International Relations Unit 4 Notes. “A New Age” 1913-1921 WWI, or The Great War, had enormous...

International Relations

Unit 4 Notes

“A New Age” 1913-1921

WWI, or The Great War, had enormous physiological and economic consequences for people and societies

First war involving many of the new industrial technology, with old time warfare

Shaped the outbreak of revolutionary challenges that set off an era of conflict the rest of the century

Forever changed the face of international relations

Woodrow Wilson

Became president in 1912 mainly due to conflicts between incumbent Taft and Theodore Roosevelt

Had a national reputation for his writing and speeches

A religious individual which gave a special fervor to his sense of personal and national destiny

Woodrow Wilson (Con’t)

Greatest flaws were his difficulty working with strong people and, once his mind was made up, a reluctance to hear dissenting views

Suffered from culture-blindness and little experience in diplomacy

Disavowed gun-boat diplomacy in Latin America

However inadvertently paints himself a hypocrite


Believed foreign policy should serve broad human concerns rather than narrow selfish interests

America’s power put it in a position to promote its ideals

Fought along side Britain for disarmament and removal of trade barriers with Japan and Germany


Expanded presidential authority even beyond Theodore Roosevelt’s precedents

Made decisions without consulting much of the State Department

Named William Jennings Bryan his Secretary of State

Much more qualified than Wilson to Shape foreign Policy However believed that Christian beliefs should animate

foreign policy

Worked most of his Presidency on developing an internationalist foreign policy

Dealing with Revolutions

Traditionally, the U.S. had sympathized with revolutions in principle, until they turned violent

In Dealing with Chinese and Mexican revolutions, Wilson sympathized with the forces of revolution

Failed to recognize that in seeking to direct the future of these nations he limited their ability to work out their own destiny

China

Optimistically supported the Chinese revolution, however did not understand revolution leaders sought to advance their own power rather than build a modern state

Wilson also hoped to check European and Japanese interests in East Asia

Japan drove the Germans from the Shandong province of China

Creating issues later during the Great War U.S. was able to check other nations interest,

however did little to gain support from Chinese people

Latin America

The Growing U.S. economic and diplomatic presence had further destabilized an already volatile region

U.S. had the power and willingness to use it to contain revolutions and maintain hegemony over small, weak states who people were deemed inferior

Latin America (Con’t) Wilson had denounced Taft’s dollar

diplomacy and military interventionism and talked of treating Latin America’s on “equal terms”

They assumed that U.S. help would be welcomed

When it wasn’t welcomed, they fell back on diplomatic and military force

Through all his rhetoric of “equal treatment,” Wilson continued to use military intervention throughout Latin America

Placed Haiti under military occupation greatly hurting U.S. record in Latin America

Mexico Starting in 1911

Revolution in Mexico was extremely complex A rebellion of middle and lower classes against a

deeply entrenched old order and foreigners who dominated the nation’s economy followed by an extended civil war

Wilson sought to undermine Madero, who had come to power through revolution

Jefferson had set the precedent of recognizing any government formed by the will of the nation

Mexico Starting in 1911 (Con’t)

Wilson introduced a moral and political test after Huerta overthrew Madero in 1913

Through political maneuvering, Huerta able to maintain power and Wilson began to push military threats and incursions to push Huerta out of office

Only helped Huerta and other Mexican rebels to rally Mexican citizens to the banner of nationalism

Using morality, U.S. began building infrastructure for Mexican citizens, however it did not leave a lasting impact

Mexico Starting in 1911 (Con’t)

After Carranza took power in 1914, Wilson continued to push U.S. involvement in mediations between factions in Mexico

After Pancho Villa murdered engineers in U.S., he fled and avoided John J. Pershing’s militia

U.S. also mobilized forces along border, only increasing Mexican nationalism and hurting U.S. image across Latin America

The Great War

Dominated President Wilson and eventually destroying him political and even physically

Europe was threatened by each other due to their fears and suspicions

Manifested into a complex and rigid system of alliances, an arms race, and war plans design to secure an early victory

Both sides believed a quick victory was imminent

The industrial revolution and the capacity of the modern nation-state to mobilize vast human and material resources produced unprecedented destructiveness and cost

The Great War (Con’t)

Started after the death of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie in June of 1914

Though truly an isolated event, it was magnified due to alliances and treaties that engulfed all of Europe

In August of 1914 Germany pushed to within 30 miles of Paris

But were pushed back to the Eastern boundary of France by November and remained there until 1917

Trench warfare

U.S Impression of Great War

Americans were shocked by the start of the war

Wilson sought to maintain neutrality for several reasons

Diversity of U.S. could split the country The seeming remoteness of the conflict gave it

advantages of trading with both sides Also could provide relief assistance to war torn

areas

U.S Impression of Great War (Con’t)

Emergence as a world power made it extremely problematic

Emotional and cultural ties to Allies made it difficult to remain impartial

The U.S. military power would be decisive factor in conflict

Balancing both sides for demands for trading with the enemy

Inconsistency During War

British blockade of Northern Europe met minimum complaints from Wilson early in the war

Same maneuver Union used in American Civil War U.S. likely viewed trade with Germany not as important

as conflict with British Very pragmatic approach

Wilson however took a firm response to Germany’s use of U-Boats

Considered the U-Boats as a violation of international laws

Inconsistency During War (Con’t)

Sinking of the Lusitania by a German U-Boat had major impact within U.S.

Brought the war to the U.S. citizen as 128 U.S. citizens were killed in the attack

Wilson demanded the end of U-Boat activities and a warning on any further attacks on unarmed vessels

Later it was determined that the Lusitania had weapons on board

Wilson’s actions pushed Bryan to resign from Secretary of State due to contradictory actions between treatment of Germany and Britain by U.S.

Taking away an important dissenting voice from Wilson’s cabinet

Inconsistency During War (Con’t)

Robert Lansing, new Secretary of State, and Wilson demanded an end to submarine warfare, or else the U.S. would break diplomatic relations

A general step towards war U.S. began pushing for renewed military

training and “reasonable” increases in the armed services

Collective Security With the onset of war in Europe, Wilson

sought to use the opportunity to push for the formation of a league of nations

Would be used to modify international law and use arbitration to resolve disputes

Wilson adamantly believed that this type of league could have helped avoid WWI

Believed that peace was essential to ensure advancement of domestic reforms

Eliminating the arms race and economic causes of war

Use of Sanctions to deter and punish aggression Use the “Concert of Nations” to replace the balance

of power

Collective Security (Con’t)

Wilson pushed both sides during 1914-1917 to have peace without victory, through the development arbitration

Of course the U.S. leading the way through the negotiations

However, U.S. did not understand the great bitterness developing between nations due to the costs of the Great War

By 1917 though none of the countries involved in the war were willing to compromise for peace

Isolationism V. Internationalist

Isolationist Preserve America’s long-standing tradition of

non-involvement as a way of safeguarding the nation’s way of life

Became firmly implanted in the nation’s political vocabulary during the Great War

Isolationism V. Internationalist (Con’t)

Internationalist Believed that their nation must play a key role

developing a new world power Give equality to nations great and small and avoid

wars like The Great War

During this time period constant battles between the two different foreign policy directions

US Involvement

Towards the end of 1916, Germany began determining that the an all-out submarine campaign could win the war before the U.S. intervention had any effect

By February of 1917 Germany had pushed U.S. to break relations between the two countries

Wilson still had not developed a war message

Campaign almost succeed, until a year later when nearly a million U.S. troops were in Europe, demoralizing German troops

US Involvement (Con’t)

By mid-March events had greatly changed Britain had released the “Zimmerman

Telegram” Revealed that Germany had offered Mexico an

alliance in return for conquered land in U.S.

Three U.S. merchant vessels had been destroyed by German U-Boats


Wilson was thus was forced into asking for a declaration of war

It would allow U.S. to be part of negotiations, which could be used to develop a postwar order

He believed that the Great War had been created due to the “Old World Order” and that a League of Nations would prohibit such future wars

His speech to Congress set extremely lofty goals and eventually disillusionment about U.S. power

Yet he formulated and articulated a set of principles that would influence U.S. foreign policy and world politics for years to come


Fourteen Points Public statement of 1918 that Wilson sought for a

peace program Most notably he insisted that in dealing with colonial claims

the “interests” of colonial peoples should be taken into account

Eventually became known as self-determination Used international media to spread his views and

speeches During the war he pushed his military leaders

to cooperate with British and French leaders to give a solid basis for postwar collaboration

However maintained freedom of action

Bolshevik Revolution

Lenin helped lead the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia

Called for the end of capitalism and pushed for communism

Wilson greatly distrusted Lenin and believed Lenin did not represent the Russian people

Supported the opposition group however was not willing to be pulled into another “Mexico Situation”

America’s Moment

By late summer and early fall of 1918, U.S. forced were able to help push the German’s back to the Hindenburg Line

As negotiations began towards ending the Great War, the nations struggled to determine the extent that Germany deserved to be punished

Wilson sought to develop the “Concert of Nations” through the negotiations

Even personally attending the peace conference in 1919, first ever by a sitting President

Also Wilson hoped to formulate the “Fourteen Points” into the treaty

Including freedom among nationalities and oppressed peoples across the world

Lofty Yet Unachievable Goals

Wilson mainly depended upon himself during the peace negotiations

Overestimated the leverage the U.S. would have in dealing with the Allied counterparts

Took a tour throughout Europe, with crowds cheering his speeches

Assumed then that there was great European support for a League of Nations

Lofty Yet Unachievable Goals (Con’t)

Due to his push for League of Nations, France and Britain used it to achieve many of their own ambitions

Developed a mandate system that was annexation in disguise

Development of new nations as buffers throughout Europe and Middle East paid little attention to rival ethnic groups

Negotiations generally on focused on European issues

Greatly discrediting Wilson throughout the world as a hypocrite

League of Nations Concessions

Wilson believed that concessions had to be given in order to attain the goal of a League

Article X provided that member nations would “respect and preserve as against external aggression the political integrity and existing political independence of all Members in the League”

League of Nations Concessions (Con’t)

Wilson viewed Article X as the linchpin to the concert of nations, however it created great deals of protests

Viewed as an abandonment of his original “Fourteen Points”

Treaty eventually signed in Versailles in 1919

Debate in U.S.

Wilson went throughout the U.S. seeking to gain support for the treaty

However, the years leading up, he had done little to gain bipartisan support

Also had a stroke during the tour, leaving him partially incapacitated for sometime

Debate in U.S. (Con’t)

Many struggled with what they viewed was that Wilsons League would surrender U.S. sovereignty to a world body

Surprising numbers supported a League of some type, however, one that was generally very weak

After his stroke, Wilson seemed unwilling to compromise, ultimately forcing the defeat of his League of Nations treaty

Wilson articulated a set of principles that in various forms would guide U.S. foreign policy for years to come

“Involvement Without Commitment” 1921-1931

Though considered by many as an isolationist era, the U.S. vigorously promoted its interests while scrupulously guarding against entanglements

Did not embrace Wilsonian collective security agreements

Did continue to use peace and economic pressures to achieve their foreign policy goals

Instability of Europe

The European continent had suffered incalculable destruction from the war

Many nations maintained strong hatred for each other

Ideologies of the extreme right and left gained numerous adherents

Germany remained potentially a great power Treaty of Versailles saddled the country with

substantial reparations Leaving great resentment and frustrations

France and Great Britain sought to use the reparations on Germany, to keep them from regaining strength

Instability of Europe (Con’t)

Central and Eastern European countries struggled to establish themselves

Diverse ethnicities within the newly created nations created conflict and allowing great power interference

Shift of the center of world financial power from London to New York

U.S became the leading lender for much of Europe

Self-Determination Wilson and Lenin’s calls for self-

determination, along with the Great War, accelerated the nationalist revolts that would begin after WWII

The use of the colonies for supporting war, while giving them very little in return

Rhetoric of self-determination encouraged local nationalisms, and the obvious weakening of the European powers spurred thoughts of revolt

Brutal repression of postwar revolts exposed as sham the Europeans talk of justice, further boosted nationalism

Continued Growth of U.S. Power

Largest agricultural and manufacturing producer during the 1920’s

More industrial output than the next six powers combined

Militarily continued to remain adequate, not dominating

However the world’s largest navy

Continued Growth of U.S. Power (Con’t)

Began using “Soft Power” Global influence deriving from its economic

might, technological superiority and cultural sway

Standard of Living the envy of the world

Became a center of mass culture Spreading of American way of life and selling U.S.

products


The war and Wilsonianism boosted popular interest in the outside world

Large number of missionaries went abroad to spread the Gospel and American values

Set up schools and hospitals around the world


Number international groups in U.S. doubled from 1916-1921

Organization of Council on Foreign Relations Stressed internationalism

Establishment that would shape U.S. foreign policy through much of the 20th Century

During the 1920’s, the President’s generally inactive with foreign policy

Leaving the Secretaries of State to conduct foreign policy

Congress was more assertive in foreign policy in the 1920’s

The Business of America is Business

America’s new creditor status opened promising opportunities and imposed urgent responsibilities

Voraciously devoured the world’s resources Overseas trade and investments were

important to American prosperity Many still believed that the spread of liberal

capitalism would help promote a stable and prosperous world order by improving standard of living

U.S. sought to modernize “backward” areas

The Business of America is Business (Con’)

President Hoover’s administration vigorously sought out foreign trade and lending

Primarily pushed the private sectors to do the negotiations

A trend highly used during the 1920’s

Many companies began using direct investments abroad

They would often cut favorable deals with friendly local governments

Many would end up wielding enormous political power

Also exploited curial raw materials

The Business of America is Business (Con’)

U.S. continued to have high tariffs to protect American companies

Brought about unprecedented U.S. involvement in the world and fueled a short-term prosperity

Desire to maintain low domestic taxes did not allow forgiveness of European debts

Continued high tariffs discouraged trade Bankers self interest over government

foreign policy interests

U.S. “Isolationism”

U.S. unwillingness to sit on the League of Nations court due to stipulations

Wanted to prevent the Court from giving advisory opinions on matters in which the U.S. claimed an interest

Unilateralism met strong opposition from other members of the International court

U.S. “Isolationism” (Con’t)

Yet U.S. assumed unprecedented leadership in promoting international arms limitations

Signed the Five-Power Treaty in 1922 Joined nations on limiting the size of certain

navy boats Japanese government activity involved in order

to promote cooperation with the West without sacrificing vital interests in Manchuria

Included agreement to abstain from affairs not involving the other countries

U.S. “Isolationism” (Con’t)

Also signed the Nine-Power Treaty, in order to try and stabilize the power competition in China

Yet it did little because it called on each country to “respect China’s sovereignty and territorial integrity”

Both Five and Nine-Power Treaties were highly criticized after WWII, because the agreements lacked enforcement provisions and were therefore essentially worthless

Also the U.S. was the only country to adhere to limitations

Looking back, the agreements stabilized a dangerous arms race and dramatically eased great-power tensions

European Reconstruction

U.S. played a key role because they were keenly aware of the importance of a stable, prosperous Europe to America’s economic and political well-being

Europe had been devastated by WWI Due to domestic political constraints,

Republicans had to rely on economic rather than political methods

Also used unofficial and private emissaries to negotiate and implement solutions

European Reconstruction (Con’t)

European problems were monumental Germans were angry at the victor’s peace

imposed on them France sought to use economic pressures

to keep Germany at heel Issues of Reparations created a hotbed of

issues France sought full payment to keep Germany

weak and under control Germany believed it far exceeded its ability to

pay

European Reconstruction (Con’t)

Big issue for U.S. was “how to assert a helpful influence abroad without sacrificing anything of importance to our people.”

Ultimately Britain and U.S. were able to create a settlement that set a precedent for further Anglo-American cooperation

Dawes Plan 1924

U.S. tried to stay out of the Germany-France arguments

France, frustrated at Germany’s unwillingness to pay reparations, seized the coal mines and extended it’s area of occupation to the Ruhr

Devastated both German and French economies Secretary Hughes then stepped in, in order

to avert “utter economic chaos” Sought to have an independent commission

work out a compromise

Dawes Plan 1924 (Con’t)

Independent commission had the task of creating a settlement that satisfied allied concerns, yet soft enough to be accepted by Germany

The settlement called for the payments by Germans to be increased as the economic activity increased

American’s strong armed both Germany and France to accept the agreement

Dawes Plan 1924 (Con’t)

By 1925 another agreement between France, Belgium, and Germany called for respect of boundaries and to keep the Rhineland demilitarized

These actions provided for some hope for European recovery and stability

U.S. was able to renegotiate the European loans U.S. viewed the renegotiated loans as generous Many Europeans viewed it as U.S. trying to “enslave a

whole continent”

Consequences of Dawes Plan

U.S. believed that economic recovery of Germany would bring about stability and peace throughout Europe

While keeping the U.S. taxpayer from paying the bill

U.S. did not understand the full extent of the war’s impact on Europe or the real depth of resentments it stirred

Also the U.S. did not recognize the advantage of Germany at France’s expense

Consequences of Dawes Plan (Con’t)

U.S. played an even less significant role in reconstruction of Eastern Europe

Wilson used rhetoric of assistance, yet neither side seemed eager to commit together

Eastern Europeans wanted the U.S. money and protection without interference

U.S. wanted new investment capital and new markets for their products without political involvement

Poland Considered the “nutcracker” of Russia and

Germany made Poland an issue Americans could not ignore

Polish American voters also increased Poland’s significance to U.S. government

Yet U.S. did not meet Poland’s need for security from bigger neighbors, or generosity of U.S. loans

Harding and Coolidge administrations avoided entanglement on the border dispute between Poland and Germany

Mainly relied on private sector to develop and implements programs

Poles, like other Eastern Europeans, looked suspiciously on foreign capital

Bolshevik Revolution in Russia

When the Bolshevik’s took power, with Lenin, in 1917 the U.S. refused to recognize the revolutionary government Using Huerta’s Mexico as precedent

Came to power through force, thus not representing the Russian people

When Lenin pulled Russia out of WWI in 1918, U.S. frustration only increased

American hoped non-recognition and Allied military interventions would topple the hated Bolshevik government or cause it to collapse under its own weight

Later changed to become part of U.S. “Containment Policy” in the 1950-80’s

Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (Con’t)

Yet the Bolshevik government did not collapse

Communism position on fundamental beliefs such as religion and private property made it the anathema to many Americans

Communist International, supported by Lenin, sought to overthrow other governments Only reinforcing U.S. fears

U.S.-Soviet Economic Ties

U.S. did engage economically, hoping to teach the wonders of capitalism

However it only helped preserve the Soviet state

Presidential Administrations were leery to participate with Soviets, yet were deeply committed to the expansion of American trade and investment

Most investments in Russia were unprofitable due to Russian restrictions and control

U.S.-Soviet Economic Ties (Con’t)

American technical expertise was crucial to Stalin’s Five-Year Plan, adopted in 1928

U.S. Engineers built factories and plants within Russia

Helped stabilize economics within Russia, thus allowing political stability

East Asia

America sought to establish a “Pax Americana maintained not by arms but by mutual respect and good will and the tranquilizing process of reason”

U.S. officials hoped that trade and loans would promote peace

Japanese Relations was greatly improved by U.S. generosity after earthquake in 1923 in Japan

Goodwill destroyed by legislation Congress passed restricting all Japanese from immigrating to U.S.

Provoked an outburst of Anti-Americanism in Japan

East Asia (Con’t) Chinese nationalism the biggest

challenge for U.S. design of peace and order in East Asia

China broke into civil war with different factions seeking political power

Kuomintang Party sought power, initially supported by the Soviet Union

created an anti-imperialism mood Ultimately Kuomintang Party leader Chiang

Kai-Shek split from the Soviet’s and sought U.S. support

Showed that Gunboat diplomacy was out of fashion by the 1920’s

Shift in policy by 1920’s

U.S. began moving away from the gunboat diplomacy and military interventionism of previous decades

Began demands for U.S. to actually following through with allowing Latin American self-determination

Yet, determining stability around the canal as vital, U.S. sought ways to maintain order and protection

Use of loans to stabilize Latin Economies Promoted dependency U.S. foreign trade and capital

and over-borrowing

Shift in policy by 1920’s (Con’t)

Also sought to amend ills from previous years

Paid nearly $25 Million for Panama Canal Change in Monroe Doctrine

Henry Clay began giving speeches in 1923 asserting:

U.S. “asserts no rights for ourselves that we do not accord to others”

limited intervention to the region near the canal and vowed use would be “last resort”

Shift in policy by 1920’s (Con’t)

Began changing protectorates throughout Latin America

Still not allowing full self-determination Dominican Republic was allowed to create

a legislature Allowed the rise of a dictator, who respected

U.S. interests Enabled U.S. to reconcile its conflicting interests in

Latin America

Passage of the Kellogg-Briand Pact

Outlawed war as an instrument of national policy French Foreign Minister capitalized on the

surge of goodwill over Lindbergh’s trans-Atlantic flight

Main purpose was to serve as a deterrent to Germany

Ultimately becomes the Pact of Paris which included nearly 15 nations Yet lacked true enforcement provisions Reinforced American “Power”

Great Depression

Not only destroyed the Hoover Administration, weakened U.S. foreign policy used by Republicans

Use of loans and trade as leverage U.S. protectionism, though good

intentioned, provoked huge resentment abroad and retaliation

International Relations Unit 4 Notes. “A New Age” 1913-1921 WWI, or The Great War, had enormous...

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