaving unprotected any
skin, membranes, oropen cuts
MRBPINEDA UST 76
Universal Precaution! Presumption that all human blood, tissue, and most
fluids are infectious for the transmission of humanimmunodeficiency (HIV), hepatitis B virus, and otherblood borne pathogens
! Safe handling and Preventive measures! Decontamination methods
! Vaccination requirement
! Post exposure medication, counseling, testing, andprophylaxis
MRBPINEDA UST 77 MRBPINEDA UST 78
Common Decontamination Agents
Heat (250 C for 15 minutes)Ethylene oxide (450500 mg/L @ 55 C60 C)2% Glutaraldehyde10% Hydrogen peroxide10% Formalin5.25% Hypochlorite (10% bleach)
FormaldehydeDetergentsPhenolsUltraviolet radiationIonizing radiationPhoto-oxidation
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Physical: ErgonomicHazards
! Cumulative trauma disorders! injuries involving the musculoskeletal and/or
nervous system in response to long term repetitivetwisting, bending, lifting, or assuming static posturesfor an extended period of time
! constant or excessive repetitive actions, mechanicalpressure, vibrations, or compressive forces on thearms, hands, wrists, neck, or back
! human error by pushing beyond ones limits or whenproductivity limits are set too high
MRBPINEDA UST 79
! Cumulative trauma disorders! Carpal tunnel syndrome! Tendonitis! Tenosynovitis! Bursitis! Ganglion cyst
MRBPINEDA UST 80
Physical: ErgonomicHazards
Physical: IonizingRadiation
! generated through nuclearreactions, by very hightemperature, via productionof high energy particles ordue to acceleration ofcharged particles byelectromagnetic fields
! Cosmic rays, x-rays, gammarays, beta particles, UV
MRBPINEDA UST 81
! Type ofelectromagneticradiation that doesnot carry enoughenergy to ionizeatoms
! Radiowaves,microwaves,infrared light, andvisible light
MRBPINEDA UST 82
Physical: Non-IonizingRadiation
! Anything that has thepotential to cause hearingloss
! Exposure to an equivalentsound pressure level ofmore than 85 dB over an8-hour period workday
MRBPINEDA UST 83
Physical: Noise Mechanical Hazards
! Centrifuge
! Autoclave
! Homogenizers
! Glasswares
MRBPINEDA UST 84
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CompressedGases Hazards
! Fire
! Explosion
! Asphyxiation
! Mechanical injuries
CryogenicMaterial Hazards
! Fire
! Explosion
! Asphyxiation
! Pressure build up
! Embrittlement ofmaterials
! Tissue damage
MRBPINEDA UST 85
Fire Hazards! A: ordinary
combustible materials! B: flammable liquids/
gases
! C: energized electricalequipment
! D: reactive metals
MRBPINEDA UST86
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CLASS OF FIRE TYPE OF EXTINGUISHER OPERATION
A
B
C
D
Class AFires
Class B Fires
Class C Fires
Class D Fires
Use these typesofextinguishers
Use these typesofextinguishers
Use these typesofextinguishers
Use thistype ofagent
OrdinaryCombustibles:Wood, Paper,Cloth, etc.
FlammableLiquidGreaseGasolinePaintsOils, etc.
Electrical equipmentMotorsSwitches
Flammable metalsMagnesium
Pressurized Water DryChemical
DryChemical
DryChemical
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Dioxide Halon
MetalX
A ABC
ABC
ABC
BC
BC
Halon
Cover burning materialwith extinguishingagent (scoop, sprinkle)
ULL
PIN
IMNOZZLE
QUEEZETRIGGER
WEEPNOZZLE
P
A
S
S
FIGURE 3-4. Proper use of fire extinguishers. (Adapted with permission from the Clinical and Laboratory SafetyDepartment, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston.)
Tetrahedron of fire
MRBPINEDA UST 87
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I I I I I I I
I I I
i il i I i i l ii
i l i i l ii i i i i l
l l ii i l l
l ill i i l il il i
i i l l i i l i i ii i l l
Uninhibitedreaction
Fuel
Oxygen
Heat
i .
ElectricalHazards
Electrical injuries:1. Direct: death, shock, or
burns
2. Indirect: fire and explosion
MRBPINEDA UST88
Waste Management
! Collection, transport, processing or disposal,managing and monitoring of waste materials
! Landfill
! Incineration
! Recycling/Resource recovery
! Avoidance and reduction of waste
MRBPINEDA UST 89
End of Unit 3
MRBPINEDA UST90