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THE USE AND MISUSE OF URBAN PUBLIC OPEN SPACES IN BOTSWANA: CASE STUDY, GABORONE, BOTSWANA.

Prof. A.C.Mosha, University of BotswanaMoshaac@gmail.com.

AbstractOpen spaces are one of the key major elements of the urban environment. These are essential for several functions including, environmental and ecological functions, social and societal functions and structural and aesthetic functions. In rapidly urbanizing countries open spaces are shrinking at an alarming rate and becoming less accessible and even those that exist are used for informal activities that were not planned for much to the displeasure of the local community. In Gaborone, there are many planned open spaces, but by and large they are not used to their full potential due to a myriad of reasons. Many unauthorized activities have taken over in these open spaces. This paper aims to study the use and misuse of open spaces in the city with the ultimate aim of seeking a solution to return the bona-fide uses to these public spaces.

INTRODUCTIONBotswana is a land locked country, bounded on the north and west by Namibia, on the northeast by Zambia and Zimbabwe, and on the southeast and south by South Africa. The total area of Botswana is 581,730 km2 (224,607 sq miles). The population of Botswana is 2,038,228 (2011)5. Out of these, 1.14 million (56%) are living in urban areas and balance 0.90 million (44%) in rural areas. The population in 10 large urban settlements is 713,380; accounts 35% of total population and 63% of urban population. These 10 large towns / cities and their population are: Gaborone (228,256), Francistown (100,079), Molepolole (67,598), Selebi-Phikwe (49,849), Maun (55,784), Kanye (45,196), Serowe (47,444), Mahalapye (44,339), Mochudi (44,339), and Palapye (36,211)6 . The capital of Botswana, Gaborone contributes 11.2% of country’s population and 20.0% of urban population. (CSO, 2011)

To ensure proper development of the urban centres, structure plans spelling out the various land uses have been prepared and implemented since independence and well before that. One of these is that of open spaces that are lungs of the urban centres. It is deemed that such urban spaces can contribute to enhancing the attractiveness and quality of the urban environment, however, this has not been so in most urban centres as many unplanned and unauthorized activities/uses of these spaces has crept in. In many instances, these spaces are misused. The aim of this paper is to examine such places, document the impacts of unplanned uses and what role planners can do to ameliorate this situation. The main contention here is that although open spaces have been planned and zoned, they are a neglected area of development and as a result, they do not evoke the interest of the city dwellers.

LITERATURE REVIEW Defining Urban Open Space

Commonly, open spaces in urban areas are seen as individual ‘sites’ such as parks or squares, and looked at from this point of view they can take a wide variety of forms. In a broader sense, however, open space can also be considered as something wider and more all-encompassing, namely as the continuous matrix of all un-built land in urban areas – public parks as well as private gardens; city squares and urban streets which have a vital function in providing connectivity and linking together different open spaces. In this way it both links together individual spaces and flows around and between every building and structure, forming the context and surroundings of each one and connecting the inner city to the surrounding landscape. Indeed, urban space can even be thought of as extending to include all significant outdoor spaces which fall within the influence of the urban area, for example local recreation areas outside the

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city boundaries. Thus green spaces must be a key consideration in urban planning if the health of city and its the people are both considered important.( http://www.le-notre.org/urban-spaces/urban-spaces.php?encyclopedia_id=255 – “Defining Open Spaces”). This paper takes the holistic definition of open “spaces”.

Although this broader perception of urban open space as an undivided resource is a vital basis for its strategic planning, design and management, for practical purposes it is also necessary to differentiate it into its component parts. There are various ways in which this can be done, including ownership, management responsibility, accessibility, structure and use. One major distinction can be made between public and private space. It is important to remember, however, that it is not only public spaces that can be shaped by public policy. There are numerous ways in which privately owned open spaces can be influenced through public policy. These include planning regulations and conditions placed upon the granting of building permits, as well as the use of public funding in the form of grants made to owners conditional upon the implementation of measures defined by public policy objectives, as well as simply providing public information and recommendations to private land owners on good practice. (ibid)

Classification of open spaces.

At a city scale open spaces can be classified in different ways for different countries by different authors. According, (Jacinta Francis,2012); Khan((2014), Nabi(1978) and many other authors, open spaces can generally be classified into two broad categories according to their use pattern- (a) for passive recreation such as play lots, playing fields, sports grounds, stadium etc b) for passive recreation such as gardens, parks, parkways, greenbelts etc.

Functions of Open Spaces.The functions of urban open spaces can be classified into the following key three categories: 1) Environmental and ecological functions include: Climatic amelioration, noise screening, influencing the hydrological cycle – storm water management and providing habitats for wild plants and animals 2) Social and societal functions include: Providing space and facilities for leisure and recreation, facilitating social contact and communication, access to and experience of nature and influencing human physical and psychological health and well-being 3) Structural and aesthetic functions include: Articulating, dividing and linking areas of the urban fabric, improving the legibility of the city, establishing a sense of place and acting as a carrier of identity, meanings and value of the urban environment. ( Urban spaces – enhancing the attractiveness and quality of the urban environment) at: http://www.hphpcentral.com/article/urban-planning-and-the-importance-of-green-space-in-cities-to-human-and-environmental-health#sthash.EXUNMDKw.dpuf

Yet, other authors stretch the function of open spaces to six by unpacking the above three. These include:i. strategic functions: defining and separating urban areas; better linking of town and country; and providing for recreational needs over a wide area;ii. urban quality: helping to support regeneration and improving quality of life for communities by providing visually attractive green spaces close to where people live;iii. promoting health and well-being: providing opportunities to people of all ages for informal recreation, or to walk, cycle or ride within parks and open spaces or along paths, bridleways and canal banks. Allotments may provide physical exercise and other health benefits; iv. Havens and habitats for flora and fauna: sites may also have potential to be corridors or stepping stones from one habitat to another and may contribute towards achieving objectives set out in local biodiversity action plans;

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v. as a community resource: as a place for congregating and for holding community events, religious festivals, fetes and travelling fairs; and, vi. as a visual amenity: even without public access, people enjoy having open space near to them to provide an outlook, variety in the urban scene, or as a positive element in the landscape.http://www.dorsetforyou.com/media/word/3/i/S106_Recreation___Open_Spaces_Definitions.doc; Catharine Ward (2013) and Bureau of Municipal Research. Urban Open Space: Luxury or Necessity?. Toronto. 1971.

Criteria for a good public space.

There are many criteria developed over the years to define public space, but the best for this paper is that articulated by Mark Francis(2003) in his book “Urban Open Spaces-Designing for User Needs has put forward the following criteria for a good public open space.

Table 1.

Ingredients Criteria MeasureAccessibility Linkages

WalkabilityCorrectnessConvenience

BehaviourMapping of usePedestrian activityTraffic Data

Activities UsesCelebrationUsefulnessSustainability

Property valuesChanges in land useRetail sales

Comfort SafetyGood places to sitAttractivenessCleanliness

Crime statisticsBuilding conditionsEnvironmental data

Sociability FriendlinessInteractivityDiversity

Studies of street useDiversity of usersSocial networks

Source: Khan(2014).

Reasons of failure of an urban open space.The informal sector in many urban areas does impact heavily on the use of public spaces and open spaces.Most street trading does not care that many people have some complaints for what they are doing is generating some impacts on urban landscape performance, including traffic jam, crowded pedestrian way or arcade, messy, and untidy urban spaces. This is the way how informal sectors currently change land uses and urban lands capes. On one hand, the existence of the informal sector in urban area could contribute in reducing employment problems. On the other hand the way how the informal sector uses public spaces, particularly street vendors, is disturbing public activities in urban areas.(Manfred S et al 2009).

According to Bentley, Alcock, Murrain, McGlyn, Smith, (1985) the responsiveness of any environment depends on its accessibility, variety, legibility, robustness, visual appropriateness, richness and personalization. Mark Francis(2003) identified some reasons for why public spaces fail from which the following table is derived.

Table 2.Reasons of Failure of an Urban Open Space.

External Features Internal Features

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Inaccessible spaces Lack of good place to sitPoor entrances Lack of gathering pointsDomination of a place by vehicles Dysfunctional FeaturesBlank walls or dead zones around the edges of a place.

Paths that don’t go anywhaere people don’t want

Inconveniently located transit stops.Sources( Khan) ibid

METHODOLOGY.The study was mostly based on a desk-top survey that adopted a “mixed-methods” approach by combining primary and secondary data. Secondary data was collected from official documents such as development plans, government policies, plans and programmes, past studies on the subject, demographic survey reports, and government policies, and from Acts of Parliament. Primary data was collected through structured questionnaires administered to a sample of open space users, street vendors, a sample of their customers, and senior officials from the Gaborone City Council, Central government, especially the Department of Town and Regional Planning, and NGOs like the Environment Watch, Botswana. Key resource persons were identified in central and local government (including ward councilors, urban planners, finance officers), civil society and the private sector.

Interviews with community members were undertaken and people were also contacted by e-mail or telephone particularly for follow ups on data and missing information. Selection of the OS and Informal street traders vendors and their customers was based on convenience and quota sampling techniques. Purposive sampling was used in the selection of government officials. A total number of 45 street vendors and a total number of 32 customers were interviewed. The data from secondary and primary sources were analysed quantitatively and qualitatively.

CASE STUDY: GABORONE.

Gaborone’s population has grown rapidly from a mere 18 799 in 1971 to 231 592 in 2011. If one includes the satellite villages of Tlokweng and Mogoditshane, the population size was 325 994 in 2011. The city offers a wide range of economic opportunities (government and private sector), facilities (e.g. hospitals, university and airport) and amenities (e.g. shopping centres, game parks and cinemas). People from rural areas migrate to the city for job opportunities, leading to rapid urbanisation (growth rates of Gaborone, Tlokweng and Mogoditshane are resp.). The satellite villages are popular as land and house prices are high in the city (Gewbu, T.D, 2003).

The city’s population and economic growth have led to a rapid increase in unemployment and economic opportunities resulting in the growth of the informal sector much of which carries its activities in the public spaces in the city, much to the anoyment of the city fathers.

Gaborone was once planned as a Garden City. A city with such an image may be attractive, however, it might not be the right concept in a country regularly afflicted by drought. Unfortunately, many of the city’s open spaces are frequently abused as dumping sites, driving schools, parking lots, driveways, refuge for criminals, open space toilets, informal vending, urban agriculture and other uses. Their main functions as recreational and leisure resorts, places for children to play freely and neighbour’s to socialize, as well as pedestrian and bicycling corridors, are hampered by negative intrusions. These open spaces are essential for improvement of bio-diversity and protection of limited urban habitats. They change micro-climate through shading, cooling, and absorption of air pollutants. In addition they influence aesthetic pleasure and secure human comfort and enjoyment. As the city grows open spaces are

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becoming more rare and valuable, and their protection, maintenance and upgrading become a matter of urgency.Open Space System in Gaborone CityAn open space system comprises of designated protected areas, areas identified for protection, environmentally sensitive areas, flood plains, water courses and river systems, as well as areas designated or proposed for passive and active recreations. In the context of Gaborone, these include the entire Segoditshane river course and its flood plains; Gaborone Dam; Kgale Hills; Gaborone Game Reserve; designated parks and play grounds; the stadium and football grounds. Also included as part of the open space system of the city are the Notwane river course and its flood plains and the forestry plantation in the Village location. In sum, according to the Gaborone City Development plan (2007-2021), open space takes up an area of 5564.8 hectares or 23.34%. Added to this is also 757.8 hectares or 3.17% under sports and recreation and 1,097.8ha or 4.60% under agriculture and forestry mostly along the two rivers traversing the city. The open spaces in that e city indicated on Table 3 below.

Many times the grass is hardly cut; no lights and no security. This has resulted in the open spaces being unkempt and used as refuse dumping areas by residents. Gaborone city council which has the responsibility of managing designated open spaces in the city is constrained by lack of manpower and financial resources to adequately manage these open spaces. Furthermore, it should be noted that the Gaborone Landscape Master Plan(2006) provided elaborate guidelines for the planning, development and management of public open spaces. These unfortunately are not being adhered to.

Table 3: Existing Open Spaces in Gaborone city – 2007 in relation to other land usesLand use categories No. of

plots%of Total No. of Plots

Area Coverage (Ha)

% of Total Area

Open spaces 915 1.15 5564.8 23.34Sports and recreation 112 0.14 757.8 3.17Agriculture and forestry 172 0.22 1097.8 4.60Infrastructure (Roads and reserves, railway reserves, transport terminals)

538 0.7 542.1 2.27

Infrastructure (Water reservoirs, electric power substations etc)

12 0.01 51.17 0.21

Civic and Community 678 0.85 2276.1 9.54Residential 46708 58.9 5636.13 23.64Commercial 994 1.25 1017.23 4.26Mixed land use 714 0.90 732.3 3.07Industrial 1219 1.53 914.5 3.83Gaborone dam - - 1539.0 6.45Extension area 9-KO 26988 34.06 2076 8.70Gaborone North 175 0.22 1540 6.46Total 792251 100 23838.9 100

Source: GCC, Report of Survey Report pp.118.

Further, in the same plan (2007-2021) several other open spaces were also planned for. These include the following:-

(i) The setting aside of 235 hectares of land east of the SSKA for the development of an integrated games village. This will include a sports village, training facilities of international standard and facilities for all sports codes;

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(ii) The development an international recreation park, measuring 85 ha in Block 7, Gaborone West

(iii) The development of a recreational park around Gaborone dam(iv) The development of open spaces/areas along portions of Notwane and Segodisthane rivers;(v) The development of an indoor recreational centres of .75 hectares in Gaborone West(vi) The conversion of the former reclaimed dump site along Gaborone-Tlokweng road into a

recreational park and(vii) The construction of 4 mini-stadia within the city, in Block 5, 6 and 8 in the Games Village.

With regards to implementation of the above proposals, very commendable as they are, it is a source of concern that to-date none have been implemented. This situation is a pointer to the level of priority accorded to the development of parks and open spaces in the city buy both government and the Gaborone city council. The plan also advocated for the involvement of the private sector in the development of recreational parks and open spaces, but this has not fully materialized. Only three such places were fully developed and are currently operational. These include a site in Ext 10; a plot in block 3 opposite the Khalagadi breweries and Broadhurst near the flyover (see figures below).

Figure 1: Developed Community Open Spaces - Broadhurst on left and Tsholofelo Park on right

Ownership

As table 4 shows there are 528 designated open spaces in the city, of which 499(89.6 percentage) are owned by the Central Government. Of these only 4 government owned open spaces have been fully developed and functioning while the rest are vacant and undeveloped. On the other hand the privately owned open spaces including hotel grounds, the golf course or institutional open spaces are developed and well managed (see example of Grand Palm Hotel grounds and the golf course pictures below)

Table 4: Summary of open spaces in Gaborone by ownership, number and status – 2007.Owner No. open spaces Total are(Ha) Status % of Total Open

Spaces AreaBotswana Government

499 198.95 4 sites developed and functioning as recreational parks

94.5

Gaborone City Council

10 6.4 None developed 2.0

Private Individuals 8 12.08 One site developed 1.5

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by the GCCBotswana Housing Corporation

4 3.3 None developed 0.8

Russian Federation 1 0.33 Undeveloped 0.2Aglo Industries 1 5.1 Undeveloped 0.2Galvastone Industries

1 4.6 Undeveloped 0.2

Time Projects 4 1.1 undeveloped 0.8

Total 528 221.95 N/A 100%Source- GCC Plan, pg. 150.

Figure 2: Well planned and managed private open spaces – Hotel (left) and golf course( right).

Source: Google Earth

Figure 3: One of the few open spaces developed by the City Council children recreation

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MAJOR ISSUES ON THE USE AND MISUSE OF OPEN SPACES.In the GCC development plan, many areas are marked green space, however on the ground these are brown and the uses very different from what is expected. Instead for example of seeing kids playing or adults relaxing on a bench, what is seen is rather curious- Industrious entrepreneurs have set up competing businesses such as car washes, barber shacks, driving schools and vendors selling all sorts of wares. Many of these areas lie fallow and undeveloped or maintained by the city fathers. A few open spaces have been changed to other uses, e.g petrol stations, churches, crèches (e.g. Notwane stream area in the Village, Gaborone) Even the few provided recreational facilities are broken down and do not function. Little is strewn everywhere (Mmegi, 2004). Many people too have been robbed of their cell phones; money stolen while crossing such areas at night, the darkness hiding assailants who wait for the inevitable foot traffic. Other open areas are grazing areas for livestock coming from the neighbouring villages. A summary of the impacts on these open spaces is shown on table 5 below.

Table 5: Summary of Issues within the various open space categories.

Open Space Category Major IssuesFringe areas Informal dumping

Denudation of vegetation by stock grazingRemoval of Fuel woodFrequent unsightly borrow pits

Parks LitteringLack of maintenanceUse as churches/places of worshipVending

Riverine Open Spaces Informal dumpingLitteringUse of areas for toiletsDenudation of vegetation by trampling and stock grazing

Civic Areas/Urban Open Spaces LitteringLack of maintenanceUse for commercial vendingUse as Driving schoolsUse as churches

Ecological Important Areas LitteringDenudation of vegetation by trampling and stock grazingUse of areas as toilet

Source: GCC(2007)

In the following sections, we outline the major concern with the misuse of the various open spaces.

(a) Illegal dumping in open spacesIn Gaborone many of the open spaces are frequently abused as dumping sites.Most dumped material include masonry, garden waste, rubble, domestic waste; scrap parts from car repair workshops and general waste from building and construction sites. The GCC regularly collects solid waste from households and government. Waste from the private sector is collected by private companies. The collection frequency and reliability has decreased in recent years because of operational problems, including lack of refuse trucks to move trash. This has led to an increase in illegal dumping and littering (as dogs tear plastic bags and pull down bins), which harms the image of the capital. This is both a serious

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environmental threat and a visual intrusion to the city's image. Littering devalues areas of natural beauty with potential for passive recreation.

(b) Impact of the Informal sector.

The informal sector is an important sector in the city employing 5200 people and providing goods and services, hence important to the economy. A total of 2883 informal trading activities were recorded in the city in 2007 compared to 169 enterprises in the industrial sector and these have been growing since.(GCC, Vol. pg 127). Of these 60% women and 40% for men. Industrial activities- total 169 Many of these are home based(55%), roadside based(34%) and 1% operate on public or open spaces.

Data collected in 2007 shows that informal commercial activities in the city operate largely from three areas: residential plots(38.6%); along roads and footpaths(34.8%)or public places(22.2%). Few operate from vacant/open spaces (4.4%). Car washing is everywhere along roads, open spaces and in residential areas. Generally, the choice of location from which to operate is strategically made, and designed to either target passers-by or local residents or workers. Each business targets a different set of customers. The most common outlet for informal commercial activities are caravans(48%), shacks(stall or shades(43%) and to a lesser extent open spaces(9%). Many of these are unsightly affect the city environment. (GCC, ibid).

Figure 4: Hair cutting salons (left) and the sale of traditional medicines (right)

Street and Open Space Vending

Street vendors are an integral part of the world's urban economies, contributing to vibrant retail markets and providing an array of affordable, accessible goods and services to urban consumers. Street vending also provides a livelihood for those who have few employment options, including migrants and internally displaced people.

In this country, unemployment remains high, and some Batswana have had to eke a living in the informal economy as vendors, walkers, ‘bush mechanic’ and other small scale business. While this sector has ameliorated job shortage and contributed to re-distribution of resources, it is often looked as a menace, or simple unwelcome scavengers in cities whose sight has become an ‘eye sore’ to other city dwellers and to

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state officials. The informal sector is also confronted with problems emanating from lack of access to credit, unsupportive regulatory framework and restricted space to operate (B. Masilo et.al)

The main cause of street vending is unemployment and poverty. The CSO data for 2001 shows that a total of 85 417 people were employed, mostly in the government service. Unemployment continues to be chronic and a challenge. In Gabs 93 146 persons within the labour force were economically inactive, representing 62.6% of the labour force(GCC Review pg. 192) This is an indication of unemployment in the city.Street vending is one of Gaborone’s fastest growing service industries and tat is mutually rewarding to Botswana men and women of Botswana.

On any given day it is therefore, not surprising that scores of street vendors line the pathways and streets or open spaces such as those at the entrance to the university, the stadium, the railway station etc. selling everything from airtime, fruits and vegetable, perfumes, music CDs, knickknacks décor, educational toys, traditional medicine, shoes, clothes and food to others braiding hair and in a few cases, doing nails. It is not a business of luck. It is a hustling which requires patience, persistence, tact, and various marketing, to make an extra pula.

Sidewalks that were intended for pedestrians are now being used for business transactions, much to the annoyance of the multitude of people who walk to and from work every day. They encroach on the common rights of urban space, but through the history of vending in Botswana culture, the compromising nature of Batswana, the dependency of many Batswana for affordable goods as well as the necessity of the majority of Batswana to make a living through these informal means, this activity becomes readily embraced on the most part and becomes a social, economic and cultural force that shapes the urban environment.

Figure 5: Street Vending Activities in Gaborone.

Conflict with the use of open space

In many cities, the legal and regulatory environments governing street vending impede, rather than enable, the development of a healthy informal sector in which street vendors can meet the demand for their products. In Botswana these include: Regulation 13(1) (a) and (c) of the Town Council (Hawking and Street Vending Regulations), as formulated in accordance with the Local Government Act No. 8 of 2012 and the Road Traffic Act Section 102 (2) Cap 69:01)

Street vendors may work from a fixed location (such as a kiosk or sidewalk table) or they may be mobile. Some combine fixed and mobile vending. Each type of work involves different regulatory challenges.

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Local permitting laws may restrict market entry. Zoning ordinances often restrict street vendors to areas that are inconvenient to both vendors and their customers. Some raids that were conducted in early 2014, in the city of Gaborone she said were those targeting individuals or foreign traders who were found to be hawking or vending in open spaces and in contravention of. Many of the businesses in the city are operating in unauthorized spaces due to shortage of business plots and to unaffordability or due to the need to be near customers, many of whom are constantly on the move.

In spite of vending being a good business for many, the unauthorized use of space has not bore well with the authorities. Many times they have been chased away and in some instances, arrests made, property confiscated, fines of up to P500 paid, but soon they return

Street vending raises a fundamental geographical question: What are appropriate uses of public space? Street vendors, though unorthodox, believe they should have the right to sell what, when, and where they want to. However, city officials believe that the industry is growing too fast, its number is too large, and its operations, which they view as ordinary cart-type vending, should be regulated, licensed and relegated to a designated market site as it affects the environment of the city. Women street caterers for example, on the other hand, view themselves not as petty vendors but as restauranteurs who use public space to provide an important function. These business women feel that the government ordinances, regulations and license requirements -that address petty-vendor practices, some of which are unseemly and illegal, do not apply to them. These regulations are seen as not only impractical but injurious to their economic growth and prosperity

City officials fail to associate the number of food caravans located in some parts of the city with market sustainability and instead associate their growth with environmental degradation. For example, officials argue that caravans lack basic facilities for solid and liquid waste disposal and that too many are located in unsanitary conditions. lnappropriate waste disposal, they argue, not only breeds health risks, but also spoils the beauty of the city. City officials also complain that without a vendor license, street catering places a financial burden on the city. The most irksome problem for city officials is the intrusion of street catering into the structured urban landscape. Without designated spaces, caterers place their caravans on any suitable land near their patrons. These disputed sites are usually on public land (open space between roads and residential and business areas), but some units are located on private property, usually parking lots adjacent to retail malls. Except in those few instances when caterers have obtained permission to place a caravan on private property, street-side restaurants operate illegally on public land.

The City Council’s solutions and relocation proposals have angered many caterers vendours and have proved unworkable. For example, a small number of caterers would be willing to move to a designated market site, but the vast majority would refuse. Perhaps the most difficult problem for caterers to solve is the disposal of liquid and solid waste. Presently, cooking utensils and dishes are washed in Iarge basins and the wash-water is poured on the ground a short distance from the caravan. lf Iocally based caterers are to expand they need government-designated sites fitted with running water; electricity and sewage disposal. Caterers have found interim ways to solve the problem of solid waste disposal. Paper; plastic, styrofoam and other forms of garbage generated in large amounts are packaged in plastic bags and disposed of by the caterer at the end of each day, or the bags are picked up by the city (Masilo, 1999). After a lot of hassles, lobbying by the Street Vendors Association, the Ministry of Local Government, through the GCC has taken a decision to safeguard the inreests of the informal sector by allowing them to

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trade anywhere in the city subject to safety considerations such as not locating their stalls adjacent to traffic junctions, close to road reserves, in parking bays and avoiding the use of open flames or fires in public places.(Daily News, 9/12/2014). However much this is a commendable policy statement, regulating the industry is a daunting task and only time will tell whether the city’s open spaces will eve function as planned for.

Figure 6: Street Food Vending in Gaborone.

Livestock in Open Spaces.

Many people have been complaining that Gaborone City is gradually turning into an urban "cattle post". For some time now the capital city has been invaded by livestock from neighbouring villages like Tlokweng, Gabane, Mmopane and Mogoditshane. Cattle, goats and even horses have all the time become a familiar sight on Gaborone streets.Horses have only recently joined the "great trek" to Gaborone and have been spotted grazing in residential areas which destroy plants and gardens in the city’s open spaces. Gaborone has been demarcated as a livestock free zone hence most of the cattle come from the peri-urban settlements especially during the dry spells that affect the city in most years.  Motorists also have to contend with the roaming livestock and especially the cattle have caused numerous road accidents in the city.It has become common to see motorists flicking hazard lights to warn others about the looming danger posed by livestock.

Gaborone Mayor, Harry Mothei has many times said this is a disturbing trend, adding that the city council is concerned by the situation. Council officials always impound the stray animals and the livestock owners are charged 50 thebe( 5 US cents) for each stray beast per day. The council auctions the livestock that is not claimed by its owners after three months.(Daily News 9/12/12)

Even stray dogs and monkeys from the nearby hills have joined the scramble for space in Gaborone. The stray dogs and monkeys have become a menace as they rummage through dustbins in residential and commercial areas and scatter litter.

Figure 7: Selling of food stuffs in public spaces- The Gaborone Main Mall.

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Fig: 8: Cows and goats freely roaming the capital city streets- A traffic/Health Hazard.

Use of open space for prayer.

Although there are designated areas for churches and the like in the city, it is not uncommon to find open spaces being used for churches, especially the new Pentecostal churches. Many worshipers are seen in the open spaces in and around Block 5 and 6 and also on the Segoditsane corridor among others. Some of these services go on the whole night and anger residents in these areas due to their noise; they trample on

green vegetation and also leave litter scattered all over the place. As there are no toilets provided, people relieve themselves in the bush thereby posing a health risk.

In addition, the city has witnessed a number of churches illegally erecting churches (temporary and/or permanent) in various open spaces without planning permission. This irks the city planning

authorities as it messes up the structure plan of the city. Recently, however, the GCC and government have embarked on curbing this practice, but success may be elusive.

CONSTRAINTS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPEN SPACES

Unfavourable climate and water shortage

The case of harsh climate.

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Gaborone has a hot semi-arid steppe climate. Over the course of the year, the temperature varies from 40degrees C to 32 degrees and is rarely below 1degreeC or above 36 degees C. The warm season lasts from October 5th to January 19th with an average daily high temperature above 30 degrees C. The coldest season lasts from May to August with an average temperature below 30 degrees C. The probability of precipitation is in December occurring in 43% of days. Over the entire year, the most common forms of precipitation are thunderstorms and light rain, thus a major impact on plant growth in open spaces. Over the year typical winds vary from om/s to 8ms.These climate conditions are not suitable for most vegetation except the hardy plants making the introduction of exotic vegetation difficult. Irrigation is thus an option, but due to scarcity of water, this is also a problem.

Water ShortageUnfavourable climate conditions and erratic rainfall over the last three years have caused the country’s water woes. With a population of more than 500,00 in Greater Gaborone Gabs uses up to 145mil litres a day. It has been reported that this situation is likely to continue to 2020, and so it is bleak for the maintenance of open spaces. Gabs gets water from the Gabs dam (56%), the north-south carrier(36%), Molatedi dam(12%), Bokaa dam(25%) and Nyeu dam(10%). Due to falling rain and drought, supplies have fallen drastically. This year(2015) the capacity of the dam fell to as low as 14.4%. If the dam dries up the Gaborone area will experience a shortfall of 50mil litres per day(Daily News May 2015)With the water supply dwindling water rationing has kicked in forcing families to use less water every day; there is no car washing and no watering of gardens or lawns unless one uses borehole or recycled water.

Lack of FundsBudget after budget, the Parks department of the Council gets one of the lowest allocations showing the little regards for beautification of the city is. For example, in the 2014/15 budget the total budget of P232,086, 718 (US$ 23,208,671) the money allocated for maintenance of grounds was P2,825,658.35 (US$282565.8); purchase of plants P4,934.25(US$493.4) and nil for control of vegetation. All this totals the sum of 2,830,592.60 pula (US$283059.2) which is 1.2% of the total budget! So no wonder the state of the open spaces is what it is. There is just no political will to encourage the greening of the city open spaces.

Lack of Capacity/ manpowerAgain, the Parks department has neither the required manpower specialized in landscaping nor, equipment and vehicles(trucks) too is minimal hence management and maintenance of the open spaces is hardly been attended to! The whole city has only two city gardens rearing and propagating plants for the entire city. Private effort has come in handy, but it too, is limited. Further the sanitation department is also having problems as it has a small fleet of only 20 trucks of which over a third are grounded due to mechanical problems. This impacts on clearing solid waste from the city streets and parks.

Lack of environment awareness

Although most city residents appreciate the existence of open spaces, many are not environmentally conscious as litter is indiscriminately strewn in the many open spaces; they care less about plants and gardens and pay little attention to the outcome.

Lack of facilities and infrastructure

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In many of the open spaces, basic infrastructure like water, electricity (for lights at night), toilets, benches dust bins, etc are hard to come by. Recreational facilities like swings, sand pits, restaurants, vending machines for ice cream and the like are also not available.

CONCLUSION

From the going, the study has shown that certainly open spaces have been provided in the city master plans observing the Urban Development Standards. But the greatest problem is that they are not developed and even those which are developed are hardly maintained. Further, many illegal land uses have encroached into these open spaces depriving the communities from enjoying their use. Again, the Parks, Cemeteries and Open Spaces department faces many technical and professional capabilities/constraints in trying to discharge their duties.

In order to curb this problems, it is suggested that the local government should give priority to the development of open spaces. Justification of this kind of development as a priority area should be seen as a long term benefit of good environmental quality and the achievement of the physical health of the city dwellers. The involvement and the co-ordination between the community, Central Government and the Local Authority could lead to attractive open space environment for the benefit of all City dwellers

SUGGESTED PROPOSALS THAT CAN INFLUENCE POLICYMany of the issues identified can easily be rectified with input from appropriately trained staff and increased resources for controlling and managing open spaces through landscaping. Successful public places around the world are successful not just because of the design but also because of the management. That’s not just cutting the grass and picking up the garbage. The bigger part of management is how to involve the community in the parks. We need to think of parks more as outdoor community centers where we need to invest in uses and activities so they can fulfill their potential. When we improve parks, we’re really improving quality of life.

Given the easy accessibility and high public usage of many existing open spaces there is great potential for involving the community and schools, colleges and other institutions in their design, implementation and subsequent maintenance. In addition, the community can benefit from increased environmental education facilities and improved parks and open space. The following recommendations may help the situation.(i) Landscape the open spaces, especially, parks by using reclaimed water from the city’s sewage

ponds- A clear policy is required regarding the use of recycled water for irrigation and water features throughout the city. Further treatment is required to reduce the nutrient levels so that the water can be used for lakes, ponds, wetlands and water features.

(ii) Implementation of Parks and Landscaping – It is recommended that highly visible and easily implementable landscaping be undertaken as a priority. This includes road landscaping for major roads, especially where the existing conditions allow, such as the Western Bypass and road circles/roundabouts.

(iii) All land zoned for open space must remain as such- no change of use unless critically necessary-Land that is zoned and designated for open space should remain as such because if these spaces are lost to other uses it will be costly and difficult to revert to open spaces.

(iv) Assess the capacity of the Parks Department – The GCC Parks Department has a major role in the implementation and maintenance landscaping the city. Capacity of the Parks Department must be assessed to determine what resources are available and what is required. The department must have sufficient resources in terms of staff, training, equipment and nursery space to undertake the works before implementation begins.

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(v) Provide adequate budget for open space development and management and maintenance. The current sums given for this key facility is just too small. If the government cannot foot the bill, efforts could be made to rope in the private sector through partnerships to develop the open spaces.

(vi) A Design Manual- A design manual for the city of Gaborone would facilitate a coordinated and unified approach to the landscaping of the city. It would provide detailed guidelines, specifications, designs and recommendations on selection, sitting and coordination for a whole range of street furniture. The manual would be used on an ongoing basis by the GCC and provide a reference for consultants, contractors and developers to ensure that works are carried out to approved standards and design. It will also identify changes required on policy issues, enforceable and voluntary guidelines, implementing and enforcing agents

(vii) Need for Regulations: To empower the planning authorities to undertake the work of landscaping the city, regulations must be developed. Where regulations exist, methods and responsibilities for enforcing them must be addressed to ensure their effectiveness. Regulations are required for the following:

To reduce, informal dumping and littering To ensure that rehabilitation and clean up are carried out in association with construction works

To control collection of firewood To ensure the replacement of trees when felled on a construction site To restrict livestock in the city To determine acceptable developments within a green belt.

(viii) Assess the Urban development Standards – An assessment to determine realistic and long term open space standards for the city should be undertaken in association with the DTRP. This will ensure that suitable open space standards are adopted and that different categories of open spaces are considered.

(ix) Issues with informal sector activities. Concerted efforts must be made to address the issue of the informal sector, especially their control as people depend on it for employment and survival. This sector needs a holistic approach to ensure that entrepreneurs do not encroach on public open spaces. Through spatial planning, areas close to customers can be zoned, designed and serviced with infrastructure and other services so that community members can use the open spaces in peace.

(x) Civic Society and its role: These should provide impetus for public cleaning campaigns and public awareness campaigns to inform people of their rights and obligations relating to waste and support composting activities through provision of compost bins to households.

(xi) Government and Industry: Introduce green accounting in the city; raise awareness of industries about waste minimization and incorporation of waste management in waste management systems; implement rules governing the system of plastic bags as these are seen hanging on trees and flowers and floating in open spaces everywhere and establish clearly demarcated locations for dumping waste.

References.

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Bontle Masilo and Zibani Maundeni(2014): “Informal sector-State interaction in Botswana: Conflict and Cooperation? www.pscbc.org.za/wp .../ INFORMAL - SECTOR - paper-2014-3-2.p

GoB(2009) ; Gaborone City Development Plan (1997 – 2021) Revised October 2009 Government Printer, Gaborone.

Catharine Ward Thompson, Activity, exercise and the planning and design of outdoor spaces, Journal of Environmental Psychology, Volume 34, June 2013, Pages 79-96, ISSN 0272-4944, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.01.003. Bureau of Municipal Research. Urban Open Space: Luxury or Necessity?. Toronto. 1971.

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Jacinta Francis, Billie Giles-Corti, Lisa Wood, Matthew Knuiman, Creating sense of community: The role of public space, Journal of Environmental Psychology, Volume 32, Issue 4, December 2012, Pages 401-409, ISSN 0272-4944, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2012.07.002.

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http://www.le-notre.org/urban-spaces/urban-spaces.php?encyclopedia_id=255. Retrieved on 4th April 2015.

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